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June 3: China's Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu begins month-long program of destroying opium seized from British traders, triggering the First Opium War
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1839 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar1839
MDCCCXXXIX
Ab urbe condita2592
Armenian calendar1288
ԹՎ ՌՄՁԸ
Assyrian calendar6589
Balinese saka calendar1760–1761
Bengali calendar1245–1246
Berber calendar2789
British Regnal year2 Vict. 1 – 3 Vict. 1
Buddhist calendar2383
Burmese calendar1201
Byzantine calendar7347–7348
Chinese calendar戊戌年 (Earth Dog)
4536 or 4329
    — to —
己亥年 (Earth Pig)
4537 or 4330
Coptic calendar1555–1556
Discordian calendar3005
Ethiopian calendar1831–1832
Hebrew calendar5599–5600
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat1895–1896
 - Shaka Samvat1760–1761
 - Kali Yuga4939–4940
Holocene calendar11839
Igbo calendar839–840
Iranian calendar1217–1218
Islamic calendar1254–1255
Japanese calendarTenpō 10
(天保１０年)
Javanese calendar1766–1767
Julian calendarGregorian minus 12 days
Korean calendar4172
Minguo calendar73 before ROC
民前73年
Nanakshahi calendar371
Thai solar calendar2381–2382
Tibetan calendarས་ཕོ་ཁྱི་ལོ་
(male Earth-Dog)
1965 or 1584 or 812
    — to —
ས་མོ་ཕག་ལོ་
(female Earth-Boar)
1966 or 1585 or 813
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1839.

1839 (MDCCCXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1839th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 839th year of the 2nd millennium, the 39th year of the 19th century, and the 10th and last year of the 1830s decade. As of the start of 1839, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Events

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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Lithograph depicting the July 23 storming of the fortress during the Battle of Ghazni.

October–December

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Date unknown

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Births

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January–June

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Paul Cézanne [dubious – discuss]
Marianne Hainisch
Josiah Willard Gibbs
Frederic W. Tilton

July–December

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John D. Rockefeller
Alfred Sisley

Date unknown

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Deaths

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January–June

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William Farquhar

July–December

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Friedrich Mohs

Date unknown

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References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

1839

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

1839 marked the commencement of the First Opium War between Britain and the Qing Empire of China, triggered by Chinese commissioner Lin Zexu's supervised destruction of over 20,000 chests of British-owned opium in Canton to combat widespread addiction and the resulting drain of silver reserves from China due to unbalanced trade favoring opium imports. This act, intended to enforce China's ban on the narcotic, escalated tensions as Britain viewed it as an infringement on property rights and trade freedoms, leading to naval confrontations starting in September. In parallel, Britain invaded Afghanistan in the First Anglo-Afghan War to counter Russian influence and install the pro-British Shah Shuja, securing key victories including the storming of Ghazni fortress on July 23 after breaching its defenses via an overlooked gate.

The year also featured the Amistad mutiny in July, where enslaved Africans seized the Spanish schooner La Amistad off Cuba, sparking a legal battle over slavery and international jurisdiction that reached the U.S. Supreme Court. Technological progress included the announcement of Louis Daguerre's photographic process in Paris, revolutionizing image capture, while Charles Goodyear conducted experiments leading to vulcanized rubber. Notable births encompassed future titans like John D. Rockefeller, who would dominate the oil industry, and Josiah Willard Gibbs, pioneer in thermodynamics. The death of Sikh Maharaja Ranjit Singh in June destabilized Punjab, foreshadowing British expansion there. These events underscored 1839's role in shaping imperial rivalries, technological innovation, and the abolitionist struggle.

Events

January–March

On January 2, French inventor produced the first known photograph of the via , capturing its image from . A ferocious gale-force storm battered and coastal starting on the afternoon of January 6, escalating into hurricane-strength winds overnight and earning the moniker ""; it demolished approximately 25% of Dublin's houses, uprooted trees across vast areas, and inflicted damages estimated in the millions of pounds while claiming 90 to 300 lives. In early February, the U.S. Congress enacted legislation on February 20 banning dueling within the District of Columbia, reflecting ongoing efforts to curb violent customs among officials. Tensions in the undeclared —a border conflict between American settlers in and British forces in —intensified around February 12 with reports of armed standoffs over lumbering rights in disputed territory, though no major combat ensued. On March 9, Prussian authorities imposed a maximum 51-hour workweek for child laborers in factories, an early regulatory measure amid industrialization. Qing imperial commissioner reached Canton on March 10 to supervise suppression of importation and distribution at the port. The abbreviation "," initially a satirical rendering of "oll korrect," appeared in print for the first time on March 23 in the Morning Post.

April–June

In April 1839, Imperial Commissioner , appointed by the to eradicate the trade, escalated enforcement measures in , including the arrest of thousands of users and the destruction of tens of thousands of pipes as initial steps toward confiscating foreign-held stocks. On June 3, 1839, initiated the systematic destruction of surrendered British at near , involving over 20,000 chests—equivalent to approximately 1,021 metric tons or 2.6 million pounds—dissolved in lime trenches and washed into the over 23 days to prevent reuse. In the United States, passed the Married Women's Property Act in 1839, enabling married women to acquire and hold real and acquired through bequest, gift, or purchase in their own names, separate from their husbands' control, though this did not extend to control over earnings or full contractual independence. On June 24, 1839, Egyptian forces under Ibrahim Pasha achieved a decisive victory over Ottoman troops commanded by Hafiz Mehmed Pasha at the in southeastern , inflicting heavy casualties on the Ottomans and briefly consolidating Egyptian influence in and adjacent territories amid the Egyptian–Ottoman War.

July–September

On the night of July 1–2, 1839, fifty-three enslaved Africans aboard the Spanish schooner revolted against their captors while en route from to , seizing control of the vessel off the coast of . Led by (also known as ), the rebels killed the captain and cook, forcing the surviving crew to navigate northward, which inadvertently directed the ship toward the . In the , British and forces under General William Nott captured the fortified city of on July 23, 1839, after a brief . Approximately 21,000 troops assaulted the city's defenses, breaching the Kabul Gate with explosives and overwhelming Afghan defenders led by , resulting in around 500 Afghan deaths and 1,600 captures compared to 200 British casualties. This victory highlighted British tactical advantages in artillery and infantry assaults against elevated fortifications, securing a key supply route toward . The inaugural Canadian track and field meet occurred on September 11, 1839, at Caer Howell Grounds, marking an early instance of organized athletic competitions in with events such as running and jumping. On September 20, 1839, the first railway line in the opened between and , spanning about 19 kilometers and operated by the Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg-Maatschappij using steam locomotives like De Arend. This development extended continental Europe's rail network into the , facilitating passenger and goods transport and reflecting broader industrial advancements in .

October–December

In October 1839, British naval elements under Superintendent maintained vigilant positions along the approaches to Canton, assembling merchant vessels and warships in anticipation of enforcing compliance with demands for reparations following the destruction of stocks and the imposition of trade restrictions by Qing authorities. The economic contraction stemming from the intensified in 1839, marked by a domestic crisis, reduced bank capital, and sustained unemployment that hampered recovery efforts across the . On November 4, around 4,000 Chartist demonstrators, led by John Frost, marched on Newport in , , to demand the release of imprisoned reformers; troops fired on the crowd at the Westgate Hotel, killing 22 and wounding around 50, after which Frost and other leaders were convicted of treason and transported to Australia. On November 11, the opened in , as the nation's first state-supported military college, intended to provide officer training and discipline to cadets amid concerns. On November 27, statisticians and scholars founded the in , aiming to foster rigorous data collection and analysis for informing public policy and economic understanding. On December 2, President submitted his third annual message to , attributing persistent financial distress to speculative excesses and foreign specie drains while advocating an to insulate federal funds from unstable banks. By year's end, the Treaty of London, signed in April, had solidified European recognition of Belgium's perpetual neutrality and independence, with signatory powers committing to its defense against violation.

Date unknown

Thomas Plunket (c. 1785–1839), an Irish rifleman in the British 95th Regiment who gained renown for killing a French officer at over 600 yards during the Battle of Cacabelos in 1809, died suddenly while walking in , , . Pierre le Pelley III (1777–1839), from 1820 until his death, drowned in a en route from to . Jabez Young Jackson (1793–1839), a U.S. Representative from Georgia who served from 1835 to 1839, died in Clarkesville, ./)

Key Conflicts and Controversies

First Opium War

The originated from longstanding imbalances in Sino-British under the Qing dynasty's restrictive , which confined foreign commerce to the port of Canton () and granted a monopoly to the guild of merchants, limiting access to Chinese markets and enforcing isolationist policies that prioritized imperial self-sufficiency. Britain faced a persistent deficit, exporting woolens and other goods that held little appeal in while importing vast quantities of , , and , necessitating outflows of silver bullion to balance payments. To reverse this silver drain, the British cultivated in and facilitated its export to , where demand surged despite Qing bans, effectively redirecting silver flows back to British coffers and underscoring the commercial imperatives driving the as a pragmatic response to rather than mere predation. In early 1839, Qing Emperor Daoguang appointed Lin Zexu as imperial commissioner to Canton with orders to eradicate the opium trade, reflecting frustration with the system's failure to stem addiction and silver outflows, though prior edicts had proven ineffective against entrenched smuggling networks. Lin arrived in March and blockaded foreign factories, compelling British Superintendent of Trade Charles Elliot to surrender approximately 20,283 chests of opium—equivalent to over 1,200 tons—held by British and other merchants; this stock was publicly destroyed between June 3 and 25 by dissolution in lime and saltwater at Humen, an act British traders viewed as the coerced confiscation of private property without legal recourse or compensation, violating de facto understandings of extraterritorial privileges in the Canton trade. From the British perspective, Lin's intervention exemplified Qing coercion and rejection of reciprocal principles, prioritizing monopolistic control and moral prohibitions over mutual economic benefit, which clashed with emerging doctrines and property rights central to British . Foreign Secretary Palmerston responded in late 1839 by instructing to demand redress, including compensation for the destroyed valued at around £2 million, the lifting of restrictions, and an end to Qing interference with British subjects, framing the conflict as a defense against arbitrary rather than endorsement of per se. These demands highlighted the empirical collapse of Qing suppression efforts, as inflows persisted despite destruction, revealing the 's resilience driven by consumer demand and supply incentives over edicts alone.

Amistad Affair

The Spanish schooner La Amistad departed Havana, Cuba, on June 28, 1839, carrying 53 Mende Africans purchased by traders José Ruiz and Pedro Montes for transport to a sugar plantation at Puerto Príncipe, despite the transatlantic slave trade's prohibition under Spanish edicts since 1817 and U.S. law since 1808. On July 2, 1839, the captives, led by Sengbe Pieh, revolted amid brutal conditions, killing Captain Ramón Ferrer and the cook with knives and machetes while sparing Ruiz and Montes to steer the vessel eastward toward Africa; the Africans, however, were deceived by the surviving crew into sailing northward along the U.S. East Coast. This illegal voyage violated bilateral treaties, including the 1817 Anglo-Spanish agreement and U.S.-British pacts, though empirical records indicate the clandestine trade persisted, with an estimated 4,000-5,000 Africans smuggled into Cuba annually during the 1830s despite nominal bans. The Amistad was sighted in distress off Culloden Point, , New York, on August 26, 1839, and seized the following day by Lieutenant Richard W. of the U.S. Washington, who towed it to , on August 29, claiming salvage rights for his crew. U.S. authorities detained the Africans on charges of and , prompting Spanish diplomatic demands for their as property under the 1795 Pinckney , which obligated the U.S. to restore vessels seized by pirates regardless of cargo status. Ruiz and Montes filed claims asserting ownership of the captives as legally purchased slaves, aligning with pro-slavery legalism that treated internal Cuban commerce as exempt from restrictions, even as evidence of the Africans' recent African origins undermined such assertions. Initial district court hearings commenced on August 29, 1839, before Judge Andrew T. Judson in New London, addressing salvage petitions, Spanish property claims, and criminal complaints of and filed by the traders. Prosecutors argued the revolt constituted on the high seas under U.S. jurisdiction per the 1819 anti- act, emphasizing treaty enforcement to prevent challenges to maritime property rights amid ongoing illegal trade flows that evaded abolitionist edicts. Defense counsel, including early abolitionist involvement, countered that the Africans acted in against unlawful captivity, invoking precedents like the 1822 Columbian Insurance Co. v. ruling on illegal enslavement's invalidity and asserting U.S. courts' authority only post-seizure in , without endorsing broader anti-slavery narratives. These proceedings highlighted tensions between strict al interpretations favoring Spanish recovery and evidentiary scrutiny of the trade's violations, with no resolution in 1839 as claims advanced to further review.

Other Military Engagements

On June 24, 1839, Egyptian forces under Ibrahim Pasha decisively defeated the Ottoman army led by Hafiz Pasha at the Battle of Nezib near present-day Nizip, Turkey. The Egyptian army, numbering around 80,000 including infantry, cavalry, and artillery, overwhelmed the Ottoman force of approximately 60,000, resulting in the near-total destruction of the Ottoman army with heavy casualties and mass desertions. This tactical victory highlighted the Ottoman Empire's military vulnerabilities, stemming from outdated tactics and poor leadership, and precipitated a crisis that contributed to Sultan Mahmud II's death shortly thereafter, exposing the empire's fragility against modernized provincial forces like those of Muhammad Ali. In the First Anglo-Afghan War, British-Indian forces under General Sir John Keane captured the fortified city of Ghazni on July 23, 1839, after a brief siege. Lacking heavy siege artillery, the attackers employed sappers to mine and explode the Kabul Gate with gunpowder bags, allowing storming columns to breach the defenses in a surprise assault at dawn. British casualties totaled 17 killed and 165 wounded, while the Afghan garrison of about 3,500 suffered around 500 killed and 1,600 captured, demonstrating the superiority of British engineering ingenuity and disciplined infantry over the fortress's high walls and limited artillery. The capture secured vital supplies and opened the route to Kabul, underscoring the logistical and technological advantages that enabled the expedition's initial successes despite the harsh terrain.

Scientific and Technological Advances

Major Innovations

The process, developed by , was publicly announced on January 7, 1839, to the by , marking the first practical photographic method. The technique involved sensitizing a silver-plated sheet with iodine vapor to form , exposing it in a for several minutes, and developing the using heated mercury vapor to produce a highly detailed positive image on a mirror-like surface. himself captured the earliest known of the on January 2, 1839, demonstrating the process's capability for astronomical imaging despite exposure challenges. This innovation enabled fixed visual records without or , fundamentally advancing empirical documentation in science and art by capturing light directly onto metal plates. In 1839, discovered through an accidental experiment when a mixture of rubber and spilled onto a hot stove, revealing that heating with at approximately 270–300°F (132–149°C) cross-linked its polymer chains, yielding a material with enhanced elasticity, durability, and resistance to temperature extremes. Prior rubber suffered from melting in heat and cracking in cold, limiting applications, but vulcanized rubber maintained structural integrity across a wider range, enabling practical uses in seals, hoses, and eventually tires. Though patented the process in after refinement, the 1839 breakthrough addressed core material instabilities through empirical trial, laying groundwork for industrialized rubber production. Railway infrastructure expanded significantly in 1839, with over 530 miles of track added in Britain alone, facilitating faster freight and passenger transport that catalyzed by reducing shipping times and costs. The – in the opened on October 20, becoming the country's first steam-powered line at 5.5 miles (8.9 km), using imported British locomotives to connect urban centers and promote regional trade. In , the Albion Mines Railway in commenced operations, spanning 4 miles (6.4 km) to haul with , marking an early colonial adaptation of rail for resource extraction efficiency. These developments empirically demonstrated rail's superiority over canals and roads, with speeds up to 20–30 mph (32–48 km/h) enabling bulk goods movement that spurred industrialization. Other notable advances included Otis's , patented in 1839, which mechanized excavation using a steam-powered boom and bucket to lift earth volumes far exceeding manual labor, revolutionizing and by increasing productivity tenfold in large-scale digs. Thaddeus Fairbanks introduced platform scales in 1839, employing lever systems to weigh heavy loads accurately up to thousands of pounds on a single stable platform, improving commerce precision over unbalanced beam methods. These inventions prioritized verifiable over prior artisanal limits, underpinning infrastructural progress.

Births

January–June

Sybil Ludington, an figure known for her midnight ride in 1777 to warn militiamen of British advances, died on February 26, 1839, at age 77 in Unadilla, New York. Zerah Colburn, a -born mathematical prodigy who demonstrated extraordinary calculation abilities from age five—including multiplying large numbers mentally and identifying prime factors—died on March 2, 1839, at age 34 in Cabot, , from . , Russian hussar, poet, and partisan leader during the , renowned for guerrilla tactics against French forces in 1812, died on April 22, 1839, at age 54 from a stroke. , British-born Australian settler who led the Port Phillip Association's expedition and negotiated a treaty with elders for land that became , died on June 6, 1839, at age 38 from . , of the who unified and expanded through campaigns while maintaining alliances with British , died on , 1839, at age 58 in from paralysis following prolonged illness exacerbated by alcohol and opium use.

July–December

On July 10, Spanish classical guitarist and composer died in at age 61 from complications of tongue cancer. His passing deprived the Romantic era of a key figure in guitar technique development, though his influence persisted through published studies. On July 15, English politician and poet Winthrop Mackworth Praed succumbed to tuberculosis in London at age 37. As a Whig MP and contributor to literary magazines, his early death halted potential advancements in his satirical verse and administrative reforms. During the Amistad slave ship mutiny on July 2 off Cuba, Spanish captain José Ruiz y Ferrer was killed by the revolting Africans, alongside the cook and a slave trader; his death precipitated the international legal dispute reaching the U.S. Supreme Court. This event underscored vulnerabilities in transatlantic slave enforcement but created no immediate strategic void beyond the ship's capture. On August 28, British geologist William Smith, known as the "Father of English Geology" for his stratigraphic mapping, died in at age 70 from poverty-related ailments. His demise left a gap in practical geological application for mining and canals, though his canal maps endured. On September 20, Paraguayan dictator died in at age 74, likely from natural causes after ruling autocratically since 1814. His death triggered a brief power struggle among military officers, exposing Paraguay's isolationist to internal factionalism without external intervention in 1839. On October 6, British Army colonel , Surveyor-General of and planner of Adelaide's grid layout, died in Thebarton from at age 53. His premature death amid ongoing colonization efforts delayed surveys and infrastructure, straining the nascent colony's administrative stability. On December 3, Frederick VI, King of Denmark since 1808 and Norway until 1814, died in at age 71 from blood poisoning following an accident. As the last absolute monarch of the , his passing prompted the accession of Christian VIII and accelerated debates on constitutional reform, though Denmark's military posture remained unchanged in 1839.

Date unknown

Thomas Plunket (c. 1785–1839), an Irish rifleman in the British 95th Regiment who gained renown for killing a French officer at over 600 yards during the Battle of Cacabelos in 1809, died suddenly while walking in , , . Pierre le Pelley III (1777–1839), Seigneur of from 1820 until his death, drowned in a en route from to . Jabez Young Jackson (1793–1839), a U.S. Representative from Georgia who served from 1835 to 1839, died in Clarkesville, ./)

Deaths

January–June

, an figure known for her midnight ride in 1777 to warn militiamen of British advances, died on February 26, 1839, at age 77 in Unadilla, New York. Zerah Colburn, a -born mathematical prodigy who demonstrated extraordinary calculation abilities from age five—including multiplying large numbers mentally and identifying prime factors—died on March 2, 1839, at age 34 in Cabot, , from . , Russian hussar, poet, and partisan leader during the , renowned for guerrilla tactics against French forces in 1812, died on April 22, 1839, at age 54 from a . , British-born Australian settler who led the Port Phillip Association's expedition and negotiated a treaty with elders for land that became , died on June 6, 1839, at age 38 from . , Maharaja of the who unified and expanded territory through military campaigns while maintaining alliances with British India, died on June 27, 1839, at age 58 in from paralysis following prolonged illness exacerbated by alcohol and opium use.

July–December

On July 10, Spanish classical guitarist and composer died in at age 61 from complications of tongue cancer. His passing deprived the Romantic era of a key figure in guitar technique development, though his influence persisted through published studies. On July 15, English politician and poet Winthrop Mackworth Praed succumbed to tuberculosis in London at age 37. As a Whig MP and contributor to literary magazines, his early death halted potential advancements in his satirical verse and administrative reforms. During the Amistad slave ship mutiny on July 2 off Cuba, Spanish captain José Ruiz y Ferrer was killed by the revolting Africans, alongside the cook and a slave trader; his death precipitated the international legal dispute reaching the U.S. Supreme Court. This event underscored vulnerabilities in transatlantic slave enforcement but created no immediate strategic void beyond the ship's capture. On August 28, British geologist William Smith, known as the "Father of English Geology" for his stratigraphic mapping, died in at age 70 from poverty-related ailments. His demise left a gap in practical geological application for mining and canals, though his canal maps endured. On September 20, Paraguayan dictator died in at age 74, likely from natural causes after ruling autocratically since 1814. His death triggered a brief power struggle among military officers, exposing Paraguay's isolationist regime to internal factionalism without external intervention in 1839. On October 6, British Army colonel , Surveyor-General of and planner of Adelaide's grid layout, died in Thebarton from at age 53. His premature death amid ongoing colonization efforts delayed surveys and infrastructure, straining the nascent colony's administrative stability. On December 3, Frederick VI, King of Denmark since 1808 and Norway until 1814, died in at age 71 from blood poisoning following an accident. As the last absolute monarch of the , his passing prompted the accession of Christian VIII and accelerated debates on constitutional reform, though Denmark's military posture remained unchanged in 1839.

Date unknown

Thomas Plunket (c. 1785–1839), an Irish rifleman in the British 95th Regiment who gained renown for killing a French officer at over 600 yards during the Battle of Cacabelos in 1809, died suddenly while walking in , , . Pierre le Pelley III (1777–1839), from 1820 until his death, drowned in a en route from to . Jabez Young Jackson (1793–1839), a U.S. Representative from Georgia who served from 1835 to 1839, died in Clarkesville, Habersham County, Georgia./)

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  55. https://vermonthistoryexplorer.org/march
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  57. https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/batman-john-1752
  58. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ranjit-Singh-Sikh-maharaja
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