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March 6: The 182 Texas defenders of the Alamo are killed while defending against 2,000 Mexican Army attackers
1836 by topic
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1836 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar1836
MDCCCXXXVI
Ab urbe condita2589
Armenian calendar1285
ԹՎ ՌՄՁԵ
Assyrian calendar6586
Balinese saka calendar1757–1758
Bengali calendar1242–1243
Berber calendar2786
British Regnal year6 Will. 4 – 7 Will. 4
Buddhist calendar2380
Burmese calendar1198
Byzantine calendar7344–7345
Chinese calendar乙未年 (Wood Goat)
4533 or 4326
    — to —
丙申年 (Fire Monkey)
4534 or 4327
Coptic calendar1552–1553
Discordian calendar3002
Ethiopian calendar1828–1829
Hebrew calendar5596–5597
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat1892–1893
 - Shaka Samvat1757–1758
 - Kali Yuga4936–4937
Holocene calendar11836
Igbo calendar836–837
Iranian calendar1214–1215
Islamic calendar1251–1252
Japanese calendarTenpō 7
(天保７年)
Javanese calendar1763–1764
Julian calendarGregorian minus 12 days
Korean calendar4169
Minguo calendar76 before ROC
民前76年
Nanakshahi calendar368
Thai solar calendar2378–2379
Tibetan calendarཤིང་མོ་ལུག་ལོ་
(female Wood-Sheep)
1962 or 1581 or 809
    — to —
མེ་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་
(male Fire-Monkey)
1963 or 1582 or 810
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1836.
March 2: The Republic of Texas declares independence from Mexico.

1836 (MDCCCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1836th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 836th year of the 2nd millennium, the 36th year of the 19th century, and the 7th year of the 1830s decade. As of the start of 1836, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Clockwise from top left: Goliad massacre, Samuel Colt/ Colt revolver, Charles Darwin/ Theory of evolution, Arkansas, The Battle of San Jacinto, Texas Declaration of Independence from Mexico, The Battle of the Alamo.

Events

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January–March

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April–June

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April 21: Battle of San Jacinto

July–September

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October–December

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Date unknown

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Births

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January–June

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Ramakrishna
Isabella Beeton

July–December

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Joseph Chamberlain
Sarah Morgan Bryan Piatt
Benjamin Harris Babbidge
W.S. Gilbert

Deaths

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January–June

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Madame Mère, mother of Napoleon I
Davy Crockett
André-Marie Ampère
James Madison

July–December

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Charles X of France
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1836 serves as the start date for the grand strategy video games Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun, Victoria II, and Victoria 3 by Paradox Development Studio.[12][13]

References

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Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

1836

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
1836 marked the culmination of the Texas Revolution, an armed conflict between Mexican forces and Texian settlers that led to the establishment of the independent Republic of Texas following decisive military engagements.[1] The year began with escalating tensions, including the arrival of American frontiersman Davy Crockett in Texas to support the rebel cause, and saw the siege of the Alamo mission in San Antonio commence on February 23, where a small Texian garrison held out against a much larger Mexican army under General Antonio López de Santa Anna.[2] On March 2, Texian delegates at Washington-on-the-Brazos formally declared independence from Mexico, establishing the Republic of Texas amid ongoing hostilities.[3] The Alamo fell on March 6 after a 13-day siege, with nearly all 180-250 defenders, including Crockett, killed in the assault, galvanizing Texian resolve with the rallying cry "Remember the Alamo!"[4] This was followed by the Goliad Massacre on March 27, where over 400 Texian prisoners were executed by Mexican troops after surrendering, further fueling outrage.[1] The revolution's turning point came on April 21 at the Battle of San Jacinto, where Sam Houston's Texian army routed Santa Anna's forces in an 18-minute rout, capturing the Mexican leader and securing de facto independence.[2] Beyond Texas, Samuel Colt patented his revolving-cylinder firearm design in the United States, enabling rapid-fire repeating pistols and influencing future weaponry. Charles Darwin concluded his circumnavigatory voyage on HMS Beagle, returning to England in October with observations that would underpin his theory of evolution by natural selection.[5] Notable deaths included fourth U.S. President James Madison on June 28 and Texas independence advocate Stephen F. Austin on December 27, while Arkansas joined the United States as its 25th state on June 15.[6]

Events

January–March

On January 5, David "Davy" Crockett, the former U.S. congressman from Tennessee known for his frontier exploits, reached Nacogdoches in Mexican Texas with a group of volunteers to support the Texian rebellion against the centralist policies of President Antonio López de Santa Anna.[7] Crockett formally enlisted as a volunteer soldier on January 14, later joining defenders at the Alamo mission in San Antonio de Béxar.[8] January 12 saw two notable events amid broader imperial tensions. In Florida Territory, Seminole warriors ambushed a U.S. territorial militia battalion under Captains Parish and Haywood near Wetumpka during the early stages of the Second Seminole War, which stemmed from U.S. efforts to relocate Native American populations east of the Mississippi River.[9] On the same day, the survey brig HMS Beagle entered Sydney Harbour, Australia, carrying naturalist Charles Darwin, who began documenting local geology, flora, and fauna as part of his five-year circumnavigation focused on empirical observations of species variation and earth sciences.[10] The siege of the Alamo commenced on February 23 when Santa Anna's vanguard of approximately 1,500 Mexican troops arrived in Béxar and encircled the fortified mission held by around 150-200 Texian and Tejano defenders under joint command of William B. Travis and James Bowie, initiating a 13-day blockade that tested the garrison's resolve against superior numbers and artillery.[4] Mexican forces bombarded the compound intermittently, restricting supplies and reinforcements while Texian couriers appealed for aid from settlements like Gonzales. The Alamo fell on March 6 following a pre-dawn assault by 1,800 Mexican infantry, resulting in the deaths of all Texian combatants—including Crockett, Bowie, and Travis—in close-quarters fighting that highlighted tactical disparities but underscored Texian commitment to resisting centralized Mexican authority.[4] Mexican reports claimed 70 killed and 300 wounded, though contemporary accounts suggest higher losses from the assault's intensity.[11] Concurrent with the siege's final days, on March 2, 59 delegates convened at Washington-on-the-Brazos drafted and signed the Texas Declaration of Independence, enumerating grievances such as Mexico's 1834 suspension of the 1824 federal constitution, imposition of military rule, and erosion of local autonomies that had initially attracted Anglo-American settlers under empresario contracts.[12] The document framed separation as a defense of republican self-governance against Santa Anna's shift toward absolutism, establishing the groundwork for the Republic of Texas amid the unfolding revolution.[13]

April–June

On April 20, 1836, the United States Congress passed an act establishing the Wisconsin Territory, signed into law by President Andrew Jackson, which took effect on July 3 and encompassed areas now including Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and portions of the Dakotas up to the Missouri River, facilitating organized governance amid rapid frontier settlement.[14][15] The decisive Battle of San Jacinto occurred on April 21, 1836, when 910 Texian forces under General Sam Houston launched a surprise afternoon attack on Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna's encampment of around 1,200 troops along the San Jacinto River, east of modern Houston, resulting in an 18-minute rout with Texian casualties of nine killed and 30 wounded, contrasted against Mexican losses of 630 killed, over 200 wounded, and 730 captured, including Santa Anna himself.[16][17] This victory, following earlier defeats like the Alamo and Goliad, stemmed from Houston's strategic retreat and exploitation of Mexican overconfidence, directly enabling Texian control of the region and Santa Anna's subsequent negotiations. Captured Santa Anna signed the Treaties of Velasco on May 14, 1836, comprising a public agreement ceasing hostilities, evacuating Mexican troops south of the Rio Grande, and providing for prisoner exchanges, alongside a secret treaty in which he pledged to secure formal recognition of Texian independence and his own exile from Texas, though the Mexican government later repudiated both documents, arguing they were coerced under duress from his captivity, thus granting only de facto rather than lasting diplomatic sovereignty to the nascent Republic of Texas.[18][19][20] The Texas Revolution's motivations, empirically rooted in Mexico's 1835 shift to centralist governance under Santa Anna—which dissolved federalist state constitutions, imposed direct military rule, and escalated disputes over Anglo-American immigration, land titles, and local autonomy—drove Texian resistance, with slavery serving as a secondary economic stake for many settlers who had imported enslaved labor despite Mexico's 1829 abolition decree, often evading enforcement through legal pretexts until centralist policies threatened property rights more broadly.[1] Primary grievances documented in Texian declarations emphasized opposition to dictatorship and defense of self-governance over singular economic institutions, though the Republic's 1836 constitution explicitly protected slavery, underscoring its causal role in sustaining settler economies amid the conflict.[21] Historiographical interpretations diverge, with some progressive scholars attributing the revolution primarily to imperialistic drives for slavery expansion, framing Texian actions as filibustering to evade abolitionist pressures in the U.S. and Mexico, while conservative analyses prioritize the causal primacy of liberty against Santa Anna's authoritarian centralism, viewing slavery as incidental to broader fights for republican federalism; empirical evidence from contemporary Texian correspondence and decrees supports the latter's emphasis on governance failures as the proximate trigger, though institutional biases in academia may amplify slavery-centric narratives to align with modern ideological priors.[1][21][22]

July–September

In the Republic of Texas, following military victory over Mexican forces, interim president David G. Burnet issued a call on July 23, 1836, for elections to ratify the constitution drafted earlier in the year and to select permanent government officials.[23] Elections occurred on September 5–6, 1836, during which voters approved the constitution by a wide margin, elected Sam Houston as the first president, and Mirabeau B. Lamar as vice president.[23] This process formalized the structure of the independent republic, establishing a framework that preserved slavery, limited executive powers relative to the legislature, and prioritized defense against potential Mexican reconquest, reflecting the settlers' priorities for security and expansion amid ongoing border uncertainties. The Second Seminole War persisted with guerrilla actions by Seminole warriors aimed at thwarting U.S. removal policies under the Indian Removal Act of 1830. On July 23, 1836, approximately 30–40 Seminoles assaulted the Cape Florida Lighthouse on Key Biscayne, targeting the isolated structure as a symbol of American encroachment.[24] Assistant keeper John W. B. Thompson and his aide Aaron Carter barricaded themselves inside; the attackers fired muskets and set fire to the door, forcing Thompson to ignite gunpowder to repel them, which caused an explosion killing Carter and severely wounding Thompson's arm and hip.[25] The lighthouse sustained heavy damage and ceased operation until rebuilt in 1846, underscoring the Seminoles' effective use of terrain knowledge and hit-and-run tactics to inflict costs on U.S. infrastructure and personnel, thereby prolonging resistance against relocation to Indian Territory despite superior American numbers and resources.[26] In southern Africa, the Sixth Xhosa War (1834–1836) concluded amid British efforts to consolidate frontier control, with hostilities subsiding by mid-September 1836 after Xhosa forces under chiefs like Hintsa faced decisive defeats and captures.[27] British Governor Benjamin D'Urban's policies included temporary land returns to Xhosa groups in 1836 to stabilize relations, though this reflected pragmatic retrenchment rather than reversal of expansionist pressures, as colonial settlement continued to erode indigenous autonomy through cattle raids, cattle seizures, and territorial annexations driven by resource competition.[27] These events exemplified broader patterns of frontier conflicts where European powers leveraged military superiority to enforce treaties favoring settlers, yet recurring Xhosa resistance highlighted the causal role of land dispossession in sustaining intermittent warfare.[28]

October–December

On October 22, Sam Houston was inaugurated as the first president of the Republic of Texas in Houston, marking the formal establishment of the new government following independence from Mexico earlier in the year.[29] On December 10, the Congress of the Republic of Texas adopted the National Standard of Texas—a simple azure field carrying a single golden star—as the young nation’s first official banner, which flew until January 25, 1839.[30] On October 29, Voortrekkers under Hendrik Potgieter repelled an attack by approximately 5,000 Ndebele warriors at Vegkop, near the Vaal River, in a defensive battle that highlighted the risks of Boer migration into the South African interior amid conflicts with local groups and dissatisfaction with British Cape Colony policies.[31] In late October, U.S. Army Major General Thomas Sidney Jesup arrived in Florida to assume command against Seminole resistance, initiating a more aggressive "search and destroy" strategy in the ongoing Second Seminole War, which had displaced thousands but failed to achieve full surrender by year's end.[32] On November 10, Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was banished from France to the United States following a failed coup attempt against King Louis-Philippe.[33] The following day, November 11, Chile declared war on the Peru-Bolivia Confederation, escalating regional tensions over territorial claims and trade disputes in South America.[33] On December 4, the Whig Party convened its first national nominating convention in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, selecting candidates and formalizing opposition to Democratic policies amid economic concerns leading into the U.S. presidential election.[34] The Toledo War, a bloodless boundary dispute between Ohio and the Michigan Territory over the Toledo Strip, unofficially concluded on December 14 when Michigan's legislature accepted a federal compromise granting Ohio the disputed area in exchange for the Upper Peninsula, demonstrating congressional mediation in interstate conflicts without violence.[35][36] Mexican authorities continued to reject the Treaties of Velasco, signed in May under duress with captive General Santa Anna, refusing to recognize Texan sovereignty and signaling persistent diplomatic friction with the United States over border recognition.[37]

Undated events

During the Texas Revolution, Anglo-American settlers and their families undertook the Runaway Scrape, a widespread evacuation from central and eastern Texas amid fears of advancing Mexican forces under General Antonio López de Santa Anna following the fall of the Alamo and Goliad massacre.[38] This disorganized retreat involved thousands fleeing eastward toward the Sabine River and U.S. territory, often on foot or with overburdened oxen-drawn wagons through muddy terrain, leading to significant hardships including exposure, starvation, and disease that claimed numerous lives.[38] The exodus reflected the precarious logistics of civilian support for the revolutionary effort, as provisional government officials and volunteers prioritized military mobilization while families abandoned homes and livestock to evade reprisals.[39] In South Africa, the initial phases of the Great Trek saw groups of Dutch-descended Boers depart the Cape Colony in wagon trains, driven by grievances against British colonial policies including the 1834 abolition of slavery without adequate local compensation and ordinances granting equal legal rights to non-whites, which undermined Boer agrarian labor systems and cultural autonomy.[40] These migrations, numbering several thousand participants by mid-decade, aimed to establish independent republics in the interior, escaping centralized British administration and frontier conflicts with Xhosa groups exacerbated by colonial expansion.[40] The trek's causal roots lay in the Boers' rejection of imperial reforms favoring humanitarian interventions over settler self-determination, prompting a northward push that laid foundations for later Afrikaner polities.[40] On the U.S. frontier, sporadic incidents between settlers and Native American groups occurred amid ongoing removal pressures, though specific clashes lacked precise chronological records beyond broader 1836 tensions in regions like Arkansas and the Old Southwest.[41] Informal negotiations and minor skirmishes supplemented dated treaties, reflecting the incremental displacement dynamics under federal policies prioritizing white settlement expansion.[42]

Science and technology

Inventions and patents

On February 25, 1836, Samuel Colt received U.S. Patent No. 9430X for a revolving-cylinder firearm mechanism that enabled firing multiple shots from a single loading by rotating the cylinder via cocking the hammer.[43] This design addressed prior limitations in multi-shot weapons, providing reliable repeatability and marking the first commercially viable revolver, which enhanced individual firepower for frontier self-defense. In May 1836, Francis Pettit Smith secured a British patent for an improved screw propeller, featuring a single-threaded design with two complete twists, tested successfully on his 6-ton launch Francis Smith for efficient underwater propulsion superior to paddle wheels.[44] Shortly after, on July 13, 1836, John Ericsson obtained a British patent for his screw propeller variant, incorporating dual drums with helical blades on a shaft, further advancing steam vessel efficiency by optimizing thrust and reducing drag compared to contemporary oar or paddle systems.[45] These independent developments shifted maritime engineering toward screw propulsion, improving reliability and speed for naval and commercial applications. That same year, Irish physicist Nicholas Callan constructed the first practical induction coil at St. Patrick's College, Maynooth, using a horseshoe-shaped iron core wound with primary and secondary coils connected to a battery and interrupter, generating high-voltage pulses from low-voltage input via electromagnetic induction.[46] This device, foundational to transformers and later electrical technologies, demonstrated voltage multiplication without mechanical contact, influencing subsequent advancements in telegraphy and power distribution.

Scientific discoveries and advancements

In electrochemistry, British chemist John Frederic Daniell developed the Daniell cell, an electrochemical cell consisting of a copper electrode in copper sulfate solution and a zinc electrode in zinc sulfate solution, separated by a porous barrier to prevent mixing and polarization, thereby providing a constant electric current from the reaction between zinc and copper ions.[47][48] This advancement demonstrated the practical control of electrochemical potentials through electrolyte separation, yielding a stable electromotive force of approximately 1.1 volts and enabling reliable electrical experiments without the voltage decay common in earlier voltaic piles.[49] German physiologist Theodor Schwann isolated and identified the first known digestive enzyme from gastric juice, naming it pepsin for its role in protein hydrolysis via acidic conditions in the stomach.[50] This empirical observation advanced understanding of enzymatic catalysis in digestion, showing that living tissues produce specific chemical agents rather than relying solely on mechanical or vital forces, and laid groundwork for isolating other ferments.[50] British physicist Michael Faraday constructed the first Faraday cage, a conducting enclosure that shielded its interior from external electric fields, experimentally confirming that electrostatic induction occurs only on the outer surface of conductors.[51] This demonstration shifted conceptual models from fluid-like electricity to field-based interactions, providing causal evidence that electric forces permeate space but are excluded by conductive barriers, influencing subsequent theories of electromagnetism.[51]

Exploration and migration

Major voyages and expeditions

The second voyage of HMS Beagle, commanded by Captain Robert FitzRoy, continued its surveying mission in the southern hemisphere during early 1836, with naturalist Charles Darwin aboard collecting geological and biological specimens. The ship arrived in Sydney, Australia, on January 12, 1836, where Darwin documented local rock formations, marsupial fauna, and Aboriginal customs, contributing empirical data on coral reefs and continental uplift later detailed in his publications.[52] After departing Sydney on January 30, Beagle proceeded to Hobart, Tasmania, and then King George Sound in Western Australia by March, enabling further hydrographic surveys and observations of unique species distributions before sailing westward across the Indian Ocean.[53] In April 1836, Beagle anchored at the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, where Darwin studied atoll formation through direct examination of coral structures, providing evidence for subsidence theory based on observable layering and marine deposits. The vessel then transited to Mauritius in July and the Cape of Good Hope in late July, conducting chronometric measurements for longitude accuracy before the final Atlantic crossing via St. Helena, Ascension Island, and the Azores.[54] HMS Beagle completed its circumnavigation and returned to Falmouth, England, on October 2, 1836, after nearly five years at sea, yielding extensive nautical charts of South American coasts and Pacific islands alongside thousands of preserved specimens that advanced understandings of biogeography and stratigraphy.[53] Concurrently, the Royal Navy's HMS Terror, under Captain George Back, embarked on an Arctic expedition departing England in June 1836 to chart unnavigated sections of the North American coast and locate the mouth of the Great Fish River (later Back River). Beset by heavy ice in Frozen Strait by August, the vessel endured severe structural damage from compression, forcing an early return to the British Isles in 1837 without achieving primary objectives, though it gathered valuable ice navigation data informing future polar efforts.[55]

Settlements and migrations

In 1836, the Great Trek accelerated as Dutch-speaking Boer settlers, known as Voortrekkers, undertook mass overland migrations from the British-controlled Cape Colony into the South African interior, driven by grievances over centralized governance, inadequate compensation for emancipated slaves following the 1834 abolition, and restrictions on frontier expansion.[40] Initial parties, numbering in the thousands, departed in wagon trains during the year, establishing temporary encampments along routes like the Orange River, while facing hardships from arid terrain, disease, and conflicts with indigenous groups such as the Ndebele, who attacked trekker camps at the Vaal River on August 21.[56] [57] These migrations exemplified self-reliant pursuit of autonomy, with Voortrekkers forming independent republics beyond British jurisdiction, though early efforts encountered high mortality from environmental stressors and skirmishes.[58] In the United States, the organization of the Wisconsin Territory on July 4, 1836, formalized administrative boundaries encompassing modern Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and parts of the Dakotas, catalyzing influxes of settlers drawn by lead mining in the southwest, fertile prairies for farming, and timber resources in the north.[59] [60] By autumn, pioneers had claimed prime groves in counties like Dane and Rock, with populations swelling from prior Michigan Territory oversight; settlements such as Green Bay and Prairie du Chien, established earlier, expanded as entry points for overland migrants from eastern states seeking economic opportunities amid Indian land cessions.[61] This territorial creation reflected broader westward expansion pressures, including displacement of Native American tribes via treaties like the 1836 Menominee agreement opening lands to lumbering.[62] Concurrent frontier developments included Arkansas's transition to statehood on June 15, 1836, which encouraged agricultural settlements in its Ozark and delta regions by white farmers displacing Cherokee and other tribes through removal policies, though major forced relocations like the Trail of Tears occurred subsequently.[63] These movements underscored causal patterns of resource-driven migration, where governance shifts and land availability propelled thousands into uncharted territories, often prioritizing settler claims over indigenous tenure despite resulting frictions.[64]

Births

January–June

On March 6, 1836, American frontiersman and former U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett died during the Mexican Army's assault on the Alamo Mission in San Antonio, Texas, amid the Texas Revolution.[65] [66] Crockett, aged 49, had arrived at the Alamo in February to aid Texian defenders against General Antonio López de Santa Anna's forces; historical accounts vary on his final moments, with some eyewitness reports suggesting he fought until overwhelmed, while others claim execution after surrender, though the prevailing evidence supports death in combat.[67] [68] Also killed that day were James Bowie, co-commander of the Alamo garrison and inventor of the Bowie knife, who succumbed to illness or wounds during the siege, and William B. Travis, the fort's commanding officer, who issued the famed "Victory or Death" letter urging reinforcements.[69] Approximately 180-250 Texian defenders perished in the battle, their deaths galvanizing Texian resolve and contributing to the revolution's eventual success at San Jacinto.[70] On June 10, 1836, French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère, founder of the science of electromagnetism and namesake of the ampere unit, died in Marseille at age 61 from complications of illness.[6] James Madison, the fourth President of the United States and principal architect of the U.S. Constitution, died on June 28, 1836, at his Montpelier estate in Virginia, aged 85, marking the passing of the last surviving Founding Father.[71] [72] Madison's contributions to federalism and the Bill of Rights shaped American governance enduringly.[73]

July–December

Aaron Burr died on September 14 in Port Richmond, Staten Island, New York, at age 80 from complications related to old age.[74] As the third Vice President under Thomas Jefferson (1801–1805), Burr's career was marked by his fatal duel with Alexander Hamilton on July 11, 1804, which ended Hamilton's life the following day and derailed Burr's political ambitions.[74] He faced federal treason charges in 1807 over alleged plots to create an independent nation in western territories or invade Mexico, but was acquitted due to lack of evidence of overt acts against the United States.[75] Burr's later years involved legal practice in New York after European exile from 1808 to 1812, reflecting a diminished influence following scandals that contemporaries viewed as evidence of unchecked ambition rather than principled statesmanship.[75] Charles X, the last Bourbon king of France, died on November 6 in Görz, Austrian Empire (now Gorizia, Italy), at age 79, likely from cholera during an outbreak.[76] Ascending the throne in 1824 after the death of his brother Louis XVIII, Charles pursued ultra-royalist policies, including indemnifying nobles for revolutionary losses and restricting press freedoms, which alienated liberal factions and culminated in the July Revolution of 1830.[76] Abdicating on August 2, 1830, in favor of his grandson Henri, he fled to exile in Scotland and later Austria, where his failed attempts to rally legitimist support underscored the irreversible shift toward constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe.[76] His reign's emphasis on divine-right absolutism, rooted in pre-revolutionary traditions, clashed with post-Napoleonic demands for representative government, contributing to the Bourbon dynasty's permanent ouster from power.[76] Stephen F. Austin succumbed to pneumonia on December 27 in Columbia, Texas (now part of West Columbia), at age 43, shortly after appointment as the Republic of Texas's first Secretary of State.[77] Known as the "Father of Texas," Austin secured Mexican colonization contracts (empresario grants) starting in 1821 to settle Anglo-American families in Texas, bringing over 300 families by 1825 and fostering economic growth through cotton and cattle despite cultural frictions with Mexican authorities.[77] Initially advocating loyalty to Mexico and opposing independence to preserve land titles, Austin shifted support to the Texas Revolution by late 1835 amid centralist policies under Santa Anna, aiding in volunteer recruitment and diplomacy that enabled the republic's formation after victories at San Jacinto.[77] His death deprived the fledgling republic of a moderating influence, as contemporaries like Sam Houston credited him with laying the demographic and infrastructural foundations for Texas's viability against Mexican reconquest threats.[77]

Deaths

January–June

On March 6, 1836, American frontiersman and former U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett died during the Mexican Army's assault on the Alamo Mission in San Antonio, Texas, amid the Texas Revolution.[65] [66] Crockett, aged 49, had arrived at the Alamo in February to aid Texian defenders against General Antonio López de Santa Anna's forces; historical accounts vary on his final moments, with some eyewitness reports suggesting he fought until overwhelmed, while others claim execution after surrender, though the prevailing evidence supports death in combat.[67] [68] Also killed that day were James Bowie, co-commander of the Alamo garrison and inventor of the Bowie knife, who succumbed to illness or wounds during the siege, and William B. Travis, the fort's commanding officer, who issued the famed "Victory or Death" letter urging reinforcements.[69] Approximately 180-250 Texian defenders perished in the battle, their deaths galvanizing Texian resolve and contributing to the revolution's eventual success at San Jacinto.[70] On June 10, 1836, French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère, founder of the science of electromagnetism and namesake of the ampere unit, died in Marseille at age 61 from complications of illness.[6] James Madison, the fourth President of the United States and principal architect of the U.S. Constitution, died on June 28, 1836, at his Montpelier estate in Virginia, aged 85, marking the passing of the last surviving Founding Father.[71] [72] Madison's contributions to federalism and the Bill of Rights shaped American governance enduringly.[73]

July–December

Aaron Burr died on September 14 in Port Richmond, Staten Island, New York, at age 80 from complications related to old age.[74] As the third Vice President under Thomas Jefferson (1801–1805), Burr's career was marked by his fatal duel with Alexander Hamilton on July 11, 1804, which ended Hamilton's life the following day and derailed Burr's political ambitions.[74] He faced federal treason charges in 1807 over alleged plots to create an independent nation in western territories or invade Mexico, but was acquitted due to lack of evidence of overt acts against the United States.[75] Burr's later years involved legal practice in New York after European exile from 1808 to 1812, reflecting a diminished influence following scandals that contemporaries viewed as evidence of unchecked ambition rather than principled statesmanship.[75] Charles X, the last Bourbon king of France, died on November 6 in Görz, Austrian Empire (now Gorizia, Italy), at age 79, likely from cholera during an outbreak.[76] Ascending the throne in 1824 after the death of his brother Louis XVIII, Charles pursued ultra-royalist policies, including indemnifying nobles for revolutionary losses and restricting press freedoms, which alienated liberal factions and culminated in the July Revolution of 1830.[76] Abdicating on August 2, 1830, in favor of his grandson Henri, he fled to exile in Scotland and later Austria, where his failed attempts to rally legitimist support underscored the irreversible shift toward constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe.[76] His reign's emphasis on divine-right absolutism, rooted in pre-revolutionary traditions, clashed with post-Napoleonic demands for representative government, contributing to the Bourbon dynasty's permanent ouster from power.[76] Stephen F. Austin succumbed to pneumonia on December 27 in Columbia, Texas (now part of West Columbia), at age 43, shortly after appointment as the Republic of Texas's first Secretary of State.[77] Known as the "Father of Texas," Austin secured Mexican colonization contracts (empresario grants) starting in 1821 to settle Anglo-American families in Texas, bringing over 300 families by 1825 and fostering economic growth through cotton and cattle despite cultural frictions with Mexican authorities.[77] Initially advocating loyalty to Mexico and opposing independence to preserve land titles, Austin shifted support to the Texas Revolution by late 1835 amid centralist policies under Santa Anna, aiding in volunteer recruitment and diplomacy that enabled the republic's formation after victories at San Jacinto.[77] His death deprived the fledgling republic of a moderating influence, as contemporaries like Sam Houston credited him with laying the demographic and infrastructural foundations for Texas's viability against Mexican reconquest threats.[77]
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References

  1. Texas Revolution - Texas State Historical Association
  2. 1836 Archives - History.com
  3. The History | The Battle of San Jacinto
  4. Battle and Revolution | The Alamo
  5. Historical Events in 1836 - On This Day
  6. Famous People Who Died in 1836 - On This Day
  7. https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2255&context=ethj
  8. A Crockett Signs Up to Serve Texas… Again.
  9. [PDF] Territorial Militia in the Opening of the Second Seminole War - DTIC
  10. [PDF] Excerpts from Charles Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle - PBS
  11. http://www.thealamo.org/remember/battle-and-revolution/early-reports
  12. Texas Declaration of Independence, March 2, 1836
  13. Texas Declaration of Independence, 1836
  14. [PDF] 10 TWENTY-FOURTH CONGRESS. Sess . I. Ch . 53,54. 1836.
  15. Wisconsin's First Election | Wisconsin Historical Society
  16. The Texas Revolution - Digital History
  17. The Battle of San Jacinto | Texas State Library
  18. Treaties of Velasco - Texas State Historical Association
  19. The Public Treaty of Velasco | Texas State Library
  20. The Treaties of Velasco | Texas State Library
  21. Was Slavery the Cause of the Texas Revolution? - Y'allogy
  22. Slavery & the Texas Revolution
  23. Independence and Annexation | The Alamo
  24. Cape Florida Lighthouse - Coast Guard Historian's Office
  25. The 1836 Attack on the Cape Florida Lighthouse
  26. Cape Florida Light - Florida State Parks
  27. Cape-Xhosa Wars | Research Starters - EBSCO
  28. Eastern Cape Wars of Dispossession 1779-1878
  29. Today in History: October 22, 1836 | CW39 Houston
  30. 8. The Great Trek-1: 1836-1837 – The Trans-Orange - AmaBhulu
  31. Timeline of the Florida Seminoles.
  32. Historical Events in November 1836 - On This Day
  33. What Happened in December 1836 - On This Day
  34. Today in 1836 Michigan Gains the UP and Loses Toledo - Facebook
  35. Ohio and Michigan almost went to war over Toledo in 1800s border ...
  36. Transcription of Treaty of Velasco - Papers Of Abraham Lincoln
  37. Runaway Scrape - Texas State Historical Association
  38. Firsthand account of the Runaway Scrape
  39. Great Trek 1835-1846 - South African History Online
  40. American Indian Treaties: Catalog Links - National Archives
  41. Indian Treaties and the Removal Act of 1830 - Office of the Historian
  42. USX9430I1 - Improvement in fire-arms - Google Patents
  43. The Early History Of The Screw Propeller - U.S. Naval Institute
  44. nted his screw propeller - Nature
  45. [PDF] Nicholas Joseph Callan - Maynooth University
  46. Daniell Cell - Engineering and Technology History Wiki
  47. John Frederic Daniell - Linda Hall Library
  48. Re-building Daniell Cell with a Li-ion exchange Film - Nature
  49. Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) - PMC - NIH
  50. The birth of the electric machines: a commentary on Faraday (1832 ...
  51. Year 1836: Captain Cook and Charles Darwin arrived in Sydney
  52. The Voyages - HMS Beagle
  53. Second Voyage - HMS Beagle
  54. History of HMS Terror & Erebus - Royal Museums Greenwich
  55. The Afrikaner Great Trek, 1836—1854 - War History
  56. Attacks at the Vaal River and Liebenbergskoppie, 21 and 23 August ...
  57. THE GREAT TREK 1836 - 1843 (W4, Va) - Timewise Traveller
  58. The Creation of Wisconsin Territory | Wisconsin Historical Society
  59. Congress creates Wisconsin territory, April 20, 1836 - POLITICO
  60. Wisconsin (oldest cities and towns) | Wisconsin Historical Society
  61. The Movement of American Settlers into Wisconsin and Minnesota
  62. [PDF] Wisconsin History Prior to Statehood (pages 495-501)
  63. [PDF] Key dates and events The Early Settlement of the West 1835 - 1862
  64. How Davy Crockett, the Rugged Frontiersman Killed at the Alamo ...
  65. Davy Crockett - Quotes, Movie & Death - Biography
  66. Did Davy Crockett Go Down Swinging? - MeatEater
  67. Davy Crockett's Death at the Alamo Is Now a Case Closed—Or Is It?
  68. Five Men Who Died At the Alamo | War History Online
  69. Early Reports | The Alamo
  70. Former President James Madison dies | June 28, 1836 - History.com
  71. James Madison | Miller Center
  72. James Madison (1751–1836) - Encyclopedia Virginia
  73. Aaron Burr | Biography, Alexander Hamilton, Duel, & Facts | Britannica
  74. Aaron Burr | Thomas Jefferson's Monticello
  75. Charles X | Biography, Reign, Abdication, & Facts - Britannica
  76. Stephen F. Austin dies - Texas State Historical Association
  77. Flags of Texas - Texas State Historical Association
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