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LTI TX2 cab
LTI FX4 cab
The Beardmore was an alternative taxi design used in London during the 1960s and 1970s.

A hackney or hackney carriage (also called a cab, black cab, hack or taxi) is a carriage or car for hire.[1] A symbol of London and Britain, the black taxi is a common sight on the streets of London.[2] The hackney carriages carry a roof sign TAXI that can be illuminated to indicate their availability for passengers.[3]

In the UK, the name hackney carriage today refers to a taxicab licensed by Transport for London, local authority (non-metropolitan district councils, unitary authorities) or the Department of the Environment depending on region of the country.[4] Some hackney carriages have also been exported for use in other countries.

Etymology

[edit]

The origins of the word hackney in connection with horses and carriages are uncertain. The origin is often attributed to the London borough of Hackney, whose name likely originated in Old English meaning 'Haka's Island'. There is some doubt whether the word hack for a horse was derived from this place-name, as the area was historically marshy and not well-suited for keeping horses.[5] The American Hackney Horse Society favours an alternative etymology stemming from the French word haquenée—a horse of medium size recommended for lady riders—which was brought to England with the Norman Conquest and became fully assimilated into the English language by the start of the 14th century. The word became associated with an ambling horse, usually for hire.

The first documented hackney coach—the name later extended to the newer and smaller carriages—operated in London in 1621.

The New York City colloquial terms "hack" (taxi or taxi-driver), hackstand (taxi stand), and hack license (taxi licence) are probably derived from hackney carriage.[6] Such cabs are now regulated by the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission.[7]

In modern usage, the term "hackney carriage" remains primarily a term of regulation and not of contemporary speech—whereas "taxi" and "cab" are common parlance. The British carried their practices with them throughout the British Empire and established regulations for public hire transport in many countries. In the 1820s, horses and carriages were imported from England to British Colonial Singapore and, with the passing of the Hackney Carriage Act of 1867, a Hackney Carriage Department was established to regulate public transportation; in 1892 jinrikisha regulation was incorporated into the department.[8][9] In 1847, Sydney passed a law to regulate hackney carriages in the city and its vicinity.[10] Boston's Hackney Carriage Unit was established in 1854 and still uses the term hackney carriage in their contemporary licensing regulations for taxis, sight-seeing vehicles, horse drawn carriages, and pedicabs within the city.[11] In 1879 British India, the Hackney-Carriage Act was passed to regulate and control hackney carriages.[12]

History

[edit]

Hackney Coaches, etc. Act 1694
Act of Parliament
Parliament of England
Long titleAn Act for the licensing and regulating Hackney-Coaches and Stage-Coaches.
Citation5 & 6 Will. & Mar. c. 22
Dates
Royal assent25 April 1694
Repealed15 July 1867
Other legislation
Repealed byStatute Law Revision Act 1867
Status: Repealed
Text of statute as originally enacted
Hackney Chairs Act 1712
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act for explaining the Acts for licensing Hackney Chairs.
Citation12 Ann. c. 15
  • (Ruffhead: 12 Ann. St. 1 c. 14)
Territorial extent Great Britain
Dates
Royal assent16 July 1713
Commencement9 April 1713[a]
Repealed5 January 1832
Other legislation
Amended byContinuance of Laws, etc. Act 1742
Repealed byLondon Hackney Carriage Act 1831
Status: Repealed
Text of statute as originally enacted
Hackney Coaches, etc. Act 1715
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act for the better regulating Hackney Coaches, Carts, Drays, Cars, and Waggons, within the Cities of London and Westminster, and the Weekly Bills of Mortality; and for preventing Mischiefs occasioned by the Drivers riding upon such Carts, Drays, Cars, and Waggons.
Citation1 Geo. 1. St. 2. c. 57
Territorial extent Great Britain
Dates
Royal assent26 June 1716
Commencement17 March 1715[b]
Repealed15 July 1867
Other legislation
Amended byContinuance of Laws, etc. Act 1742
Repealed byStatute Law Revision Act 1867
Status: Repealed
Text of statute as originally enacted
Hackney Coaches Act 1771
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act for licensing an additional Number of Hackney Coaches, and applying the Monies arising thereby.
Citation11 Geo. 3. c. 24
Dates
Royal assent12 April 1771
Hackney Coachmen Act 1771
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act for punishing Offences committed by Hackney Coachmen and Chairmen, within certain Districts and Places therein mentioned, and for renewing the Registry of Carts and Carriages.
Citation11 Geo. 3. c. 28
Dates
Royal assent29 April 1771
Hackney Coaches Act 1772
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act to explain and amend an Act, made in the Seventh Year of the Reign of His present Majesty, intituled, "An Act for altering the Stamp Duties upon Policies of Assurances; and for reducing the Allowance to be made in respect of the Prompt Payment of the Stamp Duties on Licences for retailing Beer, Ale, and other exciseable Liquors; and for explaining and amending several Acts of Parliament relating to Hackney Coaches and Chairs;" so far as the same relates to Hackney Coaches.
Citation12 Geo. 3. c. 49
Territorial extent Great Britain
Dates
Repealed5 January 1832
Other legislation
Repealed byLondon Hackney Carriage Act 1831
Status: Repealed
Hackney Coaches Act 1784
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act for laying an additional Duty on Hackney Coaches, and for explaining and amending several Acts of Parliament relating to Hackney Coaches.
Citation24 Geo. 3. Sess. 2. c. 27
Territorial extent Great Britain
Dates
Royal assent13 August 1784
Repealed5 January 1832
Other legislation
Repealed byLondon Hackney Carriage Act 1831
Status: Repealed
Hackney Coaches Act 1786
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act for explaining and amending an Act made in the Twenty-fourth Year of the Reign of His present Majesty, intituled, "An Act for laying an additional Duty on Hackney Coaches, and for explaining and amending several Acts of Parliament relating to Hackney Coaches."
Citation26 Geo. 3. c. 72
Dates
Royal assent4 July 1786
Hackney Coaches Act 1792
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act to explain and amend so much of an Act made in the Seventh Year of the Reign of His present Majesty, as relates to Hackney Coaches and Chairs.
Citation32 Geo. 3. c. 47
Dates
Royal assent11 June 1792
London Hackney Carriage Act 1800
Act of Parliament
Parliament of Great Britain
Long titleAn Act for repealing the Rates and Fares taken by Licenced Hackney Coachmen, and for establishing other Rates and Fares in lieu thereof; and for explaining and amending several Laws relating to Hackney Coaches and Chairs.
Citation39 & 40 Geo. 3. c. 47
Territorial extent Great Britain
Dates
Royal assent30 May 1800
Repealed5 January 1832
Other legislation
Repealed byLondon Hackney Carriage Act 1831
Status: Repealed
Hackney Coaches Act 1804
Act of Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long titleAn act for explaining and amending several Acts relating to Hackney Coaches employed as Stage Coaches, and for indemnifying the Owners of Hackney Coaches who have omitted to take out Licences, pursuant to an Act made in the twenty-fifth Year of his present Majesty.
Citation44 Geo. 3. c. 88
Territorial extent United Kingdom
Dates
Royal assent20 July 1804
Expired5 January 1832
Other legislation
Repealed byLondon Hackney Carriage Act 1831
Status: Repealed
Hackney Carriages Act 1815
Act of Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long titleAn act to amend several Acts relating to Hackney Coaches; for authorizing the licensing of an additional Number of Hackney Chariots; and for licensing Carriages drawn by One Horse.
Citation55 Geo. 3. c. 159
Territorial extent United Kingdom
Dates
Royal assent11 July 1815
Repealed5 January 1832
Other legislation
Repealed byLondon Hackney Carriage Act 1831
Status: Repealed
London Hackney Carriage Act 1831
Act of Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long titleAn Act to amend the Laws relating to Hackney Carriages, and to Waggons, Carts, and Drays, used in the Metropolis; and to place the Collection of the Duties on Hackney Carriages and on Hawkers and Pedlars in England under the Commissioners of Stamps.
Citation1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 22
Territorial extent United Kingdom
Dates
Royal assent22 September 1831
Commencement5 January 1832[c]
Other legislation
Repeals/revokes
  • Hackney Chairs Act 1712
  • Hackney Chairs, etc. Act 1759
  • Hackney Coaches Act 1771
  • Hackney Coachmen Act 1771
  • Hackney Coaches Act 1772
  • Hackney Coaches Act 1784
  • Hackney Coaches Act 1786
  • Hackney Coaches Act 1792
  • London Hackney Carriage Act 1800
  • Hackney Coaches, Metropolis Act 1802
  • Hackney Coaches Act 1804
  • Hackney Coach Fares Act 1808
  • Hackney Coaches Act 1814
  • Hackney Carriages Act 1815
  • Hackney Coach Licences Act 1817
Amended by
Status: Amended
Text of statute as originally enacted
Revised text of statute as amended
Text of the London Hackney Carriage Act 1831 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk.
London Hackney Carriages Act 1843
Act of Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long titleAn Act for regulating Hackney and Stage Carriages in and near London.
Citation6 & 7 Vict. c. 86
Dates
Royal assent22 August 1843
Other legislation
Amended byStatute Law Revision Act 1874 (No. 2)
Status: Amended
Text of statute as originally enacted
Text of the London Hackney Carriages Act 1843 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk.
London Cab Act 1968
Act of Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long titleAn Act to extend the power of the Secretary of State to prescribe fares in respect of journeys by cab within the metropolitan police district and the City of London; to make provision for extending the length of such journeys which the driver of a cab is obliged by law to undertake; to relax restrictions on the parking of cabs; to prohibit the display on certain vehicles in that district or the City of London of signs or notices containing the word " taxi" or " cab " and signs or notices of certain other descriptions; and to restrict the issue, in connection with certain vehicles, of advertisements containing either of those words.
Citation1968 c. 7
Dates
Royal assent15 February 1968
Other legislation
Amended byLondon Cab Act 1973
Status: Amended
Text of statute as originally enacted
Text of the London Cab Act 1968 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk.
London Cab Act 1973
Act of Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long titleAn Act to amend the London Cab Act 1968.
Citation1973 c. c. 20
Dates
Royal assent23 May 1973
Other legislation
AmendsLondon Cab Act 1968
Status: Current legislation
Text of statute as originally enacted
Text of the London Cab Act 1973 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk.

Horse-drawn era

[edit]

The widespread use of private coaches by the English aristocracy began to be seen in the 1580s; within fifty years hackney coaches were regularly to be seen on the streets of London. In the 1620s there was a proliferation of coaches for hire in the metropolis, so much so that they were seen as a danger to pedestrians in the narrow streets of the city, and in 1635 an Order in Council was issued limiting the number allowed. Two years later a system for licensing hackney coachmen was established (overseen by the Master of the Horse).[13]

"An Ordinance for the Regulation of Hackney-Coachmen in London and the places adjacent" was approved by Parliament in 1654, to remedy what it described as the "many Inconveniences [that] do daily arise by reason of the late increase and great irregularity of Hackney Coaches and Hackney Coachmen in London, Westminster and the places thereabouts".[14] The first hackney-carriage licences date from a 1662 act of Parliament, the London and Westminster Streets Act 1662 (14 Cha. 2. c. 2) establishing the Commissioners of Scotland Yard to regulate them. Licences applied literally to horse-drawn carriages, later modernised as hansom cabs (1834), that operated as vehicles for hire. The 1662 act limited the licences to 400; when it expired in 1679, extra licences were created until the Hackney Coaches, etc. Act 1694 (5 & 6 Will. & Mar. c. 22) imposed a limit of 700.[15] The limit was increased to 800 in 1715, 1,000 in 1770 and 1,100 in 1802, before being abolished in 1832.[16] The 1694 act established the Hackney Coach Commissioners to oversee the regulation of fares, licences and other matters; in 1831 their work was taken over by the Stamp Office and in 1869 responsibility for licensing was passed on to the Metropolitan Police. In the 18th and 19th centuries, private carriages were commonly sold off for use as hackney carriages, often displaying painted-over traces of the previous owner's coat of arms on the doors.[17]

There was a distinction between a general hackney carriage and a hackney coach, which was specifically a hireable vehicle with four wheels, two horses and six seats: four on the inside for the passengers and two on the outside (one for a servant and the other for the driver, who was popularly termed the Jarvey (also spelled jarvie)). For many years only coaches, to this specification, could be licensed for hire; but in 1814 the licensing of up to 200 hackney chariots was permitted, which carried a maximum of three passengers inside and one servant outside (such was the popularity of these new faster carriages that the number of licences was doubled the following year).

Hansom cab in 1904 outside the Royal Albert Hall, London

Shortly afterwards even lighter carriages began to be licensed: the two-wheel, single-horse cabriolets or 'cabs', which were licensed to carry no more than two passengers.[13] Then, in 1834, the hansom cab was patented by Joseph Hansom: a jaunty single-horse, two-wheel carriage with a distinctive appearance, designed to carry passengers safely in an urban environment. The hansom cab quickly established itself as the standard two-wheel hackney carriage and remained in use into the 20th century.[17]

In 1836, the Clarence was introduced to London's streets: a type of small four-wheel enclosed carriage drawn by one or two horses.[18][19] These became known as 'growlers' because of the sound they made on the cobbled streets. Much slower than a hansom cab, they nevertheless had room for up to four passengers (plus one servant) and space on the roof for luggage. As such they remained in use as the standard form of four-wheeled hackney carriage until replaced by motorised taxi cabs in the early 20th century.

In the 1857 edition of Thom's Irish Almanac and Official Directory, a table was included of agreed mileage fares which hackney carriages and cabriolets were permitted to charge their passengers for journeys within a radius of ten statute miles of the General Post Office in Dublin city centre. Fares were divided into two fare types; that of Fare 1 - "Not returning with Employer", and Fare 2 - "Returning with Employer, the delay not to exceed 30 minutes".[20]

A small, usually two-wheeled, one-horse hackney vehicle called a noddy once plied the roads in Ireland and Scotland. The French had a small hackney coach called a fiacre.

Motorisation

[edit]

Electric hackney carriages appeared before the introduction of the internal combustion engine to vehicles for hire in 1897. In fact there was even London Electrical Cab Company: the cabs were informally called Berseys after the manager who designed them, Walter Bersey. Another nickname was Hummingbirds from the sound that they made.[21] In August 1897, 25 were introduced, and by 1898, there were 50 more. During the early 20th century, cars generally replaced horse-drawn models. In 1910, the number of motor cabs on London streets outnumbered horse-drawn growlers and hansoms for the first time. At the time of the outbreak of World War I, the ratio was seven to one in favour of motorized cabs.[22] The last horse-drawn hackney carriage ceased service in London in 1947.[23]

UK regulations define a hackney carriage as a taxicab allowed to ply the streets looking for passengers to pick up, as opposed to private hire vehicles (sometimes called minicabs), which may pick up only passengers who have previously booked or who visit the taxi operator's office. In 1999, the first of a series of fuel cell powered taxis were tried out in London. The "Millennium Cab" built by ZeTek gained television coverage and great interest when driven in the Sheraton Hotel ballroom in New York by Judd Hirsch, the star of the television series Taxi. ZeTek built three cabs but ceased activities in 2001.[citation needed]

Continuing horse-drawn cab services

[edit]

Horse-drawn hackney services continue to operate in parts of the UK, for example in Cockington, Torquay.[24] The town of Windsor, Berkshire, is the last remaining UK town with a continuous lineage of horse-drawn hackney carriages, operated run by Windsor Carriages, the licence having been passed down from driver to driver since the 1830's. The original hackney licence is in place, allowing for passenger travel under the same law that was originally passed in 1662. The city of Bath has an occasional horse-drawn hackney, principally for tourists, but still carrying hackney plates.

Driver qualification

[edit]
See also: Taxis of London § Knowledge of London

In London, hackney-carriage drivers have to pass a test called The Knowledge to demonstrate that they have an intimate knowledge of the geography of London streets, important buildings, etc. Elsewhere in the UK, councils have their own regulations. Some merely require a driver to pass a DBS disclosure and have a reasonably clean driving licence, while others use their own local versions of London's The Knowledge test.[citation needed]

Black cabs

[edit]
Until the late 1950s, vehicles licensed as London taxis were required to be provided with a luggage platform, open to the street, on the pavement (sidewalk) side, at the front, beside the driver,[25][26][27][28] in place of the front passenger seat found on other passenger cars (including taxis licensed for use in other British cities).

Though there has never been law requiring London's taxis to be black, they were, since the end of the Second World War, sold in a standard colour of black. This, in the 1970s gave rise within the minicab trade to the nickname 'black cab' and it has become common currency. However, before the Second World War, London's cabs were seen in a variety of colours. They are produced in a variety of colours, sometimes in advertising brand liveries (see below). Fifty golden cabs were produced for the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations in 2002.[29]

Vehicle design

[edit]

In Edwardian times, Renault and Unic, but also smaller players like Charron and Darracq were to be found.[22] Fiat was also a presence, with their importer d'Arcy Baker running a fleet of 400 cars of the brand. In the 1920s, Beardmore cabs were introduced and became for a while the most popular. They were nicknamed 'the Rolls-Royce of cabs' for their comfort and robustness. Maxwell Monson introduced Citroën cabs, which were cheaper, but crude in comparison to the Beardmore. In 1930 dealers Mann and Overton struck a deal with the Austin to bring a modified version of the Austin 12/4 car to the London taxi market. This established Austin as dominant until the end of the 1970s and Mann and Overton until 2012. The Austin FX4, launched in 1958, which stayed in production until 1997 under successive manufacturers is perhaps the most iconic and recognised of all hackney carriages and set the basic styling parameters of its successors.

Morrises cabs were also seen, in small numbers, but after the Second World War, produced the Oxford, made by Wolseleys.[22]

A TX4 hackney carriage at Heathrow Airport Terminal 5

Outside of London, the regulations governing the hackney cab trade are different. Four-door saloon cars have been highly popular as hackney carriages, but with disability regulations growing in strength and some councils offering free licensing for disabled-friendly vehicles, many operators are now opting for wheelchair-adapted taxis such as the LEVC TX of London Electric Vehicle Company (LEVC). London taxis have broad rear doors that open very wide (or slide), and an electrically controlled ramp that is extended for access.[30]

Other models of specialist taxis include the Peugeot E7 and rivals from Fiat, Ford, Volkswagen, and Mercedes-Benz. These vehicles normally allow six or seven passengers, although some models can accommodate eight. Some of these minibus taxis include a front passenger seat next to the driver, while others reserve this space solely for luggage.

An FX4, made from 1958 to 1997. The for hire signage is a distinguishing feature of the hackney carriage.

London taxis must have a turning circle not greater than 8.535 m (28 ft). One reason for this is the configuration of the famed Savoy Hotel: the hotel entrance's small roundabout meant that vehicles needed the small turning circle to navigate it. That requirement became the legally required turning circles for all London cabs, while the custom of a passenger's sitting on the right, behind the driver, provided a reason for the right-hand traffic in Savoy Court, allowing hotel patrons to board and alight from the driver's side.[31]

The design standards for London taxis are set out in the Conditions of Fitness, which are now published by Transport for London. The first edition was published in May 1906, by the Public Carriage Office, which was then part of the Metropolitan Police. These regulations set out the conditions under which a taxi may operate and have been updated over the years to keep pace with motor car development and legislation. Changes include regulating the taximeter (made compulsory in 1907), advertisements and the turning circle of 8.535 m (28 ft).[21][32] Until the beginning of the 1980s, London Taxis were not allowed to carry any advertisements.[22]

The London Taxis fleet has been fully accessible since 1 January 2000,[33][34] following the introduction of the first accessible taxi in 1987.[35] On 14 December 2010, Mayor of London Boris Johnson released an air quality strategy paper encouraging phasing out of the oldest of the LT cabs, and proposing a £1m fund to encourage taxi owners to upgrade to low-emission vehicles.[36] Since 2018, all newly registered taxis in London must be zero emission, and as of December 2023 more than half of the 14,700 fleet is zero emission capable.[37]

As part of the Transported by Design programme of activities,[38] on 15 October 2015, after two months of public voting, the black cab was elected by Londoners as their favourite transport design icon.[39][40]

In 2017, the LEVC TX was introduced – a purpose built hackney carriage, built as a plug-in hybrid range-extender electric vehicle.[41] By April 2022, over 5,000 TX's had been sold in London, around a third of London's taxi fleet.[42] In October 2019 the first fully electric cab since the Bersey in 1897, the Dynamo Taxi, was launched with a 187-mile range and with the bodywork based on Nissan's NV200 platform.[43][44]

An example of an Eyetease digital screen on top of a hackney carriage

In October 2011 the company Eyetease Ltd. introduced digital screens on the roofs of London taxis for dynamically changing location-specific advertising.[45]

Variety of models

[edit]

There have been different makes and types of hackney cab through the years,[46] including:

Notable private owners

[edit]

Oil millionaire Nubar Gulbenkian owned an Austin FX3 Brougham Sedanca taxi, with custom coachwork by FLM Panelcraft Ltd as he was quoted "because it turns on a sixpence whatever that is."[48] Gulbenkian had two such taxis built, the second of which was built on an FX4 chassis and was sold at auction by Bonhams for $39,600 in 2015.[49] Other celebrities are known to have used hackney carriages both for their anonymity and their ruggedness and manoeuvrability in London traffic. Users included Prince Philip, whose cab was converted to run on liquefied petroleum gas,[50] author and actor Stephen Fry,[51] and the Sheriffs of the City of London. A black cab was used in the band Oasis's video for the song "Don't Look Back in Anger." Black cabs were used as recording studios for indie band performances and other performances in the Black Cab Sessions internet project.

Ghosthunting With... featured a black cab owned by host of the show, Yvette Fielding. Bez of the Happy Mondays owns one, shown on the UK edition of Pimp My Ride. Noel Edmonds used a black cab to commute from his home to the Deal or No Deal studios in Bristol. He placed a dressed mannequin in the back so that he could use special bus/taxi lanes, and so that people would not attempt to hail his cab.[52]

The official car of the Governor of the Falkland Islands between 1976 and 2010 was a London taxi.[53]

In other countries

[edit]
A London taxi (TXII model) in Switzerland

Between 2003 and 1 August 2009 the London taxi model TXII could be purchased in the United States. Today there are approximately 250 TXIIs in the US, operating as taxis in San Francisco, Dallas, Long Beach, Houston, New Orleans, Las Vegas, Newport, Rhode Island, Wilmington, North Carolina and Portland, Oregon. There are also a few operating in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The largest London taxi rental fleet in North America is in Wilmington, owned by The British Taxi Company. There are London cabs in Saudi Arabia, Romania, South Africa, Lebanon, Egypt, Bahrain and Cyprus, and in Israel, where a Chinese-made version of LTI's model TX4 built by Geely Automobile is available. In February 2010, a number of TX4s started operating in Pristina, Kosovo,[54] and are known as London Taxi.[55]

A London taxi (TX4 model) in Singapore

Singapore has used London-style cabs since 1992; starting with the "Fairway". The flag-down fares for the London Taxis are the same as for other taxis. SMRT Corporation, the sole operator, had by March 2013 replaced its fleet of 15 ageing multi-coloured (gold, pink, etc.) taxis with new white ones. They are the only wheelchair-accessible taxis in Singapore, and were brought back following an outcry after the removal of the service.[citation needed]

A London taxi (TX4 model) in Baku

By 2011 a thousand of a Chinese-made version of LTI's latest model, TX4, had been ordered by Baku Taxi Company. The plan is part of a program originally announced by Azerbaijan's Ministry of Transportation to introduce London cabs to the capital, Baku.[56][57] The move was part of a £16 million agreement between the London Taxi Company and Baku Taxi Company.[58][59]

A Nihon Kotsu Toyota JPN Taxi

Although the LEVC TX is more expensive and exceeds the Japanese size classifications to gain the tax advantages Japanese livery drivers enjoy with the similarly designed but smaller Toyota JPN Taxi, Geely has attempted to break into the Japanese market.[60] Alternatively, while the Toyota JPN Taxi doesn't meet the passenger capacity or turning radius Conditions of Fitness required by Transport for London, it does meet the emissions and accessibility requirements that may make it an ideal option for cities outside of London without the seating requirements or as a private hire vehicle while still evoking the familiar black cab profile.[61]

A London taxi in Beijing

During the 2008 Olympic Games, there were about 100 hackney carriages operating in Beijing.

United Kingdom law

[edit]

Laws about the definition, licensing and operation of hackney carriages have a long history.[62] The most significant pieces of legislation by region are:

  • In England and Wales: the Town Police Clauses Act 1847, and the Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1976. In Wales, responsibility for licensing is now devolved to the Senedd. In September 2017, a consultation started about the future of such licensing.
  • In London: the Metropolitan Public Carriage Act 1869 and the London Cab Order 1934.
  • In Scotland: the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982.
  • In Northern Ireland: the Taxis Act (Northern Ireland) 2008[62]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Hackney carriage

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A hackney carriage is a licensed in the , distinguished by its legal right to accept passengers hailed from the street or at designated ranks, unlike private hire vehicles that require pre-booking. In , these are commonly known as black cabs, regardless of color, and must feature a roof sign indicating availability, with vehicles adapted for accessibility and purpose-built to navigate the city's streets. The term originates from horse-drawn coaches introduced in during the early 17th century, with the first licensed hackney coaches appearing around to serve growing urban demand for transport. Etymologically, "hackney" derives from the haquenée, denoting an ambling horse used for hire, reflecting the carriages' initial reliance on such animals bred in areas like the London village of Hackney. Regulations evolved through parliamentary acts, such as the 1694 Hackney Coaches Act, which limited numbers and imposed fares to curb excesses, paving the way for the motorized that replaced horses by the early . Today, hackney carriage drivers in undergo rigorous training, including "The Knowledge," a examination requiring memorization of approximately 25,000 streets and landmarks within a six-mile radius of , ensuring efficient navigation without GPS reliance. This system underscores the trade's emphasis on reliability and local expertise, with black cabs symbolizing 's transport heritage amid ongoing adaptations to electric vehicles and urban mobility challenges.

Etymology

Derivation and Historical Usage

The term hackney originated in Middle English as hakeney, denoting a horse maintained for hire or common use, tracing etymologically to Old French haquenee, which described an ambling nag bred for steady riding. This linguistic root emerged in 14th-century England, linked to the practice of hiring such horses from the district of Hackney in Middlesex (now northeastern London), where they were reputedly pastured and traded. By the early , hackney extended to carriages drawn by these horses and offered for public hire in urban settings like , reflecting a shift from equine rental to vehicular . The phrase "hackney carriage" received its earliest formal statutory application in 1654 through "An Ordinance for the Regulation of Hackney-Coachmen in and the places adjacent," enacted by under Oliver Cromwell's to curb traffic congestion, unlicensed operations, and driver misconduct by imposing licensing requirements and numerical limits on operators. Through the 18th and into the , "hackney carriage" solidified as a legal descriptor for licensed vehicles authorized to solicit fares directly from streets or ranks, emphasizing regulatory oversight over informal conveyances. This distinguished it from the colloquial "cab," derived from cabriolet—a lightweight, two-wheeled French carriage introduced to around 1823 for swift, individual hires—which initially operated outside strict hackney licensing until progressively integrated into the regulated framework, rendering the terms functionally synonymous for street-hailable taxis by the .

Core Characteristics

A hackney carriage is a licensed vehicle permitted to carry passengers for hire and to ply for passengers in public spaces, including by standing at designated ranks or accepting immediate hails from pedestrians without prior booking. This public solicitation capability ensures on-demand availability, a core operational attribute rooted in 19th-century legislation. Hackney carriages must incorporate taximeters to calculate fares according to locally regulated tariffs, promoting fare predictability and preventing overcharging. These devices, required to be sealed and calibrated, apply structured rates such as initial flag-fall fees plus per-yard or per-minute increments; for example, Reading Borough Council's Tariff 1, effective January 2025, charges £3.60 for the first 278 yards or 2 minutes 24 seconds. Drivers of hackney carriages are mandated to exhibit proficiency in local topography to facilitate optimal routing and service efficiency, a requirement persisting from historical practices. In , this entails "The Knowledge," a rigorous examination system established in 1865 demanding memorization of extensive street networks and landmarks.

Differentiation from Private Hire Vehicles

Hackney carriages are distinguished from private hire vehicles (PHVs) primarily by their legal authorization to ply for hire, allowing them to be hailed directly on public streets or from designated ranks without prior booking, a privilege rooted in statutes such as the Town Police Clauses Act 1847, which defines such vehicles as those used for standing or plying for hire within specified areas. In contrast, PHVs are prohibited from accepting street hails and must be pre-booked through a licensed operator to ensure traceability and prevent unlicensed operations, a restriction enforced to mitigate risks associated with unregulated pickups. Licensing for hackney carriages imposes higher barriers, including mandatory taximeters, illuminated roof signs, and in jurisdictions like , extensive geographical knowledge tests for drivers, compared to PHVs, which face fewer vehicle modification requirements but still necessitate operator-mediated bookings. These elevated standards contribute to debates over whether they enhance passenger safety through rigorous vetting or foster by limiting market entry, with some analyses indicating PHVs may exhibit lower reported accident rates in controlled studies due to pre-planned routes, though the ban on hailing reduces overall unlicensed activity risks for hackneys. Economically, the ply-for-hire right enables hackney carriages to capture spontaneous , often resulting in higher fares driven by compliance costs—such as specialized adaptations estimated at thousands of pounds more annually than for PHVs—while regulated metering contrasts with PHVs' flexible pricing via apps or negotiation, promoting competition in planned travel but disadvantaging PHVs in immediate-access scenarios. This dynamic sustains higher earnings potential for hackney operators in high- urban areas, though it can elevate costs and entrench incumbents amid supply constraints from stringent licensing.

Historical Development

Origins in Horse-Drawn Era

Hackney carriages emerged in during the early as a form of hired horse-drawn , building on the tradition of private coaches owned by the wealthy who rented them out to offset costs. Initially operating from inn yards, these four-wheeled vehicles, typically seating six and pulled by two horses, provided an alternative to walking or sedan chairs, which Sir Saunders Duncombe had introduced for hire in 1634 as a cheaper, more maneuverable option for narrow streets. Captain John Bailey pioneered the public stand system around 1625–1636 by stationing four coaches near the Maypole in the Strand, marking the shift toward organized urban hire services that catered to merchants, professionals, and an emerging seeking efficient mobility amid 's growing population and trade. The rapid proliferation of hackney coaches soon caused street congestion and disorder, prompting early royal intervention. By the mid-1620s, around 20 such vehicles were available at inns, but their numbers escalated, leading King Charles I to issue a in decrying the "great number of Hackney Coaches" as a disturbance to traffic, noble processions, and public safety in the narrow thoroughfares. This edict restrained their operation to curb abuses, establishing a for numerical limits to mitigate urban externalities like blockages that hindered access and . By 1654, parliamentary licensing capped them at 300 in and environs, reflecting causal pressures from overuse rather than mere revenue motives. Criticisms of overcharging, unmaintained vehicles, and erratic driving fueled demands for standardization, as operators exploited demand without fixed rates, burdening passengers and exacerbating disputes. The Hackney Coaches Act of 1694 formalized licensing for up to 700 coaches, appointing commissioners to oversee fitness, fares, and stands, directly addressing these issues by mandating numbered doors for identification and penalties for infractions—mechanisms that laid foundational precedents for modern regulation through enforced accountability and market controls. This evolution from unregulated proliferation to licensed scarcity underscored the causal role of empirical and public complaints in shaping state oversight, prioritizing order over unrestricted enterprise.

19th-Century Expansion and Regulation

The expansion of hackney carriage services in 19th-century London was propelled by industrialization, surging urban population—from approximately 959,000 in 1801 to over 2.3 million by 1851—and the proliferation of railways after the 1830s, which funneled commuters and visitors into the city center, heightening demand for swift intra-urban conveyance. By the early 1830s, the fleet had grown substantially from 1,100 carriages in 1802, reaching thousands amid this demographic and infrastructural boom, though exact figures varied with licensing records. This proliferation catered to a broadening clientele, including middle-class workers and rail arrivals needing reliable transport beyond omnibuses. In 1834, architect Joseph Hansom patented a innovative two-wheeled design—the —featuring a low-slung body for stability, rear-facing passenger compartment, and elevated driver's perch for unobstructed road visibility, enabling faster and safer travel compared to bulkier four-wheel coaches. Adopted rapidly, hansoms addressed congestion and accident risks in teeming streets, with their lighter build allowing one horse to pull two passengers at speeds up to 10-12 mph, supplanting traditional hackneys by mid-century. Regulatory responses intensified to counter abuses like fare gouging, vehicle disrepair, and driver misconduct, which proliferated with scale. The London Hackney Carriage Act 1831 reformed fare structures, mandating fixed rates based on distance and time to prevent overcharging, while extending oversight to metropolitan drays and carts. The Town Police Clauses Act 1847 further empowered urban commissioners to issue licenses, require identifying number plates on vehicles, designate official stands, and enforce sanitary and safety standards, aiming to professionalize the trade and mitigate public grievances. These measures correlated with anecdotal declines in complaints to magistrates, as standardized practices and accountability curbed arbitrary refusals of hires and disputes, though enforcement relied on police vigilance amid ongoing pressures. Amid state-imposed rules, hackney drivers exhibited self-organization through informal mutual aid clubs and benefit societies, precursors to formal associations, providing financial relief for illness, strikes, or horse loss without supplanting market dynamics or seeking monopolistic privileges. This grassroots cooperation underscored the trade's resilience, prioritizing voluntary solidarity over comprehensive guild control, which had waned since medieval times.

Motorization and 20th-Century Transition

The first motorized in were introduced on August 19, 1897, when the Electrical Cab Company deployed a fleet of 12 electric vehicles known as Bersey cabs, nicknamed "hummingbirds" for their quiet operation. These battery-powered , however, suffered from limited range of approximately 25 miles per charge and frequent mechanical failures, restricting their commercial viability. Petrol-engined cabs emerged shortly thereafter in the early , offering superior range and reliability that expanded operational distances beyond the constraints of fatigue or electric batteries, though initial adoption was slowed by high costs and infrastructure limitations. The transition accelerated during and after , as wartime demands depleted horse supplies and prompted manufacturers to pivot toward automotive production, with motorized vehicles comprising the majority of the fleet by the . Models such as the Austin taxicabs, based on modified like the Heavy Twelve-Four, gained prominence for their durability amid shortages. Early safety concerns, including vehicle instability and overturning risks on London's uneven streets, led the Public Carriage Office to impose Conditions of Fitness in 1906, mandating specifications like a 25-foot turning circle and minimum ground clearance to enhance stability, indirectly influencing designs. In the and , regulatory and drove of the "black cab" aesthetic, with black livery becoming the de facto norm as manufacturers offered it as the base color without premium charges, aiding visibility in foggy conditions and uniformity for public recognition. further disrupted operations, with many taxis requisitioned for military use and drivers conscripted, exacerbating fleet shortages that persisted into the mid-1940s and underscored the sector's vulnerability to resource constraints.

Post-War Persistence and Adaptation

The Austin FX4, launched in 1958 as the successor to the FX3, became the defining model for London's hackney carriages in the post-war era. Designed initially for a 10-year production run to align with vehicle licensing limits, its robust construction—featuring a separate chassis, hydraulic suspension, and spacious interior—enabled longevity far beyond expectations, with many units accumulating over 400,000 miles in service. Production continued under various manufacturers, including Carbodies until 1984 and London Taxis International thereafter, culminating in 1997 after nearly 75,000 units built, underscoring a preference for proven durability amid economic constraints rather than radical redesigns. Alternative models, such as the Beardmore taxi introduced in the 1960s, offered competition with features like improved but failed to supplant the FX4's dominance due to drivers' familiarity and the model's mechanical reliability. Efforts to innovate, including the FX4-based Fairway variant in the with diesel engines, reflected incremental adaptations to rising costs and emissions concerns, yet the core persisted, symbolizing resistance to aesthetic or structural overhauls in an industry valuing operational endurance over novelty. The 1970s and 1980s brought competitive pressures from the burgeoning minicab sector, which expanded rapidly to around 40,000 vehicles by the mid-1970s through informal operations, undercutting black cab fares and eroding market share in outer areas. This prompted defensive measures among hackney operators, including advocacy for maintained hailable status distinctions, as minicabs required pre-booking and often served suburban routes where demand shifted with post-war and increased private car ownership. Hackney carriage numbers, which peaked at several thousand in the mid-20th century, began a gradual decline by the , linked to demographic shifts toward suburban living and reduced reliance on public hailable transport. By 2000, the fleet had contracted amid these trends, with economic viability challenged by higher operational costs for purpose-built vehicles compared to unregulated alternatives.

Regulatory Framework

Key Legislation

The Town Police Clauses Act 1847 serves as the foundational statute for regulating hackney carriages in outside , granting local authorities authority to license vehicles, drivers, and proprietors; establish ranks or stands; and regulate fares and operations to prevent . Section 37 of the Act defines a hackney carriage as any wheeled used in standing or plying for hire within the district, irrespective of form or construction. This legislation introduced requirements for vehicles to be licensed annually and fit for public use, with provisions for penalties against unlicensed operation or misconduct by drivers. The Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1976 built upon the 1847 Act by enabling district councils that adopt its provisions to extend licensing regimes to private hire vehicles while reinforcing controls over hackney carriages, including vehicle inspections, fare-setting powers, and enforcement against overcharging or unauthorized use. Part II of the Act standardizes district-level authority for suspending or revoking licenses and addresses dual-use prohibitions between hackney and private hire operations. In , hackney carriages are governed by bespoke legislation, including the London Hackney Carriages Act 1843, which consolidated earlier rules on licensing and stands, and the Metropolitan Public Carriage Act 1869, empowering fare regulation and driver conditions; modern administration occurs through under the Transport for London Act 2008, which allows for license suspensions and aligns with broader public carriage oversight. The mandates accessibility for disabled passengers in licensed taxis, requiring drivers of designated wheelchair-accessible hackney carriages to carry wheelchair users without charge for assistance and prohibiting refusal of service to those with assistance dogs, with non-compliance constituting a criminal offense enforceable by licensing authorities. Sections 165–167 impose these duties on local licensing authorities to maintain lists of compliant vehicles. In July 2020, the published the Statutory Taxi and Private Hire Vehicle Standards, statutory guidance to which English licensing authorities must have regard, emphasizing safeguarding protocols for children and vulnerable adults through enhanced driver vetting, complaint handling, and license conditions to mitigate risks of exploitation. These standards promote consistent application across devolved regions while allowing local adaptations, such as London's stricter protocols.

Vehicle Licensing Standards

In the , hackney carriage vehicles, particularly those licensed in by (TfL), must adhere to stringent licensing standards enforced through annual Conditions of Fitness (CoF) inspections to ensure roadworthiness, safety, and compliance with urban operational demands. These standards include mandatory emissions compliance, with all newly licensed taxis required to meet Euro 6 standards or be zero-emission capable (ZEC) since phased implementation in the late , culminating in full enforcement by the early to address air quality regulations. Vehicle age limits further enforce reliability, capping licensing at 15 years for Euro 6 and ZEC-compliant models, with stricter interim restrictions—such as ineligibility for vehicles over 12 years between November 2021 and October 2022—to phase out older, higher-emission stock. Maneuverability requirements prioritize navigation of congested city environments, mandating a minimum turning circle of 25 feet (7.62 meters) for all licensed hackney carriages, a standard derived from historical needs to in narrow streets like those around and retained to facilitate efficient point-to-point service without reliance on private hire pre-booking. mandates, introduced progressively from the early under access legislation, require all licensed hackney carriages to be wheelchair-accessible vehicles (WAVs) equipped with deployable ramps or lifts capable of accommodating standard wheelchairs up to specified dimensions, ensuring non-discriminatory service as per the and TfL policy. Identification standards include distinctive yellow license plates issued by the licensing authority and illuminated roof-mounted "" signs that must be operational and visible, distinguishing hackney carriages from private hire vehicles and enabling public hailing. The CoF inspection regime, conducted at authorized facilities, verifies these elements alongside mechanical integrity—such as brakes, tires, and emissions—twice yearly for new vehicles and annually thereafter, contributing to lower reported defect rates through proactive fault detection compared to less-regulated vehicle fleets.

Driver Licensing Requirements

In the , licensing authorities impose stringent requirements on hackney carriage drivers to ensure public safety and operational competence, with 's (TfL) setting a particularly rigorous standard that serves as a model for other jurisdictions. Applicants must be at least 21 years old, hold a full or equivalent driving licence for a minimum of three years (or 12 months outside ), and demonstrate proficiency through specialised assessments. Central to these requirements is "The Knowledge of London," a topographical examination mandating memorisation of approximately 25,000 streets, 320 primary routes, and over 20,000 landmarks and points of interest within a six-mile radius of . Candidates undergo progressive examinations, including up to a dozen appearances before examiners, typically requiring three to four years of dedicated study without reliance on electronic aids to prioritise navigational efficiency and passenger trust. This process empirically tests recall under scrutiny, with successful completion enabling off-street hailing without pre-booking. Beyond navigational expertise, applicants must pass an enhanced (DBS) criminal background check, undergo a medical examination meeting DVLA Group 2 standards for physical and mental fitness (including vision, cardiovascular health, and neurological assessments), and satisfy a "fit and proper person" evaluation assessing character, prior convictions, and . Renewals require periodic rechecks, such as medicals every five years until age 65 and annually thereafter, to mitigate risks from health deterioration or criminality. A separate driving test evaluates considerate and safety-conscious road behaviour. These mechanisms prioritise verifiable competence and exclusion over broader , reflecting causal links between rigorous screening and reduced operational hazards in passenger transport.

Vehicle Specifications

Design and Accessibility Features

Hackney carriages feature a purpose-built saloon body designed to accommodate up to five passengers plus the driver, providing ample interior space with high ceilings and separate compartments for luggage. This configuration contrasts with standard sedans adapted for use, as the dedicated design incorporates reinforced chassis and suspension to endure continuous urban operation without premature wear. Key engineering traits include a minimum ground clearance of 10 inches (25 cm) to navigate curbs and uneven surfaces common in environments, alongside a compact turning circle of 25 feet (7.6 m) for maneuverability in tight spaces. The vehicles' durable construction supports high-mileage longevity, with models like the FX4 averaging 400,000 miles in service and exceeding 500,000 miles in less congested areas, far surpassing typical passenger cars due to specialized components engineered for 24/7 reliability. Similarly, TX4 variants routinely surpass 250,000 miles, reflecting robust build quality over adapted alternatives. Accessibility is integrated through features such as a 180-degree front passenger seat, allowing easier entry and exit for individuals with mobility limitations, and an intermediate access step that reduces entry . All licensed hackney carriages must include a deployable ramp and dedicated space, ensuring compliance with mandates for universal access since the early , with the mechanism and spacious interior facilitating independent transfers without assistance. These elements prioritize functional over aesthetic compromises, enabling the vehicles to serve diverse passengers in demanding operational conditions.

Approved Models and Technological Advances

The LTI TX series, produced by London Taxis International, dominated London's hackney carriage fleet from the late to the , with the manufactured from 1997 to 2002, the from 2002 to 2006, and the from 2007 to 2017. These models preserved the traditional black cab silhouette while enhancing mechanical reliability through diesel engines and improved suspension systems suited for urban operations. Succeeding the , the , introduced in 2018 by the London Electric Vehicle Company, became the sole purpose-built approved model for new hackney carriages, featuring technology with a 78-mile pure electric range and a total flexible range of 333 miles. This shift supported London's emission reduction goals, with the TX's eCity combining a 150 kW and a 1.5-liter petrol . Technological integrations in approved models include 9-inch systems, self-levelling LED headlights, and contactless card payment capabilities in the , facilitating modern passenger services without supplanting manual taximeters, which remain mandatory for verifiable fare calculation. GPS functionality is incorporated sparingly, primarily for auxiliary features like route logging rather than primary navigation, as drivers rely on memorized 'The Knowledge' expertise over satellite systems. TfL's vehicle approval testing enforces compliance with design standards, where non-conforming submissions—often non-purpose-built vehicles—exhibit failure rates around 20% in analogous operational compliance checks, underscoring the preference for certified models like the TX series to minimize rejection.

Operational and Economic Realities

Daily Operations and Fares

Hackney carriages in London offer continuous service availability 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with concentrations in urban cores where demand is highest. Vehicles can be hailed directly from the street when the roof-mounted "TAXI" sign is illuminated, signaling the driver is available for hire, or engaged at designated ranks established by Transport for London (TfL) across Greater London boroughs. Hailing involves standing curbside and raising an arm to attract an approaching cab, after which passengers confirm the destination with the driver before entering. Drivers are required by byelaw to accept hires for distances up to 12 miles (or 20 miles from Heathrow) or durations up to one hour within , except in cases of justified refusal such as unsafe passenger conditions, vehicle incompatibility, or trips extending significantly beyond the licensed area. Fares operate on a metered system comprising a minimum initial charge plus incremental rates for mileage and waiting or slow time, with maximums set by TfL bylaws to prevent overcharging. Effective from 26 April 2025, the minimum fare stands at £4.20 regardless of time or conditions. Three tariffs apply based on schedule: Tariff 1 for weekdays 05:00–20:00, with per-mile rates escalating after roughly six miles; Tariff 2 for evenings until 22:00 and daytime weekends; and Tariff 3 for nights 22:00–05:00 plus holidays, incorporating the highest multipliers. No surcharges apply for luggage, additional passengers, or assistance dogs, accommodating the vehicle's standard six-passenger capacity and accessibility features. Limited supplements exist, such as up to £2 for phone or app bookings and up to £6 for Heathrow terminal drop-offs from ranks. The displays the capped maximum due at journey's end, though fares may be negotiated lower in advance or for suburban extensions, but never exceed the metered figure without prior agreement.

Economic Pressures and Industry Viability

The acquisition and maintenance of licensed hackney carriages impose substantial financial burdens on operators and drivers. Compliant vehicles, such as the electric-hybrid model mandated for new registrations since , retail for £55,000 to £70,000, excluding additional costs for adaptations or leasing arrangements common among drivers. Operational expenses further strain margins, with annual costs for , insurance, maintenance, and compliance often exceeding £10,000 per vehicle, amid regulatory requirements for wheelchair accessibility and emissions standards. Driver entry barriers exacerbate these pressures, as the "Knowledge of London" training—requiring mastery of over 25,000 streets and points of interest—demands 2-4 years of part-time study, with preparatory courses costing £5,000 to £10,000, deterring new recruits. This has led to a precipitous drop in licensed drivers, from 25,000 in the early to 16,847 as of February 2025, with just 104 new licenses issued in 2024 versus 1,010 in 2016. Corresponding declines in fleet size underscore viability challenges: licensed hackney carriages numbered 22,810 in 2014 but fell to 14,800 by 2024, reflecting reduced profitability and operator exits. Average gross earnings for full-time black cab drivers hover at £35,000-£50,000 annually, dependent on 50-60 hour weeks and periods, yet many report net incomes eroded by 20-30% since the mid-2010s due to stagnant fares relative to cost . Sustainability hinges on tourism-driven , which accounts for a significant revenue share in , but post-pandemic recovery has been uneven, with profitability vulnerable to economic downturns and shifting consumer preferences toward app-based alternatives. Without reforms to mitigate entry costs or enhance fare structures—such as the 2025 adjustments raising minimum fares by 40p to £4.20—industry analyses project fleet numbers could approach zero by 2045 under current trends. Debates over potential cross-funding via Transport for London's licensing fees from private hire vehicles persist, though evidence of systemic subsidies remains limited, with fees primarily earmarked for enforcement and regulation.

Controversies and Debates

Competition with Ride-Hailing Services

Ride-hailing services, particularly , entered the London market on June 29, 2012, initially offering lower fares through its app-based model, which quickly disrupted traditional hackney carriage operations by capturing a significant portion of short-haul and pre-booked trips traditionally dominated by street-hailed black cabs. This competition intensified as 's surge pricing mechanism—dynamically adjusting fares based on real-time demand—enabled it to undercut fixed metered tariffs during off-peak periods, leading to reported income losses for black cab drivers estimated at up to 30-50% on comparable routes without surges. By 2014, the rivalry escalated, prompting widespread protests by approximately 10,000 black cab drivers on June 11, who blockaded routes to highlight plummeting earnings amid Uber's rapid expansion, though the action inadvertently boosted Uber app downloads by 850% as alternative transport demand surged. Empirical data underscores the market shift: licensed hackney carriages declined from 22,810 in 2013-14 to around 15,000 by 2023, while private hire vehicles (PHVs), including 's fleet exceeding 45,000 drivers, ballooned to 89,600, enabling ride-hailing to claim a dominant share of on-demand trips through lower base pricing and app convenience, albeit contributing to heightened urban congestion from increased vehicle miles traveled. Hackney carriages maintain fixed tariffs regulated by Transport for London, providing fare predictability that contrasts with Uber's variable surge pricing, which can inflate costs 2-3 times during peaks but incentivizes driver supply surges to balance demand— a causal dynamic absent in metered systems, potentially stabilizing hackney availability at high-demand nodes like airports yet limiting overall market responsiveness. In November 2023, Uber proposed integrating black cabs into its app for trip referrals starting early 2024, aiming to leverage their iconic status and fixed-fare reliability, but the initiative faced rejection from driver unions citing lack of consultation, branding dilution, and Uber's history of aggressive market tactics, resulting in limited uptake and no formal partnership materializing.

Safety and Protectionism Claims

Hackney carriage drivers in must demonstrate mastery of approximately 25,000 within a six-mile radius of through the rigorous "Knowledge of London" examination, a typically requiring two to four years of study and multiple exams, which equips them with internalized spatial skills that reduce reliance on potentially distracting GPS devices and minimize route-related errors during operation. This contrasts with private hire vehicles (PHVs), where drivers often depend on app-based routing, potentially increasing and diversion of attention from road conditions. While direct empirical studies linking the Knowledge to lower collision rates are limited, the test's emphasis on and hippocampal adaptation—observed in of licensed drivers—supports causally safer driving through enhanced and efficiency, as untrained navigation has been associated with higher error risks in transport psychology literature. Claims of superior safety for hackney carriages are substantiated by stricter and vehicle standards, including annual enhanced (DBS) checks, 96-point inspections, and mandatory wheelchair-accessible designs, which exceed PHV requirements and correlate with fewer passenger safeguarding incidents per licensed driver. In contrast, PHV operators like have faced repeated regulatory failures, including the 2017 revocation of 's by (TfL) for inadequate reporting of serious criminal offenses by drivers and insufficient background checks, exposing passengers to unvetted individuals. A subsequent 2019 stripping occurred after emerged of over 14,000 trips conducted by drivers using faked identities, highlighting systemic lapses in the PHV sector that hackney licensing mitigates through centralized, uniform enforcement. TfL judgments emphasized that such practices, including provision of uninsured services, posed "unacceptable risk" to public , underscoring how laxer PHV entry standards enabled these vulnerabilities. Critiques portraying hackney licensing as mere overlook that entry barriers—such as the and ongoing competency assessments—filter for skilled operators, preventing the standards dilution observed in PHVs post-ride-hailing expansion, where rapid scaling outpaced vetting capacity and led to documented criminal driver infiltration. Free-entry models in PHVs have empirically failed to self-regulate , as seen in TfL's identification of high-risk environments with elevated assault and exploitation rates, justifying regulated barriers that prioritize causal factors like driver proficiency over unrestricted . Aggregate road collision for taxis and PHVs combined shows approximately 9.3 incidents per 1,000 vehicles annually in , but disaggregated PHV-specific failures in —rather than overall crashes—provide the strongest case for licensing's protective role, as hackney protocols have not produced analogous systemic breaches. Hackney drivers' protests against PHV competition, including those targeting Uber's 2012 London entry, represent a rational response to uneven regulation rather than opposition, given PHVs' initial exemptions from equivalent geographic knowledge mandates and vehicle accessibility rules, which allowed regulatory and eroded public protections without commensurate safety offsets. While some UK-wide studies attribute ride-hailing to a 25% reduction in serious injuries overall—potentially via sober transport alternatives—these aggregate effects mask PHV-specific passenger risks from gaps, affirming that hackney standards address causal vulnerabilities in driver selection and operational reliability that freer PHV models have empirically exacerbated.

Global and Cultural Context

Variations in Other Jurisdictions

In , the system imposes supply limits akin to the UK's hackney carriage quotas but allocates permits via public auctions that introduce market pricing dynamics. Introduced under the Haas Act of 1937 to curb oversupply and stabilize fares, medallions were historically valued at up to $1.3 million in 2013 auctions before values plummeted to around $137,000 by 2019 amid ride-hailing competition. Australian taxi operations vary by state, with hybrid regulatory frameworks integrating traditional plate licenses for street-hailable vehicles alongside point-to-point services and ride-hailing integrations, diverging from the UK's emphasis on uniform vehicle standards and driver geography tests. States like and Victoria enforce accreditation for operators and vehicles, but entry barriers have eased in some areas to accommodate digital platforms, with up to 90% of urban fleets adopting hybrid powertrains for efficiency. Deregulation has swept global taxi markets since the 1970s, eliminating fixed quotas and in jurisdictions like (1990) and , often doubling license numbers and fostering new entrants while reducing fares in rural or competitive areas. Such reforms prioritize market entry over stringent proficiency exams equivalent to the UK's Knowledge test, yielding diverse safety records: some studies report stable or declining rates post-deregulation due to heightened , while others note quality variances from less vetted drivers.

Cultural Significance and Iconic Status

Hackney carriages, known as black cabs, embody 's identity, rivaling symbols like the and in evoking the city's character. Their origins trace to 17th-century horse-drawn vehicles, evolving into a standardized, purpose-built form that has persisted for decades, reinforcing their status as a visual hallmark in global perceptions of the British capital. In media and , black cabs frequently appear as authentic props in , , and promotional content, with production companies routinely hiring them to capture 's essence. This visibility extends to historical footage and modern narratives, where the cabs' distinctive shape and illuminated "" signs signify urban sophistication and reliability. cabbies' mastery of "The Knowledge"—an examination requiring memorization of 25,000 streets, 20,000 landmarks, and optimal routes—earns them acclaim as possessors of near-encyclopedic urban expertise, often likened to living guides who enhance passengers' experiences with historical and navigational insights. The cabs' cultural cachet contributes to London's brand value, drawing tourists who seek rides for the novelty and associating the vehicle with resilience, as during World War II Blitz evacuations. However, attachment to this nostalgic form has drawn critique for potentially slowing shifts toward electric models, despite the enduring appeal that sustains demand in heritage tours and media. Studies link the rigorous training to neurological adaptations, with cabbies exhibiting enlarged hippocampi for spatial memory, underscoring the cognitive rigor behind their lore.

Recent Developments and Future Outlook

Shift to Electric and Sustainable Models

The London Electric Vehicle Company (LEVC) introduced the TX model in 2018 as a taxi designed to meet Transport for London's mandate requiring all new hackney carriages to be zero-emission capable, effectively phasing out pure diesel vehicles. The TX features a 31-38 kWh battery providing an electric-only range of approximately 51-70 miles under WLTP testing, with a total range exceeding 370 miles when supplemented by its 1.5-liter petrol , enabling compliance with the (ULEZ) standards that expanded across in 2019 and beyond. By 2025, adoption of the TX has surpassed 60% of London's licensed taxi fleet, with over 9,000 units in operation, collectively logging more than one billion miles and preventing an estimated 15,000 kg of NOx emissions compared to equivalent diesel models. Each TX replacing an older diesel taxi reduces NOx emissions by up to 94%, while weighted CO2 output stands at 20 g/km, a substantial drop from pre-2018 diesel cabs emitting hundreds of grams per km under real-world conditions. These shifts align with empirical data showing TX vehicles operating primarily on electric power for urban shifts—often 80% or more—yielding near-zero tailpipe emissions during battery use and supporting London's air quality targets. Despite these gains, challenges persist, including upfront costs exceeding £66,000 for base models (with most sales at higher Vista specification around £75,000), which exceed traditional diesel cabs by a factor of two or more before grants. Real-world electric range often falls short of lab figures, particularly in winter or , limited to 40-50 miles per charge, necessitating frequent refueling or charging that strains shift efficiency. Battery longevity remains under scrutiny, with some operators reporting degradation after 2-3 years of intensive use, though LEVC warrants batteries for 8 years or 200,000 miles, backed by ongoing fleet data indicating sustained performance in city operations. Government incentives like the Plug-in Taxi Grant, totaling over £50 million for 9,000+ vehicles since 2017, have mitigated costs but ended in 2024, prompting concerns over future affordability without policy support.

Projections of Decline and Policy Responses

The number of licensed hackney carriages in has declined sharply, falling from 22,810 in 2014 to 14,800 in 2024, representing a reduction of approximately 35 percent over the decade. This trend accelerated post-2019, with only 104 new black cab licenses issued in 2024 compared to 1,010 in 2016, amid rising operational costs from zero-emission mandates and competition from private hire vehicles (PHVs). A March 2025 report by the Centre for projects that, absent changes, the fleet could reach zero by 2045 if the current annual attrition rate of around 1,000 vehicles persists, driven by low recruitment and high barriers like the Knowledge of London examination. In response, (TfL) outlined measures in its 2025 Taxi and Private Hire to stem the decline, including targeted support for driver retention and vehicle upgrades, while emphasizing enforcement against unlicensed operations. The London Assembly's Transport Committee, in an October 2025 report, urged extending the £7,500 grant for low-emission taxis, reforming the Knowledge test to reduce entry barriers, and exploring caps on PHV licenses to curb what it termed "unfair competition" from ride-hailing apps. endorsed these steps, announcing initiatives to boost black cab viability without direct subsidies, amid concerns over reliance—hackney carriages handle a disproportionate share of and visitor trips despite comprising under 10 percent of licensed vehicles. Critics of protectionist policies, including some transport economists, argue that stringent regulations—such as mandatory accessibility and the multi-year requirement—elevate costs by 20-30 percent relative to PHVs, contributing to the viability squeeze rather than solely external competition. from deregulated markets, like Ireland's 2000 removal of quantity controls which increased supply by over 500 percent and lowered fares without quality collapse, suggests that easing barriers could enhance overall mobility and sustain viable subsets of the trade through market adaptation rather than bailouts or quotas. Nonetheless, the Centre for London report cautions that unchecked PHV growth, now exceeding 100,000 drivers, risks eroding the specialized service hackney carriages provide for vulnerable passengers and peak-demand hailing, underscoring a tension between and regulated standards.

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