List of tripoints

A tripoint, also termed a trijunction or triple point, is a geographical location at which the borders of three distinct countries, territories, or subnational entities converge at a single point.^[1] Such points arise from the geometric necessities of bilateral border treaties, often resulting in precise demarcations on land, rivers, lakes, or—less commonly—maritime boundaries.^[2] Comprehensive lists of tripoints catalog approximately 175 international examples between sovereign states, with Africa hosting the highest number at 61, followed by Asia and Europe; these enumerations typically prioritize verified land-based junctions while noting disputed or de facto cases influenced by colonial legacies or territorial claims.^[3] Tripoints hold practical significance in international relations for clarifying sovereignty, facilitating cross-border infrastructure like roads or pipelines, and occasionally sparking disputes over resource access or migration control, though many remain obscure markers amid remote terrains rather than active flashpoints.^[4] Notable instances include the Vaalserberg in Europe, where Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands meet atop a hill accessible to visitors, and various African junctions like the Algeria-Libya-Niger convergence in the Sahara, underscoring how arbitrary straight-line borders from 19th- and 20th-century partitions can isolate ethnic groups or overlay natural features indifferently.^[5] While most tripoints lack monuments or enforcement, their enumeration aids cartographers, diplomats, and scholars in mapping global territorial adjacencies, revealing patterns such as Russia's 14 tripoints reflecting its expansive frontiers.^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition and Terminology

A tripoint is a geographical location where the international borders of three sovereign states intersect at a single point.^[3] Alternative terms include trijunction, triple point, and tri-border area, reflecting variations in usage across geographical and diplomatic contexts.^[1] These points arise from the delineation of territorial boundaries, which may be established through bilateral treaties, historical claims, or international arbitration, and they serve as reference markers for sovereignty and jurisdictional control.^[6] On land, tripoints are typically demarcated by physical monuments, pillars, or obelisks to precisely indicate the convergence, preventing disputes over minor deviations due to surveying inaccuracies or natural erosion.^[2] In contrast, tripoints involving rivers, lakes, or other water bodies—often termed "wet" tripoints—are defined by the thalweg (deepest channel) of the waterway or midline principles, subject to shifts from sedimentation or hydrological changes.^[6] Maritime tripoints, extending into territorial seas or exclusive economic zones, follow equidistance or equitable principles under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), though not all states are signatories, leading to occasional overlaps resolved via provisional arrangements.^[7] The exact number of international tripoints exceeds 170, with approximately half situated in aquatic environments, though precise counts vary due to ongoing border disputes and unrecognized entities.^[8] Terminology may also encompass subnational tripoints, such as those between provinces or states within a federation, but encyclopedic lists prioritize sovereign interstate junctions for their implications in international law and geopolitics.^[9] Disputed tripoints, like those involving partially recognized states, highlight the dynamic nature of borders, where de facto control often diverges from de jure claims.^[5]

Types of Tripoints

Tripoints, or points where the borders of three sovereign states converge, are broadly classified into terrestrial and maritime categories. Terrestrial tripoints mark the intersection of land boundaries and constitute the majority of international examples, with approximately 175 such points recognized globally as of recent counts. These points are established through bilateral treaties or historical demarcations and may serve as physical markers for border control, trade, or tourism.^[3] Terrestrial tripoints are subdivided into dry and wet variants based on their environmental context. Dry tripoints occur on solid land surfaces, where three contiguous land borders meet without involvement of navigable water, often marked by monuments, pillars, or natural features like mountains. Examples include elevated sites such as Vaalserberg, where the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany adjoin at 322.4 meters above sea level. Wet tripoints, in contrast, lie within inland water bodies, typically at river confluences or lake shores where a riverine border segment terminates and adjoins two land borders. These require specific thalweg or median line definitions to account for shifting watercourses, complicating demarcation and enforcement.^[6] Maritime tripoints delineate the convergence of maritime boundaries, such as territorial seas (up to 12 nautical miles) or exclusive economic zones (up to 200 nautical miles), among three coastal states. Unlike terrestrial points, they are often theoretical intersections derived from equidistance principles, angle-bisector methods, or international arbitration under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982), rather than fixed physical markers. Approximately half of all maritime boundary agreements worldwide address tripoint configurations to resolve overlapping claims, though many remain provisional or disputed due to resource interests like fisheries and hydrocarbons.^[10][11]

Land Tripoints by Continent

Africa

Africa features the highest number of international land tripoints of any continent, totaling 61, a consequence of colonial-era boundary demarcations by European powers that frequently produced geometric lines and confluences irrespective of terrain or populations. These borders, largely inherited post-independence in the 1960s, were defined through bilateral treaties, arbitral decisions, and surveys, such as Anglo-French accords in West Africa or Anglo-Portuguese agreements in southern Africa. Many tripoints remain unmarked or disputed due to incomplete demarcations, resource conflicts, or recent state formations like South Sudan's independence in 2011, which created new junctions including Ethiopia–Sudan–South Sudan and Central African Republic–South Sudan–Sudan.^[12] A prominent example occurs in the Zambezi River basin of southern Africa, where the borders of Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe appear to meet but actually form two distinct tripoints separated by the river's thalweg: Botswana–Namibia–Zambia upstream and Namibia–Zambia–Zimbabwe downstream. This configuration, stemming from 19th-century colonial surveys, defies claims of a true quadripoint, as international boundary principles assign river segments to maintain bilateral divisions.^[13] Some tripoints involve disputed territories, such as those with Western Sahara, where Algeria–Morocco–Western Sahara and Algeria–Mauritania–Western Sahara points reflect ongoing contests between Morocco's administration and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic's claims, backed by limited recognitions and UN-mediated processes since 1975. International Court of Justice rulings, like those settling Burkina Faso–Niger or Benin–Niger–Nigeria disputes, have adjusted several points in recent decades to align with uti possidetis principles preserving colonial lines at independence.^[12] The tripoints are enumerated below, ordered numerically as compiled from treaty-based demarcations:

Americas

In the Americas, all 16 international land tripoints involving sovereign states or equivalent territories (such as French Guiana) are situated in Central and South America; North America has none, as the borders among Canada, the United States, and Mexico are strictly bilateral.^[14] These points include both dry-land junctions and wet ones along rivers or internal waters, reflecting the region's complex colonial-era border delineations and subsequent treaties. Many are marked by monuments, though some remain disputed or approximate due to terrain challenges like rainforests, mountains, or waterways.^[14] The tripoints are as follows, listed alphabetically by the involved countries: Disputes persist at several points, such as those involving Brazil with Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, stemming from incomplete colonial demarcations and resolved partially by 2007 International Court of Justice rulings on related sea boundaries.^[14] Coordinates are approximate and derived from geodetic surveys; exact locations may vary slightly due to natural shifts in river courses or unresolved claims.^[14]

Asia

Asia's land tripoints are concentrated in Central Asia's high mountains, East Asia's riverine borders, and the Arabian Peninsula's deserts, reflecting the continent's diverse geography and historical border delineations. These points are typically defined by bilateral treaties and demarcated by monuments or natural features, though some remain inaccessible due to altitude, remoteness, or geopolitical tensions. China participates in the majority of Asia's internationally recognized tripoints, stemming from its 22,000+ km of land borders with multiple neighbors. Key examples include:

• China–Kazakhstan–Kyrgyzstan: Situated on a secondary summit of Khan Tengri peak (6,637 m) in the Tian Shan range at approximately 42°13′N 80°10′E, this dry tripoint marks the convergence of steppe and alpine terrain; access is limited by extreme elevation.^[17]
• China–Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan: Located in the Pamir Mountains at around 39°46′N 73°36′E on an unnamed high-altitude ridge, this remote dry point exemplifies post-Soviet border agreements amid rugged topography.
• China–Mongolia–Russia (western): Found at the summit of Tavan Bogd Uul (Nairamdal or Friendship Peak, 4,082 m) in the Altai Mountains at 49°10′13.5″N 87°48′56.3″E, this dry tripoint was demarcated following 1990s treaties resolving Soviet-era ambiguities.^[17]
• China–Mongolia–Russia (eastern): Positioned near Tarbagan Dakh monument at 49°50′42.3″N 116°42′46.8″E in forested steppe, this second convergence of the same states results from Mongolia's elongated shape between its neighbors.^[18]
• China–North Korea–Russia: Occurring mid-Tumen River at approximately 42°25′N 130°38′E, with markers on the Chinese riverbank, this wet tripoint divides the area into sovereign zones and serves as a strategic confluence near the Sea of Japan.^[19]
• Oman–Saudi Arabia–United Arab Emirates: In the Rub' al-Khali desert at an unmarked arid point, this dry tripoint stems from 1974 agreements adjusting historical claims in the Empty Quarter.^[17]

Additional tripoints exist, such as those involving Afghanistan, India, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam, but many feature ongoing demarcations or disputes over precise locations, often tied to colonial-era lines or resource claims; these are addressed in dedicated sections on evolving borders. Empirical mapping via satellite imagery confirms these points' stability where treaties hold, though ground verification remains challenging in contested zones.

Europe

Europe hosts 48 international land tripoints, where the boundaries of three sovereign states converge, either on dry land or along rivers and lakes treated as internal waters for delimitation purposes.^[20] This number ranks third globally, behind Africa (61) and Asia (51), reflecting the continent's dense network of borders shaped by centuries of treaties, wars, and state dissolutions, including the partitions of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, the post-World War II order, and the 1990s breakups of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union.^[3] Many tripoints are marked by monuments, cairns, or border stones erected under bilateral or multilateral agreements, though some remain disputed or unmarked due to ongoing territorial claims, such as those involving Kosovo, which Serbia does not recognize as independent.^[20] Tripoints in Western Europe often trace to 19th-century settlements like the Congress of Vienna (1815) and subsequent adjustments, while Eastern European ones frequently stem from 20th-century pacts redefined after 1991. Austria possesses the most at nine, underscoring its central position amid landlocked neighbors.^[3] Delimitations prioritize natural features like river thalwegs or mountain summits, with coordinates verified through geodetic surveys.^[20] The following table enumerates all 48 tripoints, ordered by the site's alphanumeric codes, specifying the involved states and key establishment details or locations where available.^[20] Additional tripoints include those like Poland–Slovakia–Ukraine (established 1993 post-Czechoslovakia) and Romania–Serbia–Ukraine (Danube confluence per 19th-century treaties), completing the count to 48 as cataloged.^[20] Some, such as Croatia–Hungary–Slovenia, involve active arbitration over river shifts, highlighting ongoing delimitation challenges.^[20]

Oceania

Oceania lacks international land tripoints, as the region's geography precludes three sovereign states from meeting at a shared terrestrial boundary. The sole land border in Oceania exists between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, spanning approximately 820 kilometers (510 miles) along the island of New Guinea, with no adjacent third country.^[21][22] This border, established following the division of New Guinea after World War I and formalized in the 1979 treaty, terminates at coastal endpoints without convergence from another land border.^[23] Australia, the largest landmass in Oceania, shares no land borders with any other country, relying instead on maritime delimitations in the Arafura Sea, Timor Sea, and Coral Sea. Other Oceanian entities, including New Zealand and Pacific island nations such as Fiji, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu, are archipelagic or insular, further eliminating possibilities for land-based tripoints. While Indonesia maintains land borders with Papua New Guinea as part of its West Papua provinces, these do not extend to involve additional Oceanian states on land.^[21]

Maritime Tripoints

Definition and Delimitation

A maritime tripoint refers to the specific point at sea where the boundaries of the maritime zones—such as territorial seas, exclusive economic zones (EEZs), or continental shelves—of three coastal states intersect, resulting from the convergence and overlap of their respective jurisdictional claims.^[7] These points emerge geometrically from the extension of bilateral maritime boundaries or from multilateral delimitations, particularly in regions with adjacent or opposite coastlines where equidistant lines or negotiated divisions meet.^[7] Unlike land tripoints, maritime equivalents lack physical markers and are defined solely by coordinates agreed upon or adjudicated under international law, often extending from baselines measured seaward up to 200 nautical miles for EEZs or further for extended continental shelves. Delimitation of maritime tripoints is primarily regulated by Articles 74 and 83 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982), which mandate that states with adjacent or opposite coasts effect delimitations by agreement, guided by international law to achieve an "equitable solution" rather than strict equidistance unless adjusted for relevant circumstances like coastal configuration or resource distribution. In practice, tripoints are often derived from pairwise bilateral treaties, where each agreement specifies boundary lines that logically intersect at the tripoint, though this can lead to inconsistencies if not coordinated trilaterally, prompting renegotiation or provisional arrangements.^[7] Absent consensus, UNCLOS provides for compulsory dispute settlement under Section 2 of Part XV, including referral to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), or arbitration, where tribunals typically employ a three-stage methodology: drawing a provisional equidistance line, adjusting for equity, and verifying proportionality. For non-UNCLOS parties or areas beyond EEZs, such as the high seas or extended continental shelves, customary international law applies similar equitable principles, as affirmed in ICJ jurisprudence like the North Sea Continental Shelf case (1969), emphasizing negotiation over formulaic division to account for geological or economic factors. Tripoint delimitations remain provisional until finalized, with overlapping claims managed through joint development zones or moratoriums on exploitation to prevent conflict, as seen in unresolved cases involving hydrocarbon-rich areas.^[7] This process underscores the tension between unilateral claims—often based on straight baselines or historic rights—and the multilateral imperative for stability in resource allocation and navigation freedoms.

Regional Examples

In the North Sea, maritime boundaries delimited by bilateral agreements between the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Germany intersect at a tripoint designated as Point E8, approximately 53° 10' N, 3° 25' E, facilitating the division of continental shelf resources including natural gas fields. This configuration resulted from equidistance principles applied in 1960s-1970s delimitations, with the UK-Netherlands boundary agreed in 1965, UK-Germany in 1971, and Germany-Netherlands in 1964 and 1971, ensuring no overlap in exclusive economic zones.^[24] The Persian Gulf features multiple delimited maritime tripoints due to its enclosed nature and hydrocarbon-rich seabed. One such point marks the intersection of boundaries between Iran, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (Abu Dhabi emirate), positioned roughly equidistant from the respective mainlands at the northeastern terminus of the Qatar-UAE shelf boundary, established via 1969 and 1974 agreements. Another tripoint occurs between Bahrain, Iran, and Qatar, determined through Iran's 1969 agreement with Qatar, Bahrain's 1970 memorandum with Iran, and a 2001 International Court of Justice judgment on Bahrain-Qatar maritime features, locating the point via geodetic coordinates tied to boundary turning points. A pending tripoint involves Iran, Iraq, and Kuwait in the northern Gulf, where provisional lines from 1970s-1980s agreements converge but require final trilateral resolution amid historical tensions.^[25][26] In Southeast Asia, the Gulf of Thailand hosts overlapping claims leading to partial tripoint delimitations, such as the Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand continental shelf agreement of 1971, extended by subsequent pacts that approximate a tripoint in the northern gulf, though full exclusive economic zone overlaps with Cambodia and Vietnam remain unresolved through bilateral talks as of 2023. Further south in the Andaman Sea, a tripoint between India, Myanmar, and Thailand was established in a 2020s agreement delineating extended maritime zones, supporting resource exploration while addressing piracy and fishing disputes.^[27][28] The Mediterranean Sea exemplifies regions with evolving or disputed tripoints, particularly in the east where Greece-Turkey-Cyprus claims intersect without formal delimitation, relying on provisional equidistance lines under UNCLOS Article 74, complicated by island entitlements and hydrocarbon licensing since 2010s explorations. In the central Mediterranean, the Italy-Tunisia boundary, agreed in 1983 and modified in 1993, extends 531 nautical miles without defined tripoints at either end, leaving potential intersections with Malta and Libya unresolved amid continental shelf submissions to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.^[29][30]

Disputed and Evolving Tripoints

Disputed Cases

The tripoint among Sudan, South Sudan, and the Central African Republic is displaced due to the Kafia Kingi enclave, a 6,500 km² area administered by Sudan since 2002 despite its allocation to South Sudan under the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement that ended Sudan's civil war.^[31] This control by Sudan, justified by its prior incorporation into Darfur province, shifts the intended tripoint northward by roughly 80 km along the disputed border, rendering approximately 300 km of the Central African Republic's eastern boundary undefined between Sudanese and South Sudanese administration.^[32] The enclave's fertile pastures and resources exacerbate tensions, with no demarcation achieved despite technical boundary commission efforts post-2011 South Sudanese independence.^[33] Near the Gulf of Guinea, the Benin–Burkina Faso–Togo tripoint encompasses the Kourou/Koalou triangle, a 7.75 km² parcel claimed by both Benin and Burkina Faso since colonial-era ambiguities in French West Africa boundaries.^[34] Designated a neutral demilitarized zone in bilateral agreements, the area facilitates smuggling of arms and goods, heightening security risks amid jihadist incursions from the Sahel, though no violence has erupted directly over the tripoint itself as of 2023.^[35] In the Río de la Plata basin, the Argentina–Brazil–Uruguay tripoint hinges on sovereignty over Isla Brasilera, a 0.5 km² island in the Uruguay River contested between Brazil and Uruguay since 19th-century treaties failed to clarify its status at the confluence with the Cuareim River.^[36] Brazil administers the island, citing 1851 and 1893 accords, while Uruguay references 1961 surveys; this leaves the precise tripoint location unresolved, though Argentina's adjacent border remains uncontested, with minimal impact beyond occasional diplomatic notes.^[37] The India–China–Pakistan tripoint in the Karakoram range lacks demarcation due to intertwined disputes over Aksai Chin (38,000 km² controlled by China but claimed by India) and the Trans-Karakoram Tract, which Pakistan ceded to China via a 1963 treaty unrecognized by India.^[38] India's non-acceptance of the cession, rooted in pre-1947 British boundary ambiguities, prevents tripoint agreement, with China-Pakistan aligning their border at the Shaksgam Valley while India asserts the Johnson Line extending to the Kunlun watershed.^[39] Periodic standoffs, including 2020 clashes, underscore strategic stakes, as the area links China's Xinjiang to Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.

Historical and Recent Changes

The dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991, transformed numerous internal junctions between republics into international tripoints, as 15 successor states emerged with newly sovereign borders. This process created configurations such as the Estonia-Latvia-Russia tripoint at coordinates approximately 57°30′N 27°22′E, where previously administrative lines within a single state converged. Similar new tripoints formed across Central Asia, including Kazakhstan-Kyrgyzstan-Russia, reflecting the shift from domestic to interstate boundaries without physical relocation but with profound legal and geopolitical implications.^[7] The fragmentation of Yugoslavia between 1991 and 2008 similarly produced multiple tripoints among its successor entities, including Slovenia-Croatia-Bosnia and Herzegovina at roughly 45°49′N 15°39′E. These emerged amid wars and referendums, such as Slovenia's independence declaration on June 25, 1991, and Croatia's on the same date, which redefined borders inherited from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Border demarcations were often contested, leading to provisional tripoints pending bilateral agreements, as seen in ongoing disputes over Danube islands affecting potential Serbia-Croatia-Hungary alignments.^[7][40] South Sudan's secession from Sudan, formalized on July 9, 2011, following a 98.83% referendum vote in favor on January 9, 2011, generated new land tripoints by partitioning the former unified territory. This included the establishment of the South Sudan-Ethiopia-Kenya tripoint near 4°26′N 34°51′E, derived from pre-independence administrative lines but now international, while disputes like the Kafia Kingi enclave with Sudan complicate the Central African Republic-South Sudan-Sudan junction. Such changes often inherit colonial-era delineations from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, exacerbating resource conflicts without altering geographic coordinates.^[41][42] In disputed contexts, recent evolutions include Armenia-Azerbaijan border adjustments post-2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, where Azerbaijan's recapture of territories up to the 1991 Soviet lines potentially realigned the Armenia-Azerbaijan-Iran tripoint near the Araxes River, though no formal delimitation has occurred amid corridor negotiations like the proposed Zangezur route. Unifications, such as Germany's on October 3, 1990, effectively merged tripoints involving the former German Democratic Republic—e.g., converting the GDR-Poland-Czechoslovakia junction into a unified Germany-Poland-Czechoslovakia point—without dissolution but via state consolidation. These shifts underscore how secession typically proliferates tripoints, while unification consolidates them, often amid unresolved claims.^[7]