Hubbry Logo
TurmericTurmericMain
Open search
Turmeric
Community hub
Turmeric
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Turmeric
Turmeric
Turmeric
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
This article is about the plant and rhizome used as a spice. For other uses, see Turmeric (disambiguation).
"Haridra" redirects here. For the river in India, see Haridra River.

Turmeric
Inflorescence of Curcuma longa
Photograph of knobby brown rhizome and orange powder
Turmeric rhizome and powder
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Zingiberales
Family: Zingiberaceae
Genus: Curcuma
Species:
C. longa
Binomial name
Curcuma longa
Synonyms

Curcuma domestica Valeton

Turmeric (/ˈtɜːrmərɪk, ˈtjuː-/),[2][3] or Curcuma longa (/ˈkɜːrkjʊmə ˈlɒŋɡə/),[4][5] is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F) and high annual rainfall to thrive. Plants are gathered each year for their rhizomes, some for propagation in the following season and some for consumption or dyeing.[6]

The rhizomes can be used fresh, but they are often boiled in water and dried, after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow shelf-stable spice powder commonly used as a coloring and flavoring agent in many Asian cuisines, especially for curries (curry powder). Turmeric powder has a warm, bitter, black pepper-like flavor and earthy, mustard-like aroma.[7]

Although long used in Ayurvedic medicine, there is no high-quality clinical evidence that consuming turmeric or the principal turmeric constituent, curcumin, is effective for treating any disease.[8][9] Curcumin, a bright yellow chemical produced by the turmeric plant, is approved as a food additive by the World Health Organization, European Parliament, and United States Food and Drug Administration.[6] Turmeric and its extract curcumin are generally safe but have recently been linked, especially in high-bioavailability forms, to rare cases of immune-mediated acute liver injury that typically resolve after stopping use, though severe outcomes can occur if use continues.[10][11]

Botanical view of Curcuma longa

Origin and distribution

[edit]

The greatest diversity of Curcuma species by number alone is in India, at around 40 to 45 species. Thailand has a comparable 30 to 40 species. Other countries in tropical Asia also have numerous wild species of Curcuma. Recent studies have also shown that the taxonomy of C. longa is problematic, with only the specimens from South India being identifiable as C. longa. The phylogeny, relationships, intraspecific and interspecific variation, and even identity of other species and cultivars in other parts of the world still need to be established and validated. Various species currently utilized and sold as "turmeric" in other parts of Asia have been shown to belong to several physically similar taxa, with overlapping local names.[12][13]

History

[edit]

Turmeric has been used in Asia for centuries and is a major part of Ayurveda, Siddha medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, Unani,[14] and the animistic rituals of Austronesian peoples.[15][16] It was first used as a dye, and then later for its supposed properties in folk medicine.[8][9]

In India, it spread with Hinduism and Buddhism, as the yellow dye is used to color the robes of monks and priests.[17]

In Island Southeast Asia, there is linguistic and circumstantial evidence of the ancient use of turmeric among the Austronesian peoples soon after dispersal from Taiwan (starting c. 3000 BCE), before contact with India. In Indonesia and the Philippines, turmeric was used for food, dyeing textiles, medicine, as well as body painting. It was commonly an important ingredient in various animistic rituals. Kikusawa and Reid (2007) have concluded that *kunij, the oldest reconstructed Proto-Malayo-Polynesian form for "turmeric" in the Austronesian languages, is primarily associated with the importance of its use as a dye. Other members of the genus Curcuma native to Southeast Asia (like Curcuma zedoaria) were also used for food and spice, but not as dyes.[15]

Turmeric (along with Curcuma zedoaria) was also spread with the Lapita people of the Austronesian expansion into Oceania. Turmeric can only be propagated with rhizomes, thus its pre-contact distribution into the Pacific Islands can only be via human introduction. The populations in Micronesia, Island Melanesia, and Polynesia (including as far as Hawaii and Easter Island) use turmeric widely for both food and dye before European contact.[15][16][17] In Micronesia, it was an important trade item in the sawei maritime exchange between Yap and further atolls in the Carolines, where it couldn't grow. In some smaller islands, the dye was extracted from the leaves, since the rhizomes remained too small in sandy soils. It was also carried by the Austronesian migrations to Madagascar.[15]

Turmeric was found in Farmana, dating to between 2600 and 2200 BCE, and in a merchant's tomb in Megiddo, Israel, dating from the second millennium BCE.[18] It was noted as a dye plant in the Assyrians' Cuneiform medical texts from Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh from 7th century BCE.[17] In Medieval Europe, turmeric was called "Indian saffron."[17]

Etymology

[edit]

The name possibly derives from Middle English or Early Modern English as turmeryte or tarmaret. It may be of Latin origin, terra merita ("deserved earth").[19] The Latin specific epithet longa means long.[20]

Description

[edit]

Turmeric is a perennial herbaceous plant that reaches up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall.[1] It has highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes.[1]

The leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole, and leaf blade.[1] From the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm (20–45 in) long. The simple leaf blades are usually 76 to 115 cm (30–45 in) long and rarely up to 230 cm (7 ft 7 in). They have a width of 38 to 45 cm (15 to 17+1⁄2 in) and are oblong to elliptical, narrowing at the tip.[1]

Inflorescence, flower, and fruit

[edit]

At the top of the inflorescence, stem bracts are present on which no flowers occur; these are white to green and sometimes tinged reddish-purple, and the upper ends are tapered.[21]

The hermaphrodite flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. The three sepals are 0.8 to 1.2 cm (3⁄8 to 1⁄2 in) long, fused, and white, and have fluffy hairs; the three calyx teeth are unequal. The three bright-yellow petals are fused into a corolla tube up to 3 cm (1+1⁄4 in) long. The three corolla lobes have a length of 1.0 to 1.5 cm (3⁄8–5⁄8 in) and are triangular with soft-spiny upper ends. While the average corolla lobe is larger than the two lateral, only the median stamen of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is spurred at its base. All other stamens are converted to staminodes. The outer staminodes are shorter than the labellum. The labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it is obovate, with a length from 1.2 to 2.0 cm (1⁄2 to 3⁄4 in). Three carpels are under a constant, trilobed ovary adherent, which is sparsely hairy. The fruit capsule opens with three compartments.[22][23]

In East Asia, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the false stem is an inflorescence stem, 12 to 20 cm (4+1⁄2 to 8 in) long, containing many flowers. The bracts are light green and ovate to oblong with a blunt upper end with a length of 3 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in).[21]

  • Curcuma domestica Valeton, a drawing by A. Bernecker around 1860
    Curcuma domestica Valeton, a drawing by A. Bernecker around 1860
  • Turmeric farm on Deccan Plateau
    Turmeric farm on Deccan Plateau
  • Turmeric flower
    Turmeric flower

Phytochemistry

[edit]
Curcumin keto form
Curcumin enol form

Turmeric powder is about 60–70% carbohydrates, 6–13% water, 6–8% protein, 5–10% fat, 3–7% dietary minerals, 3–7% essential oils, 2–7% dietary fiber, and 1–6% curcuminoids.[8] The golden yellow color of turmeric is due to curcumin.[6]

Phytochemical components of turmeric include diarylheptanoids, a class including numerous curcuminoids, such as curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin.[8][6] Curcumin constitutes an average of 3.14% by weight of assayed commercial samples of turmeric powder; curry powder contains much less (an average of 0.29%).[24] Some 34 essential oils are present in turmeric, among which turmerone, germacrone, atlantone, and zingiberene are major constituents.[25][26][27]

Uses

[edit]

Culinary

[edit]

Turmeric is one of the key ingredients in many Asian dishes, imparting a mustard-like, earthy aroma and pungent, slightly bitter flavor to foods.[7] It is used mostly in savory dishes, but also is used in some sweet dishes, such as the Lebanese cake sfouf. In India, turmeric leaf is used to prepare special sweet dishes, patoleo, by layering rice flour and coconut-jaggery mixture on the leaf, then closing and steaming it in a special utensil (chondrõ).[28] Most turmeric is used in the form of rhizome powder to impart a golden yellow color.[7] It is used in many products such as canned beverages, baked products, dairy products, ice cream, yogurt, yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn, cereals and sauces. It is a principal ingredient in curry powders.[7][29] Although typically used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric also is used fresh, like ginger.[29]

Turmeric is used widely as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Various Iranian khoresh recipes begin with onions caramelized in oil and turmeric. The Moroccan spice mix ras el hanout typically includes turmeric. In South Africa, turmeric is used to give boiled white rice a golden color, known as geelrys (yellow rice) traditionally served with bobotie. In Vietnamese cuisine, turmeric powder is used to color and enhance the flavors of certain dishes, such as bánh xèo, bánh khọt, and mì Quảng. The staple Cambodian curry paste, kroeung, used in many dishes, including fish amok, typically contains fresh turmeric. In Indonesia, turmeric leaves are used for Minang or Padang curry base of Sumatra, such as rendang, sate padang, and many other varieties. In the Philippines, turmeric is used in the preparation and cooking of kuning, satti, and some variants of adobo. In Thailand, fresh turmeric rhizomes are used widely in many dishes, in particular in the southern Thai cuisine, such as yellow curry and turmeric soup. Turmeric is used in a hot drink called "turmeric latte" or "golden milk" that is made with milk, frequently coconut milk.[30] The turmeric milk drink known as haldī dūdh (haldī [हलदी] means turmeric in Hindi) is a traditional Indian recipe. Sold in the US and UK, the drink known as "golden milk" uses nondairy milk and sweetener, and sometimes black pepper after the traditional recipe (which may also use ghee).[30] Turmeric can also be used in various other drinks such as turmeric juices and teas.[31]

Turmeric is approved for use as a food color, assigned the code E100.[6][29] The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products.[6]

In combination with annatto (E160b), turmeric has been used to color numerous food products.[6][29] Turmeric is used to give a yellow color to some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths, and other foods—often as a much cheaper replacement for saffron.[29][32]

  • Cleaning turmeric rhizomes with boiling water
    Cleaning turmeric rhizomes with boiling water
  • Drying turmeric rhizomes
    Drying turmeric rhizomes
  • Turmeric powder
    Turmeric powder
  • Cooked vegetables with turmeric as one of its key ingredients, referred to as Sabzi, a dish from India
    Cooked vegetables with turmeric as one of its key ingredients, referred to as Sabzi, a dish from India
  • Ganghwang-bap (turmeric rice)
    Ganghwang-bap (turmeric rice)
  • Patoleo – sweet rice cakes steamed in turmeric leaves consisting of a filling of coconut and coconut palm sugar prepared in Goan Catholic style
    Patoleo – sweet rice cakes steamed in turmeric leaves consisting of a filling of coconut and coconut palm sugar prepared in Goan Catholic style

Traditional uses

[edit]
Khandoba's newer temple in Jejuri, where devotees shower turmeric powder (bhandara) on each other

In 2019, the European Medicines Agency concluded that turmeric herbal teas, or other forms taken by mouth, on the basis of their long-standing traditional use, could be used to relieve mild digestive problems, such as feelings of fullness and flatulence.[33]

Turmeric grows wild in the forests of South and Southeast Asia, where it is collected for use in classical Indian medicine (Siddha or Ayurveda).[8] In Eastern India, the plant is used as one of the nine components of nabapatrika along with young plantain or banana plant, taro leaves, barley (jayanti), wood apple (bilva), pomegranate (darimba), Saraca indica, manaka (Arum), or manakochu, and rice paddy. The Haldi ceremony called gaye holud in Bengal (literally "yellow on the body") is a ceremony observed during wedding celebrations of people of Indian culture all throughout the Indian subcontinent.[34]

In Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, as a part of the Tamil–Telugu marriage ritual, a dried turmeric tuber tied with a string is used to create a Thali necklace. In western and coastal India, during weddings of the Marathi and Konkani people, Kannada Brahmins, turmeric tubers are tied with strings by the couple to their wrists during a ceremony, Kankana Bandhana.[35] In many Hindu communities, turmeric paste is applied to the bride and groom as part of pre-wedding festivities known as the haldi ceremony.[36]

Turmeric makes a poor fabric dye, as it is not light fast, but is commonly used in Indian clothing, such as saris and Buddhist monks' robes.[3] During the late Edo period (1603–1867), turmeric was used to dilute or substitute more expensive safflower dyestuff in the production of beni itajime shibori.[37]: 1  Friedrich Ratzel reported in The History of Mankind during 1896, that in Micronesia, turmeric powder was applied for embellishment of body, clothing, utensils, and ceremonial uses.[38] Native Hawaiians who introduced it to Hawaii (Hawaiian: ʻōlena) make a bright yellow dye out of it.[39]

Indicator

[edit]
Turmeric dispersed in water is yellow under acid and red under alkaline conditions

Turmeric paper, also called curcuma paper or in German literature curcumapapier, is paper steeped in a tincture of turmeric and allowed to dry. It is used in chemical analysis as a pH indicator.[40] The paper is yellow in acidic and neutral solutions and turns brown to reddish-brown in alkaline solutions, with transition between pH of 7.4 and 9.2.[41]

Adulteration

[edit]

As turmeric and other spices are commonly sold by weight, the potential exists for powders of toxic, cheaper agents with a similar color to be added, such as lead(II,IV) oxide ("red lead"). These additives give turmeric an orange-red color instead of its native gold-yellow, and such conditions led the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to issue import alerts from 2013 to 2019 on turmeric originating in India and Bangladesh.[42] Imported into the United States in 2014 were approximately 5.4 million kilograms (12 million pounds) of turmeric, some of which was used for food coloring, traditional medicine, or dietary supplement.[42] Lead detection in turmeric products led to recalls across the United States, Canada, Japan, Korea, and the United Kingdom through 2016.[42]

Lead chromate, a bright yellow chemical compound, was found as an adulterant of turmeric in Bangladesh, where turmeric is used commonly in foods and the contamination levels were up to 500 times higher than the national limit.[43] Researchers identified a chain of sources adulterating the turmeric with lead chromate: from farmers to merchants selling low-grade turmeric roots to "polishers" who added lead chromate for yellow color enhancement, to wholesalers for market distribution, all unaware of the potential consequences of lead toxicity.[43]

Another common adulterant in turmeric, metanil yellow (also known as acid yellow 36), is considered by the British Food Standards Agency as an illegal dye for use in foods.[44]

Medical research

[edit]
See also: Curcumin

Turmeric and curcumin have been studied in various, low-quality clinical trials, with no good evidence of an anti-disease effect or health benefit.[8][45][46][47] There is no scientific evidence that curcumin reduces inflammation, as of 2019.[8][47] There is weak evidence that turmeric extracts may relieve symptoms of knee osteoarthritis[48] and lower muscle pain following physical exercise.[49]

Turmeric supplements are associated with rare but potentially serious liver injuries, particularly in genetically susceptible individuals.[11]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Turmeric

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Turmeric is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant belonging to the ginger family Zingiberaceae, native to the tropical Indian subcontinent, particularly India, where it has been cultivated for thousands of years. The spice known as turmeric is derived from the dried and ground rhizomes of Curcuma longa, which produce a vibrant yellow-orange powder valued for its culinary, medicinal, and dyeing properties. Botanically, Curcuma longa grows to about 1 meter in height, featuring oblong leaves and underground rhizomes that are 2.5–7.0 cm long and up to 2.5 cm wide, with a yellowish-brown exterior and dull orange interior. These rhizomes contain curcuminoids, including the primary active compound curcumin (comprising 5–6.6% of the content), along with volatile oils such as turmerone, contributing to its characteristic color, aroma, and potential bioactivity. India remains the world's largest producer, accounting for nearly all global supply, with major cultivation in regions like Erode, Tamil Nadu. Historically, turmeric has been integral to Indian subcontinental culture for nearly 4,000 years, documented in Vedic texts as a spice, dye, and component of religious ceremonies; it spread to China by 700 AD, East Africa by 800 AD, and eventually worldwide through trade routes. In cuisine, it is a staple in Indian subcontinental, Southeast Asian, and Middle Eastern dishes, such as curries, imparting a warm, slightly bitter flavor and golden hue, with typical daily consumption in Asia ranging from 200–1,000 mg. Beyond food, it serves as a natural colorant in products like butter, cheese, and beverages. In traditional medicine, particularly Ayurveda, turmeric has been used to treat conditions like arthritis, digestive issues, wounds, and inflammation, often applied topically or ingested for its purported anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Modern research has identified over 100 compounds in turmeric, with curcumin showing promise in preclinical studies for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential anticancer activities, as well as preliminary investigations into benefits for cardiovascular health and brain health including depression and Alzheimer's disease; specifically, curcumin has anti-inflammatory properties supported by moderate evidence from human clinical studies, particularly for osteoarthritis, though evidence for other effects remains limited and bioavailability is low without enhancers like piperine. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration classifies turmeric as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for use as a spice and color additive.

Etymology and History

Etymology

The English word "turmeric" derives from Middle English "turmeryte" or "tarmaret," first appearing in the 15th century, likely as a corruption of Old French terre mérite ("meritorious earth") or New Latin terra merita, alluding to the spice's earthy, pigment-like golden hue resembling a valued mineral. Alternative origins trace it to Arabic kurkum (كُرْكُم), an early term for the plant possibly linked to saffron, or Persian darzard ("yellow stick"), reflecting trade routes that introduced the rhizome to Europe via Arab and Persian intermediaries. In Sanskrit, turmeric is most commonly known as haridra, etymologically from hari ("yellow" or "dear to Hari," referencing Lord Krishna) combined with drā ("article" or "substance"), emphasizing its vibrant color and cultural reverence; the term appears in ancient texts like the Atharva Veda (circa 1200–900 BCE), where it is also called haladi or harit ("yellow one"), and in later works such as Amarakosha (6th century CE), which lists early synonyms. Sanskrit literature documents at least 53 synonyms for turmeric, with etymological roots highlighting its properties: varna-dātri ("color-giver," from varna for color and dātri for bestower), used for its dyeing qualities; dirgha-ranga ("long-lasting color," from dirgha for enduring and ranga for hue); and jayanti ("victor over diseases"), underscoring medicinal connotations in Ayurvedic compendia like Bhava Prakash Nighantu (16th century). Across major languages, names for turmeric often evoke its yellow pigmentation or botanical kinship to ginger. In Hindi, haldi is a phonetic evolution from Sanskrit haridra, simplifying the term while retaining the focus on its bright yellow (hal suggesting allure or yellowness) and becoming the predominant name in northern India. In Chinese, jiang huang (姜黄) literally means "yellow ginger" (jiang for ginger family resemblance and huang for yellow), a designation rooted in traditional materia medica distinguishing it from related species. Japanese ukon (鬱金) derives from the Chinese yù jīn (郁金, "dense gold" or "luxuriant yellow"), imported via classical pharmacology and adapted to denote the rhizome's golden essence in historical texts. In Arabic treatises, such as medieval medical translations, it is termed kurkum, preserving the ancient Semitic root for saffron-like spices and appearing in works like those influencing Unani medicine.

Historical Uses and Spread

Turmeric's earliest documented use dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization in ancient India, with archaeological evidence from the site of Farmana in present-day Haryana revealing turmeric starch grains in pottery residues and cattle dental calculus dated between 2600 and 2200 BCE. This indicates its integration into early culinary practices, likely as a spice in proto-curry mixtures alongside ginger and garlic. By around 1500 BCE, turmeric had spread to ancient Egypt, where it is mentioned in the Ebers Papyrus as a remedy for healing wounds and as a dye. In India, its medicinal applications were further detailed in Ayurvedic texts, such as the Sushruta Samhita, composed around 600 BCE, which recommends turmeric ointments for treating food poisoning and promoting wound healing. Turmeric's dissemination accelerated through ancient trade networks, reaching China by 700 CE via the Silk Road, where it was valued for both culinary and medicinal purposes. Arab traders facilitated its introduction to the Middle East and subsequently to Europe around the 13th century, often marketed as "Indian saffron" for its coloring properties. In the 16th century, Portuguese explorers carried turmeric across the Atlantic, introducing it to the Americas as part of broader spice exchanges during colonial expansion.

Botanical Description and Taxonomy

Taxonomy

Curcuma longa L. is a species in the genus Curcuma within the family Zingiberaceae. Its taxonomic hierarchy is: Kingdom: Plantae; Phylum: Tracheophyta; Class: Liliopsida; Order: Zingiberales; Family: Zingiberaceae; Genus: Curcuma; Species: C. longa. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753. It is a triploid (2n = 3x = 63) and primarily cross-pollinated, though seed fertility is low in cultivation.

Plant Morphology

Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Zingiberaceae family, characterized by its rhizomatous growth and erect habit. It typically reaches a height of 0.6 to 1.2 meters, forming clumps of shoots that emerge from underground rhizomes. The plant's vegetative structure is adapted to tropical environments, with a focus on efficient nutrient storage and water retention through its subterranean and foliar components. The rhizomes serve as the primary storage organs, functioning as underground stems that anchor the plant and store carbohydrates. The central mother rhizome is ovate or pear-shaped, measuring up to 4 cm in length and 3 cm in thickness, while secondary rhizomes extend as finger-like branches, often 2.5 to 7 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. These rhizomes are thick, fleshy, and shallowly buried, exhibiting a tan exterior with darker brown stripes and a bright orange interior. Above ground, the plant develops pseudostems formed by the overlapping sheaths of the leaves, which provide structural support without a true woody stem. The leaves are lanceolate to oblong, arranged alternately along the pseudostem, reaching lengths of up to 50 cm and widths of 15 to 18 cm; they feature prominent parallel veins, a dark green upper surface, and a paler green underside. In its growth cycle, turmeric exhibits seasonal dormancy during dry periods, with foliage wilting and the plant relying on rhizome reserves until favorable moisture returns, often during monsoon seasons in its native range. Propagation occurs vegetatively through division of the rhizomes, where segments containing at least one bud (or "eye") are planted to produce new shoots. This clonal method ensures genetic uniformity and supports its perennial nature in suitable climates.

Inflorescence, Flower, and Fruit

The inflorescence of Curcuma longa is a terminal spike emerging from the leaf sheaths at the base of the pseudostem, typically measuring 10–15 cm in length and 4–7 cm in width, with a cylindrical shape covered by overlapping bracts that are pale green to greenish-white and sometimes tinged with reddish-purple at the apex. These bracts, ovate to oblong and 3–7.5 cm long, subtend the flowers and provide structural support, with the spike forming a dense cluster where flowers emerge sequentially from the bract axils. The overall inflorescence arises during the flowering season, often from July to August in suitable climates, though it may vary by region. The flowers are bisexual and adapted for insect pollination, characteristic of the Zingiberaceae family, with showy structures attracting bees and other pollinators such as halictid and carpenter bees. Each flower features a tubular calyx that is white and puberulent, about 0.8–1.2 cm long with three teeth, enclosing a pale yellow corolla with a tube up to 3 cm long and deltoid lobes measuring 1–1.5 cm, the central lobe being the largest and mucronate at the apex. The labellum, a prominent lip-like structure, is obovate, 1.2–2 cm long, yellowish with a central yellow band and thickened center, while the lateral staminodes are petal-like, white, and shorter than the labellum, enhancing the flower's attractiveness. A single fertile stamen is present, with a spurred anther base, and the ovary is sparsely hairy, contributing to the flower's overall yellowish-white appearance that opens one at a time along the spike. The fruit of C. longa is an ellipsoid to ovoid capsule, trilocular, and dehiscent, opening along three valves to release seeds, though seed production is rare and capsules are infrequently formed in both wild and cultivated plants. Each capsule typically contains 1–6 small, brown, ovoid to angular seeds enclosed in a fleshy aril, but these seeds are often non-viable due to the sterility of cultivated varieties, limiting sexual reproduction and emphasizing the plant's reliance on other propagation methods. In natural settings, viable seed set can occur, but it is uncommon and not a primary means of dissemination.

Origin, Distribution, and Cultivation

Native Origin and Wild Distribution

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), a member of the Zingiberaceae family, is native to the Indian subcontinent, with its probable origin in the Indo-Malayan region and India serving as the primary center of diversity. Genetic and ethnobotanical evidence indicates that domestication occurred over 4,000 years ago, with archaeological evidence of use during the Indus Valley Civilization, likely beginning in regions such as southwestern India where the species is considered a cultigen. This early cultivation is supported by archaeological findings, including lipid residues in pottery from Indus Valley sites indicating use in cooking around 2500 BCE, and traditional uses documented in ancient texts, highlighting its integration into Indian subcontinental societies as a spice, dye, and medicinal plant. Although C. longa is not known in a truly wild state due to long-term domestication, limited naturalized or semi-wild populations persist in tropical forests across India (including northeastern areas like Assam and the eastern Himalayas), Bangladesh, and parts of Southeast Asia such as Myanmar. These populations are restricted to humid, shaded understories in seasonally dry tropical biomes, but they face threats from habitat loss and overharvesting, contributing to endangerment in native habitats. The genus Curcuma exhibits high diversity in these regions, with at least 40 species recorded in India alone, underscoring the area's role as a hotspot for evolutionary adaptation. Turmeric's ancestry traces to wild relatives within the Curcuma genus, with C. longa believed to be a sterile hybrid derived from species such as Curcuma aromatica and closely related taxa native to South and Southeast Asia. C. aromatica, a wild species found in the forests of northeastern India and Bangladesh, shares morphological and chemical similarities with turmeric, including rhizomatous growth and aromatic compounds, and is thought to have contributed to its genetic makeup through ancient hybridization events. This hybrid origin explains the species' sterility and reliance on vegetative propagation, distinguishing it from its fertile wild progenitors.

Commercial Cultivation and Varieties

Turmeric is commercially cultivated primarily in tropical regions, requiring temperatures between 20 and 35°C and annual rainfall of 1,500 to 2,500 mm for optimal growth. The plant thrives in well-drained loamy or red soils rich in organic matter, with a pH range of 4.5 to 7.5 to prevent waterlogging and support root development. In major producing areas like India, planting occurs during May to June, aligning with the pre-monsoon period to ensure adequate moisture for rhizome sprouting. Key cultivation practices begin with land preparation, involving deep plowing and incorporation of organic manure at 20-25 tons per hectare to enhance soil fertility. Rhizomes are planted at a seed rate of 2,000 to 2,500 kg per hectare, with spacing of 25-30 cm between plants in light soils or 45-60 cm between ridges in heavier soils to accommodate the crop's spreading habit. Irrigation is critical during dry spells, typically requiring 15-40 applications depending on soil type and rainfall distribution, often using drip systems for efficiency; weeding is performed manually or with herbicides like pendimethalin three times at 60, 90, and 120 days after planting to control competition from weeds. Harvesting occurs 7-9 months post-planting, around January to March in India, when leaves turn yellow and pseudostems dry, yielding fresh rhizomes that are then cured for market. Prominent Indian varieties include Erode local, prized for its relatively high curcumin content of 3.5-5%, and Alleppey, selected for its high yield potential of 25-30 tons per hectare of fresh rhizomes. Improved hybrids such as IISR Prathibha, developed by the Indian Institute of Spices Research, offer enhanced disease resistance and yield up to 35 tons per hectare while maintaining good curcumin levels. In Indonesia, local strains of Curcuma longa and related species like Curcuma xanthorrhiza (temulawak) are cultivated for both culinary and medicinal uses in tropical lowlands. China grows adapted cultivars of Curcuma longa in subtropical provinces, focusing on high-yield varieties suited to its diverse regional climates.

Phytochemistry

Primary Chemical Constituents

The rhizomes of Curcuma longa, the source of turmeric, exhibit a diverse chemical profile dominated by carbohydrates, which constitute 60–70% of the dry weight, primarily in the form of starch and other polysaccharides that contribute to the plant's structural integrity and energy storage. Essential oils make up 3–5% of the dry rhizome mass, providing the volatile fraction responsible for turmeric's distinctive aroma and flavor, while curcuminoids account for 2–5%, serving as key pigments. Additionally, fixed oils comprise approximately 5–10% of the composition, including fatty acids that support lipid-soluble compound extraction and stability. These proportions can vary based on cultivar, growing conditions, and post-harvest processing, but they collectively define turmeric's multifaceted utility in food, medicine, and industry. The essential oils, extracted via steam distillation, are predominantly sesquiterpenic in nature, with ar-turmerone emerging as the major constituent, often comprising 25–70% of the total oil depending on the rhizome variety and origin. This compound, alongside others like α-turmerone, β-turmerone, and atlantone, imparts the spicy, earthy scent characteristic of turmeric and contributes to its antimicrobial properties. These volatile components are biosynthesized in the rhizome's oil glands and are more concentrated in fresh material, decreasing slightly upon drying. Beyond curcuminoids—where curcumin serves as the principal member—turmeric harbors non-curcuminoid phenolics, including turmerin, a low-molecular-weight protein, and an array of polysaccharides such as arabinogalactans and rhamnogalacturonans. These polysaccharides, extracted from the rhizome's cell walls, exhibit potential immune-modulating effects by interacting with gut microbiota and enhancing barrier function in preclinical models. Together, these classes underscore the rhizome's biochemical complexity, distinct from the focused curcuminoid profile explored elsewhere. Curcumin, chemically known as diferuloylmethane, is the primary curcuminoid in turmeric and belongs to the class of diarylheptanoids, characterized by two aromatic rings connected by a seven-carbon chain with two α,β-unsaturated ketone groups. Its molecular formula is C₂₁H₂₀O₆, and it exhibits a bright yellow color responsible for turmeric's pigmentation. Closely related analogs include demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin, which differ from curcumin by the absence of one or both methoxy groups on the aromatic rings, respectively, yet share the core diarylheptanoid skeleton. The biosynthesis of curcuminoids in Curcuma longa rhizomes begins with the phenylpropanoid pathway, where phenylalanine is converted to p-coumaroyl-CoA and feruloyl-CoA through a series of enzymatic steps including phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and 4-coumarate:CoA ligase. These activated phenylpropanoids then condense with malonyl-CoA via type III polyketide synthases, specifically curcumin synthase (CURS) enzymes such as CsPKS1 and CsPKS3, to form the linear diarylheptanoid backbone of curcuminoids. This pathway is predominantly active in the rhizomes, where curcuminoid accumulation peaks during maturation. Curcuminoids are typically extracted from dried turmeric rhizomes using organic solvents such as ethanol or acetone, which dissolve the lipophilic compounds effectively. Solvent extraction methods, often assisted by heat or ultrasound, yield 2–6% curcuminoids by weight from high-quality rhizomes, depending on solvent polarity and extraction conditions. For commercial supplements, extracts are further purified and standardized to contain at least 95% total curcuminoids, ensuring consistent potency and compliance with pharmacopeial standards like those from the United States Pharmacopeia.

Culinary and Traditional Uses

Culinary Applications

Turmeric's ground rhizome powder is a fundamental spice in global cuisines, valued for imparting a vibrant yellow coloration and an earthy, slightly bitter flavor that balances richer ingredients. This form is extensively used in curries and rice dishes, where it enhances visual appeal and taste complexity; for example, in Indian biryani, it colors and flavors the layered rice preparation, while in Thai curries like khao mok gai, it contributes to the warm, aromatic base alongside coconut milk and other spices. Regionally, turmeric features prominently in spice blends such as curry powder, where it forms the yellow backbone mixed with coriander, cumin, and fenugreek for use in Indian subcontinental and Southeast Asian recipes. In Indian traditions, it is stirred into warm milk to create golden milk (haldi doodh), a spiced beverage that highlights its subtle bitterness, and fresh turmeric is pickled as a crunchy, tangy condiment for meals. For potential health benefits, recommended culinary methods include incorporating whole turmeric root or powder into meals such as curries, soups, smoothies, and scrambled eggs, or preparing golden milk by heating turmeric in milk or plant-based milk with black pepper and a fat such as ghee, coconut oil, or olive oil; these approaches provide synergistic compounds that may enhance absorption but deliver lower doses of curcumin compared to supplements. Culinary applications typically employ 0.5–1 gram per dish, contributing to a daily intake of 200–1,000 mg in traditional Asian diets, while evidence-based suggestions for potential health benefits commonly recommend a daily consumption of 0.5–3 grams of turmeric powder, often combined with black pepper and a fat to improve bioavailability. To ensure longevity, turmeric rhizomes are dried and ground into powder, which retains flavor and quality for up to two years when stored in airtight containers in a cool, dark environment. Fresh rhizomes, conversely, are grated or sliced for immediate use in Southeast Asian dishes, including salads and soups, to capture their fresh, pungent essence before potency diminishes.

Traditional Medicinal Practices

In Ayurvedic medicine, turmeric, known as haridra, has been traditionally employed for its purported detoxifying properties, aiding in the removal of ama (toxins) and balancing kapha and meda (phlegm and fat tissues). It is also traditionally used to improve digestion, alleviate indigestion, flatulence, bloating, and other gastrointestinal discomforts. It is commonly prepared as poultices for wound healing, applied topically to promote tissue repair and reduce infection risk, and as anti-inflammatory pastes mixed with other herbs for conditions like joint pain and skin irritations including acne and other inflammatory skin conditions. In therapeutic preparations, internal dosages of 1 to 3 grams of turmeric powder per day have been used, often consumed in milk or water decoctions to support overall vitality and respiratory health, such as alleviating allergies and bronchial issues. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, turmeric is referred to as jiang huang (Rhizoma Curcumae Longae) and valued for promoting blood circulation to relieve pain, particularly in cases of blood stasis causing abdominal discomfort or menstrual irregularities. It is frequently incorporated into decoctions, such as those combined with other herbs like e zhu (Sparganii Rhizoma), to address distending pain from food retention or injuries, with its acrid, bitter, and warm properties targeting the spleen and stomach meridians. Traditional formulations emphasize its role in invigorating qi and breaking up stagnation, though it is contraindicated during pregnancy or menstruation due to its potent blood-moving effects. Across other cultures, turmeric features prominently in Indonesian jamu remedies, where Curcuma longa is blended into herbal tonics to aid digestion and support liver health. In African traditional systems, it has been used to treat a range of ailments including arthritis and general inflammation, reflecting its adoption in folk healing practices for bodily purification. In Indian Hindu rituals, the haldi ceremony precedes weddings, where turmeric paste is applied to the bride and groom for protective and auspicious purposes, rooted in beliefs of its purifying and warding-off-evil qualities that align with its medicinal reputation for skin health and vitality.

Other Practical Uses

Dye and Indicator Properties

Turmeric's utility as a natural dye stems from its primary pigment, curcumin, which yields yellow to orange hues on textiles when fixed using mordants such as alum. This dyeing process enhances color adhesion and vibrancy on fibers like cotton and wool. Historically, turmeric has been employed in India for coloring traditional garments, including patolu saris from Gujarat, where it produces rich yellow shades despite its tendency to fade over time. To extract the dye, dried turmeric rhizomes are pulverized and extracted by heating in water to dissolve the curcuminoids into a vibrant yellow solution suitable for application. The resulting dye demonstrates moderate lightfastness, achieving ratings of 3–4 on the blue wool scale for cotton fabrics and 5–6 for wool when mordanted, indicating reasonable durability under exposure to light. Beyond dyeing, turmeric acts as a pH indicator owing to curcumin's sensitivity to hydrogen ion concentration, displaying a yellow color in acidic or neutral solutions (pH below 7.4) and shifting to red-brown in alkaline conditions (pH above 7.4). This reversible color transition enables its use in basic laboratory tests to distinguish acids from bases, such as titrations or qualitative analyses. In household settings, turmeric solutions or papers can detect alkaline residues, like leftover soap on cleaned surfaces, by revealing red-brown stains where bases are present.

Cosmetics and Textiles

Turmeric extract is widely incorporated into modern cosmetic formulations, particularly anti-acne creams and face masks, at concentrations of 0.5–2% to leverage its skin brightening and antimicrobial properties. These products utilize curcumin, the active compound in turmeric, to inhibit acne-causing bacteria and reduce hyperpigmentation, promoting an even skin tone without significant irritation at these levels. In the Indian beauty industry, ubtan formulations exemplify this application, blending turmeric with other natural ingredients like gram flour and sandalwood into commercial face masks and scrubs that exfoliate and brighten the complexion for contemporary skincare routines. In the textile sector, turmeric serves as a natural dye for eco-friendly fabric coloration, producing vibrant yellow hues on cotton and other natural fibers through sustainable extraction and mordanting processes that minimize environmental impact compared to synthetic dyes. However, turmeric's dye is prone to color bleeding and fading due to its fugitive nature, which can diminish vibrancy during washing or light exposure. To address this, nanotechnology encapsulation techniques, such as embedding curcumin nanoparticles in silica matrices or polyamide structures, enhance colorfastness and durability on textiles, enabling broader adoption in green dyeing applications. The integration of turmeric into cosmetics and textiles aligns with rising market trends toward organic and sustainable products, as the global organic skincare sector is projected to reach $13.21 billion by 2025, driven by demand for plant-based ingredients like curcumin in natural formulations. This growth reflects turmeric's increasing prominence in eco-conscious industries, supported by the expanding curcumin market valued at approximately $110 million in 2025.

Production and Adulteration

Global Production and Trade

India dominates global turmeric production, accounting for over 80% of the world's supply, with an annual output of approximately 1.12 million metric tons in fiscal year 2024-25 (advance estimates). The country cultivates turmeric across multiple states, including Maharashtra as the leading producer at over 325,000 metric tons in fiscal year 2024. Following India, the primary producers are China (about 8% of global production), Myanmar (4%), Nigeria (3%), and Bangladesh (3%), contributing to a total worldwide output of around 1.4 million metric tons annually. In terms of trade, the global turmeric market reached a value of US$587 million in 2023, with exports primarily driven by India, which shipped goods worth approximately US$341 million in the 2024-25 fiscal year, marking a 50.7% increase from the previous year and representing a 66% global market share. Key export destinations include the United States, United Arab Emirates, Bangladesh, and European countries, where demand is particularly strong for turmeric in dietary supplements and functional foods. Trade dynamics are influenced by price volatility, such as the 8% rise in turmeric prices during the first half of 2023 due to erratic rainfall disrupting supplies in major Indian growing regions. Sustainability efforts in turmeric production are gaining momentum, with a notable increase in organic certification to meet rising international demand for pesticide-free varieties. The organic turmeric segment is projected to grow at a compound annual rate of 8% from 2025 onward, reflecting broader trends toward sustainable agriculture in response to consumer preferences in key markets like North America and Europe.

Adulteration Methods and Detection

Turmeric powder is frequently adulterated to enhance its appearance, weight, or volume while reducing costs, with common adulterants including lead chromate, spent turmeric, and starch fillers often dyed with metanil yellow. Lead chromate, a toxic yellow pigment, is added to impart a brighter color to low-quality or pale turmeric, particularly in regions like Indian subcontinent where this practice has been documented in market samples. Spent turmeric, which is the residue left after curcumin extraction and lacks active compounds, is mixed in to bulk up the product without adding value. Starch, such as from rice or maize, is another prevalent filler, sometimes colored with metanil yellow—a non-permitted industrial dye—to mimic the natural hue and texture of pure turmeric. Detection of these adulterants relies on a combination of simple chemical tests, microscopic analysis, and advanced instrumental techniques. For lead chromate, a basic test involves dissolving a sample in hydrochloric acid (HCl), where the formation of a white precipitate of lead chloride and a green chromium solution indicates its presence; more precise confirmation uses powder X-ray diffraction to identify lead chromate crystals directly in the powder. Starch adulteration can be identified through microscopy, where characteristic granule shapes (e.g., oval or polyhedral forms distinct from turmeric's cellular structure) are observed under a light microscope after staining. Metanil yellow is detected by adding HCl to a sample in a test tube, resulting in a pink or violet color if the dye is present. For spent turmeric, near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy combined with machine learning algorithms distinguishes it from fresh powder based on spectral differences in curcumin content and overall composition. Quantifying curcumin content is essential for verifying overall purity, as adulterated turmeric often falls below quality thresholds. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detection is the standard method, separating and measuring curcuminoids; commercial turmeric powder should contain at least 3% curcumin by weight to meet trade quality benchmarks, though many market samples test lower (e.g., below 1% in 77% of analyzed products). Regulatory standards enforce limits on contaminants to protect consumers. The Codex Alimentarius Standard for Turmeric (CXS 359-2024) requires compliance with the General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed (CXS 193-1995), including a maximum lead level of 2.0 mg/kg for dried rhizomes like turmeric. In the United States, the FDA has issued recalls for turmeric products exceeding safe heavy metal levels, with ongoing surveillance highlighting risks from lead in imported spices as recently as 2023-2024 actions on similar commodities, including specific turmeric recalls in 2025.

Medical Research and Health Effects

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), primarily through its active compound curcumin, has been investigated for a variety of potential health benefits. The following benefits are commonly cited based on traditional use and modern research, though the strength of evidence varies:
  • Anti-inflammatory properties: Curcumin reduces inflammation by inhibiting key signaling pathways, which may help alleviate joint pain, arthritis, and other inflammation-related conditions.
  • Antioxidant effects: Curcumin helps protect the body from free radicals, thereby safeguarding cells from oxidative damage.
  • Digestive health: Turmeric may improve digestion and provide relief from symptoms such as gas, bloating, and indigestion.
  • Skin health: It can support wound healing, help reduce acne, and alleviate skin inflammation.
  • Heart health: Some studies suggest turmeric may lower cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart disease.
  • Brain health: Preliminary research indicates potential benefits for conditions such as depression and Alzheimer's disease.
These effects are primarily attributed to curcumin, though clinical evidence is strongest for anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, with more limited or preliminary support for other areas. As with any supplement, individuals should consult a healthcare professional before using turmeric in high doses, particularly due to possible side effects, allergies, or interactions with medications.

Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Research

Curcumin, the primary bioactive compound in turmeric, is a powerful anti-inflammatory agent that has been extensively studied for its anti-inflammatory properties through inhibition of key signaling pathways. Turmeric (curcumin) has anti-inflammatory properties supported by moderate evidence from clinical studies. Specifically, curcumin suppresses the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, a central regulator of inflammatory responses, by preventing the degradation of its inhibitor IκBα and reducing the translocation of NF-κB to the nucleus. This inhibition leads to decreased expression of pro-inflammatory genes. Additionally, curcumin downregulates cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an enzyme that catalyzes the production of prostaglandins, thereby mitigating inflammatory mediator release in cellular models such as lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. In preclinical animal studies, these mechanisms have translated to measurable reductions in inflammation markers. For instance, in rat models of alcohol-induced liver disease, oral administration of curcumin at 75 mg/kg/day for four weeks blocked NF-κB activation in Kupffer cells and suppressed COX-2 expression, resulting in decreased levels of cytokines like tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and chemokines. Similarly, in rat arthritis models induced by adjuvant, curcumin treatment significantly reduced levels of TNF-α and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), demonstrating attenuation of joint inflammation. Other rodent studies on colitis have shown significant reductions in inflammatory cytokines, underscoring curcumin's potential in preclinical inflammatory conditions. Regarding antioxidant effects, curcumin exhibits potent free radical scavenging activity primarily through its phenolic hydroxyl groups, which donate hydrogen atoms to neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide and hydroxyl radicals. This capability is demonstrated in in vitro assays such as the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay, where ground turmeric shows a value of 159,277 μmol Trolox equivalents (TE) per 100 g (though the USDA discontinued this metric in 2012 as it may not reflect in vivo effects). These properties help protect cellular components from oxidative damage in preclinical assays. A major limitation in harnessing these benefits is curcumin's poor bioavailability due to rapid metabolism and low intestinal absorption. However, pairing curcumin with black pepper, which contains piperine, enhances its absorption by inhibiting hepatic and intestinal glucuronidation, leading to a 20-fold increase in bioavailability in both rat and human pharmacokinetic studies.

Clinical Studies and Safety Considerations

Clinical studies on turmeric, primarily focusing on its active compound curcumin, have explored its potential therapeutic effects in humans, with mixed results emphasizing modest benefits in specific conditions. A 2025 systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found that bioavailability-enhanced curcumin supplements led to a 30% reduction in Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) pain scores compared to placebo, particularly in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Doses in these trials typically ranged from 500 mg to 1,500 mg of curcumin daily, often combined with bioavailability enhancers like piperine (e.g., BioPerine), or advanced formulations such as liposomal, nanoparticle, or those combined with turmerones or essential oils for higher effective doses and improved delivery, showing effects comparable to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs but with fewer adverse events. Bioavailability remains a key challenge for curcumin's effectiveness, as it has poor natural absorption. Piperine from black pepper can increase curcumin bioavailability by up to 2000% in humans. Additionally, consuming curcumin with dietary fats, such as olive oil, further enhances absorption due to its lipophilic properties. There is no official recommended daily allowance (RDA) for turmeric or curcumin. Common evidence-based suggestions for general use include 0.5–3 grams (approximately ¼ to 1 teaspoon) of turmeric powder daily, combined with a pinch to ¼ teaspoon of black pepper and taken with or mixed in olive oil or a fatty meal. For curcumin extract supplements, doses of 500–2,000 mg daily are commonly studied and recommended for general benefits, often with piperine. Individuals should consult a healthcare provider before use, especially at higher doses or with medical conditions. For cancer prevention, evidence remains limited; small-scale trials, such as a phase II study in pancreatic cancer patients receiving 8,000 mg/day, reported stable disease in only one participant without significant tumor regression or survival benefits. Similarly, randomized trials for colorectal and head/neck precancerous lesions showed inconsistent reductions in lesion size or number, with no large-scale confirmation of preventive efficacy. Clinical studies have also explored curcumin's potential in enhancing recovery from exercise, particularly in strength training contexts. Supplementation with curcumin has been shown to reduce exercise-induced inflammation, oxidative stress, and muscle damage following intense or eccentric-loaded workouts, with effects more pronounced for reducing soreness and inflammation than for direct strength gains. Reviews indicate that while the evidence is promising and stronger than for many recovery supplements, it is not as robust as that for creatine in performance enhancement or tart cherry juice for functional recovery. These benefits are supported by multiple randomized controlled trials, though a meta-analysis noted modest effect sizes that were not always statistically significant. Regarding safety, oral turmeric and curcumin are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use as dietary ingredients, based on multiple GRAS notices including those for curcumin extracts from Curcuma longa. At doses up to 8 grams per day, short-term use (2-3 months) appears well-tolerated in most adults, though higher bioavailability formulations have been linked to rare cases of liver injury manifesting as jaundice or elevated enzymes. Common side effects include gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain, particularly at doses exceeding 1 gram daily, while individuals with gallbladder conditions may experience exacerbated symptoms due to curcumin's choleretic effects. Drug interactions pose notable risks; curcumin may enhance the anticoagulant effects of blood thinners like warfarin, potentially increasing bleeding risk, and it can interfere with chemotherapy agents or diabetes medications by altering their metabolism via cytochrome P450 enzymes. Pregnant or breastfeeding individuals should avoid supplemental doses beyond culinary amounts due to insufficient safety data. As of 2025, ongoing clinical trials, such as a pragmatic study on quercetin/curcumin combinations for long COVID symptoms (NCT06974058), continue to evaluate its role as an adjunct therapy in post-viral inflammatory conditions.

References

  1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92752/
  2. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/curcumin
  3. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/turmeric
  4. https://www.etymonline.com/word/turmeric
  5. https://www.mccormickscienceinstitute.com/resources/culinary-spices/herbs-spices/turmeric
  6. https://www.ahpa.org/herbs_in_history_turmeric
  7. https://medwinpublishers.com/JONAM/curcuma-longa-turmeric-a-condiment-of-great-therapeutic-value-tested-with-the-ayurveda-up-to-the-modern-medicine.pdf
  8. http://www.itmonline.org/arts/turmeri3.htm
  9. https://eatlikeasultan.com/spotlight-on-turmeric/
  10. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2014956117
  11. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.337.6092.288-a
  12. https://www.pbs.org/food/stories/turmeric-history
  13. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:796451-1
  14. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/curcuma-longa/
  15. https://www.uwsp.edu/sbcb/turmeric/
  16. http://www.botanicalauthentication.org/index.php/Curcuma_longa_(rhizome)
  17. https://gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufl.edu/plants/edibles/vegetables/turmeric/
  18. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12117689/
  19. https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000365771
  20. https://www.eje.cz/pdfs/eje/2023/01/22.pdf
  21. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/turmeric
  22. https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/14954/1/IJTK%2011(4)%20607-614.pdf
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7829615/
  24. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabicompendium.17014
  25. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667142523000088
  26. https://lcme.wsu.edu/research-organisms/turmeric/
  27. https://ppqs.gov.in/sites/default/files/ipm_pop-turmeric.pdf
  28. https://www.indianspices.com/sites/default/files/cultivation_practices-TURMERIC-1.pdf
  29. https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/govt_schemes_services/aas/turmeric.html
  30. http://www.spices.res.in/pages/turmeric-varieties
  31. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8214482/
  32. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8187459/
  33. https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/agriculture_facultypubs/1/
  34. https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2022/vol11issue1/PartL/11-1-84-953.pdf
  35. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3195121/
  36. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691510000670
  37. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.3c05590
  38. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Curcumin
  39. https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB11672
  40. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/bisdemethoxycurcumin
  41. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Structures-of-curcumin-Cur-demethoxycurcumin-Dmc-and-bisdemethoxycurcumin-Bdmc_fig1_260109420
  42. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2670121/
  43. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1271/bbb.80075
  44. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/bbb/advpub/0/advpub_80075/_pdf
  45. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10219365/
  46. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.3c04205
  47. https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/12/21/4000
  48. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6277232/
  49. https://www.fda.gov/files/food/published/GRAS-Notice-000686---Curcumin-from-turmeric-%2528Curcuma-longa-L.%2529.pdf
  50. https://www.marionskitchen.com/thai-turmeric-chicken-rice/
  51. https://www.hot-thai-kitchen.com/kao-mok-gai/
  52. https://silkroadrecipes.com/curry-powder-recipe/
  53. https://www.cookwithmanali.com/golden-milk-masala-haldi-doodh/
  54. https://indiaphile.info/turmeric-pickle/
  55. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/turmeric-health-benefits
  56. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/turmeric-benefits
  57. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/turmeric-benefits-a-look-at-the-evidence
  58. https://www.webstaurantstore.com/blog/3076/do-spices-expire.html
  59. https://thespiceway.com/blogs/articles/what-does-turmeric-spice-taste-like
  60. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4649577/
  61. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4775794/
  62. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7218133/
  63. https://www.pbrc.edu/training-and-education/community-health-resources/pennington-nutrition-series/functional-foods/PNS_Turmeric.pdf
  64. https://gardens.duke.edu/turmeric/
  65. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652622048776
  66. https://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/fabric-of-india/indian-blues-and-reds-and-yellows
  67. https://www.ijtrd.com/papers/IJTRD16618.pdf
  68. https://austinpublishinggroup.com/textile-engineering/fulltext/arte-v6-id1062.php
  69. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9322234/
  70. https://www.howtosmile.org/resource/spicy-indicator-use-turmeric-test-bases-your-home
  71. https://us.typology.com/library/fiche-didentite-poudre-de-curcuma
  72. https://spice.alibaba.com/spice-basics/properties-of-turmeric-for-skin
  73. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303503087_Effects_of_Turmeric_Curcuma_longa_on_Skin_Health_A_Systematic_Review_of_the_Clinical_Evidence_Effects_of_Curcuma_longa_on_Skin_Health
  74. https://www.amazon.com/Blue-Nectar-Turmeric-Chemicals-Preservatives/dp/B08RX7LQN7
  75. https://reshmabeauty.com/products/ubtan-turmeric-face-mask
  76. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10458907/
  77. https://spinoffmagazine.com/turmeric-to-dye-for/
  78. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c06849
  79. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361301193_Enhancing_the_light_fastness_of_natural_dyes_by_encapsulation_in_silica_matrix
  80. https://www.thebusinessresearchcompany.com/report/organic-skincare-global-market-report
  81. https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/curcumin-market-101453
  82. https://www.pjtau.edu.in/files/AgriMkt/2025/April/Turmeric-April-2025.pdf
  83. https://www.statista.com/statistics/870963/turmeric-production-by-state-india/
  84. https://angrau.ac.in/downloads/AMIC/OutlookReports/2023_24/turmeric%2520outlook%2520-June-july-2023-24.pdf
  85. https://indiagraphs.com/daily-updates/2025-08-12-india-turmeric-exports-66-percent-share/
  86. https://www.ibef.org/blogs/india-s-golden-revolution-transforming-turmeric-into-a-global-powerhouse
  87. https://commodity-board.com/turmeric-market-analysis-2025-indias-export-dominance-intact-amid-global-shifts/
  88. https://www.cnbctv18.com/market/commodities/turmeric-prices-soar-as-erratic-rains-hit-supply-amid-lively-export-demand-17186971.htm
  89. https://www.archivemarketresearch.com/reports/organic-turmeric-extract-171103
  90. https://www.thetakeout.com/1959487/spice-herb-recalls-affected-millions/
  91. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12388178/
  92. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10557090/
  93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2019.04.027
  94. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8572027/
  95. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17569207/
  96. https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400525/articles/aicr07_orac.pdf
  97. https://www.jandonline.org/article/S2212-2672(13)00242-6/fulltext
  98. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9619120/
  99. https://bmccomplementmedtherapies.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12906-025-05045-z
  100. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10061533/
  101. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2161831322008353
  102. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814621019865
  103. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/hp/curcumin-pdq
  104. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32282223/
  105. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29345167/
  106. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37408367/
  107. https://www.fda.gov/food/generally-recognized-safe-gras/gras-notice-inventory
  108. https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06974058
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.