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from Wikipedia
 Miso | |
| Alternative names | Soybean paste, 味噌 (Japanese) |
|---|---|
| Type | Seasoning |
| Place of origin | Japan |
| Associated cuisine | Japanese |
| Main ingredients | Fermented soybeans, salt, kōji (Aspergillus oryzae) |
Miso (みそ or 味噌) is a traditional Japanese seasoning. It is a thick paste produced by fermenting soybeans with salt and kōji (the fungus Aspergillus oryzae), and sometimes rice, barley, seaweed, or other ingredients. It is used for sauces and spreads; pickling vegetables, fish, or meats; and mixing with dashi soup stock to serve as miso soup, a Japanese culinary staple food. Miso is high in protein and rich in minerals, and it played an important nutritional role in feudal Japan. Miso is widely used in both traditional and modern cooking in Japan, and as of 2018 had been gaining worldwide interest.[1]
Typically, miso is salty, but its flavor and aroma depend on the ingredients and fermentation process. Different varieties of miso have been variously described as salty, sweet, earthy, fruity, or savory.
History
[edit]
The origin of miso in Japan is not completely clear.
- Grain and fish misos had been manufactured in Japan since the Neolithic era (Jōmon period, 14,000–300 BC).[2] These are called jōmon miso and are similar to the early fish- and soy-based sauces produced throughout East Asia.
- This miso predecessor originated in China during the third century BC. Hishio (醤) and other fermented soy-based foods likely were introduced to Japan at the same time as Buddhism in the sixth century AD.[3][4] This fermented food was called shi (Chinese: 豉; pinyin: Shì). The beginning of the current origin of miso is mishō or mishou (未醤) in the Nara period (710–794);[5][6] with hishio still meaning beans. It is believed that the word changed to Misho and then Miso.[5][6]
In the Kamakura period (1185–1333), a common meal was made up of a bowl of rice, some dried fish, a serving of miso, and a fresh vegetable. Until the Muromachi period (1337 to 1573), miso was made without grinding the soybeans, somewhat like nattō. In the Muromachi era, Buddhist monks discovered that soybeans could be ground into a paste, spawning new methods using miso to flavor other foods. In medieval times, the word temaemiso, meaning homemade miso, appeared. Miso production is relatively simple, so homemade versions spread throughout Japan. Miso was used as military provisions during the Sengoku period, and making miso was an important economic activity for daimyōs of that era.
During the Edo period (1603–1868), miso was also called hishio (醤) and kuki (豆支)[7][8] and various types of miso that fit with each local climate and culture emerged throughout Japan.
Today, miso is produced industrially in large quantities, and traditional homemade miso has become a rarity. In recent years, many new types of miso have appeared, including ones with added soup stocks or calcium, made with beans other than soy, or having reduced salt for health, among other varieties available.
-
Recreation of miso fermentation process -
Six shaku fermentation barrel, 1839 -
Miso packed for transport. Meiji period, 1910
Ingredients
[edit]| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 831 kJ (199 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
26.47 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sugars | 6.2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 5.4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
6.01 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Saturated | 1.139 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Monounsaturated | 1.242 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Polyunsaturated | 3.204 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
11.69 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Water | 50 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alcohol (ethanol) | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[9] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[10] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The ingredients used to produce miso may include any mix of soybeans, barley, rice, buckwheat, millet, rye, wheat, hemp seed, and cycad, among others. Lately, producers in other countries have also begun selling miso made from chickpeas, corn, azuki beans, amaranth, and quinoa. Fermentation time ranges from as little as five days to several years. The variety of Japanese miso is difficult to classify but is commonly done by grain type, color, taste, and background.
- mugi (麦): barley
- tsubu (粒): whole wheat/barley
- genmai (玄米): brown rice
- moromi (醪): chunky, healthy (kōji is unblended)
- nanban (南蛮): mixed with hot chili pepper for dipping sauce
- taima (大麻): hemp seed
- sobamugi (蕎麦): buckwheat
- hadakamugi (裸麦): Highland barley
- nari (蘇鉄): made from cycad pulp, Buddhist temple diet
- gokoku (五穀): "five-grain": soy, wheat, barley, proso millet, and foxtail millet
Many regions have their own specific variation on the miso standard. For example, the soybeans used in Sendai miso are much more coarsely mashed than in normal soy miso.
Miso made with rice such as shinshu miso (信州味噌) and shiro miso (白味噌) is called kome miso (米味噌).
Types and flavor
[edit]
Miso's taste, aroma, texture, and appearance vary by region and season. Other important variables that contribute to a particular miso's flavor include temperature, fermentation duration, salt content, variety of kōji, and fermenting vessel. The most common flavor categories of miso are:
- Shiromiso (白味噌), "white miso"
- Akamiso (赤味噌), "red miso"
- Awasemiso (合わせ味噌), "mixed miso"
Although white and red (shiromiso and akamiso) are the most common misos available, different varieties may be preferred in particular regions of Japan. In the eastern Kantō region that includes Tokyo, the darker brownish akamiso is popular while in the western Kansai region encompassing Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe, the lighter shiromiso is preferred.
A more nuanced breakdown of the flavors is as follows:
- Kome miso (米味噌) or "rice miso" can be yellow, yellowish white, red, etc. Whitish miso is made from boiled soybeans, and reddish miso is made from steamed soybeans. Kome miso is consumed more in eastern Japan and the Hokuriku and Kinki areas.
- Mugi miso (麦味噌) or "barley miso" is a whitish miso produced in Kyushu, western Chugoku, and Shikoku areas. Another reddish mugi miso is produced in the northern Kanto area. Mugi miso has a peculiar smell.
- Mame miso (豆味噌) or "soybean miso" is a darker, more reddish brown than kome miso. This is not as sweet as some other varieties, but it has some astringency and good umami (旨味) flavor. This miso requires a long maturing term. Mame miso is consumed mostly in Aichi prefecture, Gifu prefecture, and Mie prefecture. Soybean (grain-free) miso is also labeled hatchō miso (八丁味噌).[11] Hatchō miso is an Okazaki, Aichi specialty and has its origins in Mikawa Province during the Sengoku period. The processing method with large wooden barrels and stones on the lid remains unchanged.
- Chōgō (調合) or Awase (合わせ) miso, or "mixed miso", comes in many types because it is a mixture or compound of other varieties of miso. This may improve the weak points of each type of miso. For example, mame miso is very salty, but when combined with kome miso, the finished product has a mild taste.
- Akamiso (赤味噌) or red miso is aged, sometimes for more than one year. As a result, due to the Maillard reaction, the color changes gradually from white to red or black, thus giving it the name red miso. Characteristics of the flavor are saltiness and some astringency with umami. It is often a much stronger-tasting miso. Factors in the depth of color are the formula of the soybeans and the quantity used. Generally, steamed soybeans are more deeply colored than boiled soybeans.
- Shiromiso (白味噌) or white miso is the most widely produced miso, made in many regions of the country. Its main ingredients are rice, barley, and a small quantity of soybeans. If more soybeans were added, the miso would be red or brown. Compared with red miso, white miso has a very short fermentation time. The taste is sweet, and the umami is soft or light (compared to red miso).
Chemical properties of flavor and aroma compounds
[edit]
The distinct and unique aroma of miso determines its quality. Many reactions occur among the components of miso, primarily the Maillard reaction, a non-enzymatic reaction of an amino group with a reducing sugar. The volatile compounds produced from this reaction give miso its characteristic flavor and aroma. Depending on the microorganism in combination with the variety of soybean or cereal used, many flavor compounds are produced that give rise to the different types of miso. Fermentation products such as furanone compounds, including 4-hydroxy-2(or 5)-ethyl-5(or 2)-methyl-3(2H)-furanone (HEMF) and 4-hydroxy-2,5 dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone (HDMF) are novel flavor compounds of miso.[12] HEMF is especially known for its sweet aroma and is very important for the sensory evaluation of the aroma of rice miso.[12]
The unique sensory properties of miso are complex. The key factor in the final product's overall quality is the microorganisms' enzymatic activity. They use the composition of miso (rice, barley, and soybeans) to produce different pigments, flavors, and aroma compounds.
Proteolysis of soybean protein produces constituent amino acids that impart an umami taste that enhances the relatively dull taste of soybean by itself.[12] Soy protein contains a substantial amount of glutamate, the salt of which is known as MSG or monosodium glutamate, a popular ingredient used by food manufacturers to improve the taste of their products.[13] The umami effect of MSG itself is one-dimensional. The umami taste of miso is multidimensional because of the myriad amino acids and fermentation products.
Barley miso is a traditional farmhouse variety made for personal use. Often called "rural miso", domestic barley is used more than imported barley. Containing glutamic acid and aromatic compounds such as ferulic acid and vanillic acid, barley miso is distinguished by a characteristic flavor.[12]
Fermentation
[edit]
Miso's unique properties and flavor profile can be attributed to the compounds produced through the fermentation process. Miso, depending on the variety, consists of a starter culture called kōji (麹), soybeans, and usually a grain (either rice, barley, or rye).[14] The miso goes through a two-step process; first creating the kōji, and second the kōji is combined with the other components, and the mixture is left to be enzymatically digested, fermented and aged.
Creating koji
[edit]
Koji is produced by introducing the mold Aspergillus oryzae onto steamed white rice. This mold culture comes from dried A. oryzae spores called tane-kōji (種麹, たねこうじ) or "starter koji" and is isolated from plant matter (usually rice) and cultivated.[15] In the past, the natural presence of A. oryzae spores was relied upon to create koji, but because of the difficulty of producing the culture, tane-kōji is added almost exclusively in both industrial and traditional production of miso. Tane-kōji is produced much in the same way as koji, but also has a small portion of wood ash added to the mixture[16] which gives important nutrients to the fungus as well as promoting sporulation.
A. oryzae is an aerobic fungus and is the most active fermenting agent in koji[14] as it produces amylolytic, and proteolytic enzymes which are essential to creating the final miso product. Amylolytic enzymes such as amylase aid in the breakdown of starch in the grains to sugar and dextrin,[17] while proteolytic enzymes such as protease catalyze the breakdown of proteins into smaller peptides or amino acids. These both aid in the enzymatic digestion of rice and soybeans. Depending on the strain of A. oryzae, the enzymatic composition varies, thereby changing the characteristics of the final miso product. For example, the strain used to create the sweeter white miso would likely produce a higher content of amylolytic enzymes, while comparatively, soybean miso might have a higher content of proteolytic enzymes.
To create optimal conditions for enzymatic production and the growth of A. oryzae, the koji's environment must be carefully regulated. Temperature, humidity, and oxygen content are all important factors in maximizing mold growth and enzyme production and preventing other harmful bacteria from producing. Once the koji has reached a desirable flavor profile, it is usually mixed with salt to prevent further fermentation.[18]
Although other strains of fungi have been used to produce koji, A. oryzae is the most desirable because of several properties, including the fact that it does not produce aflatoxin.[16]
Storage and preparation
[edit]
Miso typically comes as a paste in a sealed container requiring refrigeration after opening. Natural miso is a living food containing many beneficial microorganisms such as Tetragenococcus halophilus, which can be killed by overcooking. For this reason, the miso should be added to soups or other foods prepared just before they are removed from the heat. Using miso without any cooking may be even better.[19]
Usage
[edit].jpg)
Miso is a part of many Japanese-style meals. It most commonly appears as the main ingredient of miso soup, which is eaten daily by much of the Japanese population. The pairing of plain rice and miso soup is a fundamental unit of Japanese cuisine. This pairing is the basis of a traditional Japanese breakfast.
Miso is used in many other types of soup and soup-like dishes, including some kinds of ramen, udon, nabe, and imoni. Generally, such dishes have the title miso prefixed to their name (for example, miso-udon) and have a heavier, earthier flavor and aroma than other Japanese soups that are not miso-based.
Many traditional confections use a sweet, thick miso glaze, such as mochi and dango. Miso-glazed treats are strongly associated with Japanese festivals, although they are available year-round at supermarkets. The consistency of miso glaze ranges from thick and taffy-like to thin and drippy.
Soybean miso is used to make a type of pickle called misozuke.[20] These pickles are typically made from cucumber, daikon, napa cabbage, or eggplant, and are sweeter and less salty than the standard Japanese salt pickle.
Other foods with miso as an ingredient include:
- dengaku (miso sweetened with molasses used for grilling)
- yakimochi (charcoal-grilled mochi covered in miso)
- miso-braised vegetables or mushrooms
- marinades: fish or chicken can be mixed with miso and rice wine overnight to be grilled
- corn on the cob in Japan is often coated with shiro miso, wrapped in foil and grilled
- sauces: sauces like misoyaki (a variant on teriyaki)
- dips: used as a dip to eat with vegetables (e.g., cucumbers, daikon, carrots, etc.)
- side dish: miso is often eaten as a condiment and a side dish. Mixed or cooked miso with spices or vegetables is called okazu-miso (おかず味噌), often eaten along with hot rice or spread over onigiri
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Nutrition and health
[edit]Claims that miso is high in vitamin B12 have been contradicted in some studies.[21]
Some experts suggest that miso is a source of Lactobacillus acidophilus.[22] Miso is relatively high in salt which could contribute to increased blood pressure in the small percentage of the population with sodium-sensitive prehypertension or hypertension. Several studies using salt-sensitive hypertensive models and analyzing long-term intake have suggested that miso lessens salt's effects on blood pressure.[23][24][25]
See also
[edit]
- Dòubànjiàng (豆瓣醬)
- Doenjang (된장)
- Dòuchǐ (豆豉)
- Hozon (保存)
- Fermented bean paste
- List of fermented soy products
- Marukome (マルコメ), a Japanese miso soup paste producer
- Soy sauce
- Tauco (Chinese: 豆醬; pinyin: dòujiàng; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: tāu-chiùⁿ)
- Tương
- Yellow soybean paste
- Nattō (納豆)
- Marmite Yeast extract
References
[edit]- ^ Global Miso Market 2018-2022 (Technical report). Research and Markets. 27 March 2018. IRTNTR21132. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
- ^ "お味噌の歴史 (The History of Miso)" (in Japanese). Yamajirushi Jyozo. Retrieved 2013-11-20.
- ^ Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko (2009). History of Miso, Soybean Jiang (China), Jang (Korea) and Tauco (Indonesia) (200 BC-2009). Soyinfo Center. p. 627. ISBN 978-1-928914-22-8.
- ^ Albala, Ken (2007). Beans: a history. Berg Publishers. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-84520-430-3.
- ^ a b "Open innovation of Marukome and Panasonic to create "New Miso Life"". Panasonic.com. Naoaki Yamamoto. 2018-03-07. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
- ^ a b "The origin of miso". Abokichi.com. Yumi Miyamoto. 2017-03-02. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
- ^ khintan (2020-12-02). "All About Miso & Miso Soup Recipe". Indoindians.com. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
- ^ Writers, YABAI (16 May 2017). "Everything You Need to Know About Miso Paste | YABAI - The Modern, Vibrant Face of Japan". YABAI. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ "TABLE 4-7 Comparison of Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in This Report to Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in the 2005 DRI Report". p. 120. In: Stallings, Virginia A.; Harrison, Meghan; Oria, Maria, eds. (2019). "Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. pp. 101–124. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. NCBI NBK545428.
- ^ "Recipes for Hatcho Miso". NaturalImport.com. Archived from the original on 8 September 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
- ^ a b c d Steinkraus, Keith (2004). Industrialization of Indigenous Fermented Foods, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. pp. 99–142.
- ^ Inoue, Yutaka (2016). "Analysis of the cooked aroma and odorants that contribute to umami aftertaste of soy miso (Japanese soybean paste)". Food Chemistry. 213: 521–528. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.06.106. PMID 27451212.
- ^ a b Davidson, Jaine; Alan, Tom (2014). "miso" The Oxford Companion to Food (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199677337.
- ^ Steinkraus, Keith H., ed. (1989). Industrialization of indigenous fermented foods. New York: M. Dekker. pp. 99–112. ISBN 978-0824780746.
- ^ a b Robinson, Richard K. (2000). Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, Volumes 1–3. Elsevier. pp. 66, 67.
- ^ "amylolytic, adj". OED Online. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
- ^ Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko (2001). The book of miso. savory, high-protein seasoning (2nd ed.). Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. pp. 232–237. ISBN 978-1580083362.
- ^ Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko (2001). The book of miso: savory, high-protein seasoning. Soyinfo Center. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-58008-336-2.
- ^ "Misozuke Recipe (Japanese miso pickle)". Whats4eats.com. Brad Harvey. 26 July 2008. Archived from the original on 2006-11-21. Retrieved 2013-11-20.
- ^ "Vitamin B12". The Vegetarian Society. The Vegetarian Society of the United Kingdom Limited. Archived from the original on August 22, 2008. Retrieved December 28, 2010.
- ^ Ehrlich, Steven D. (2011-05-24). "Lactobacillus acidophilus". University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC). Retrieved 2013-11-20.
- ^ Ito, Koji (2020-08-31). "Review of the health benefits of habitual consumption of miso soup: focus on the effects on sympathetic nerve activity, blood pressure, and heart rate". Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine. 25 (1) 45. Bibcode:2020EHPM...25...45I. doi:10.1186/s12199-020-00883-4. ISSN 1347-4715. PMC 7461326. PMID 32867671.
- ^ Kondo, Hiroaki; Sakuyama Tomari, Hiroe; Yamakawa, Shoko; Kitagawa, Manabu; Yamada, Minami; Itou, Seiki; Yamamoto, Tetsuro; Uehara, Yoshio (November 2019). "Long-term intake of miso soup decreases nighttime blood pressure in subjects with high-normal blood pressure or stage I hypertension". Hypertension Research. 42 (11): 1757–1767. doi:10.1038/s41440-019-0304-9. ISSN 1348-4214. PMC 8076009. PMID 31371810.
- ^ Du, Dong Dong; Yoshinaga, Mariko; Sonoda, Masaru; Kawakubo, Kiyoshi; Uehara, Yoshio (2014). "Blood pressure reduction by Japanese traditional Miso is associated with increased diuresis and natriuresis through dopamine system in Dahl salt-sensitive rats". Clinical and Experimental Hypertension. 36 (5): 359–366. doi:10.3109/10641963.2013.827702. ISSN 1525-6006. PMID 24047246. S2CID 207516579.
Further reading
[edit]- Farnworth, Edward R. (2003). Handbook of Fermented Functional Foods. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-1372-1.
External links
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Miso.
- Miso Online Japan Miso Promotion Board
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from Grokipedia
Miso is a traditional Japanese fermented seasoning paste produced by combining steamed soybeans with salt and koji—a mold culture primarily consisting of Aspergillus oryzae—and allowing the mixture to ferment for periods ranging from one month to several years.[1] This semisolid condiment, rich in umami flavor from glutamates and other amino acids, serves as a fundamental ingredient in Japanese cuisine, most notably in miso soup, which forms part of the everyday "ichiju sansai" meal structure of one soup and three sides.[2] Originating from ancient Chinese soybean pastes known as "jiang," miso was introduced to Japan around the 7th century and evolved into a staple by the Edo period (1603–1868), when industrial production began to make it accessible beyond elites.[3]
The production process begins with soaking and steaming soybeans, which are then mashed and mixed with koji (cultured on grains like rice or barley) and salt, initiating a complex fermentation involving enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids and starches into sugars, while bacteria and yeasts such as Tetragenococcus halophilus and Zygosaccharomyces rouxii contribute to flavor development.[1] Fermentation occurs in large vats at temperatures of 25–30°C, with maturation times determining the paste's color, texture, and intensity—from light and sweet varieties aged briefly to dark, robust ones aged longer.[2] Miso varieties are classified by the grain used for koji, including rice miso (which accounts for about 80% of production and is milder), barley miso (sweeter and lighter, common in western Japan), and pure soybean miso (darker and more intense, often from central regions); further distinctions arise from salt content, color (white, yellow, red), and regional styles like Sendai or Shinshu miso.[3]
Beyond its culinary role in soups, glazes, dressings, and pickling, miso holds cultural significance as a core element of washoku, Japan's UNESCO-recognized traditional dietary culture emphasizing balance and seasonality.[1] Nutritionally, it provides 9.7–17.2 grams of protein, essential amino acids, vitamins (including B and K), minerals, and bioactive compounds like soy isoflavones and melanoidin per 100 grams, supporting digestion, antioxidant activity, and potentially reducing mortality risk from chronic diseases, as evidenced by large cohort studies.[1][3]
These nutrients provide a foundation for miso's role in balanced diets, with potential implications for gut health from its fermented components.[50]
History and Origins
Ancient Development
The origins of miso trace back to ancient China, where fermented soybean pastes known as jiang emerged as early as 200 BCE, serving as precursors to the modern condiment. These pastes, documented in texts such as the Wushi’er Bing Fang from the Han dynasty, initially combined soybeans with grains, salt, and sometimes meat or fish, valued for their preservative qualities and nutritional benefits in a pre-refrigeration era.[4] By the Han period (206 BCE–220 CE), jiang had evolved into a staple seasoning, with recipes detailed in agricultural treatises like the Ch’i-min Yao-shu (544 CE), highlighting its role in enhancing flavors and providing protein.[4] This Chinese innovation reached Japan around the 6th to 7th centuries CE, primarily through Buddhist monks traveling via the Korean Peninsula, who introduced vegetarian fermentation techniques aligned with monastic dietary restrictions. Official production began in 701 CE with the establishment of the Hishio Tsukasa, a government office for hishio (an early form of miso), as recorded in the Taihô Ritsuryô legal code.[4] By the Nara period (710–794 CE), miso appears in key Japanese texts like the Nihon Shoki (720 CE) and Engi Shiki (927 CE), where it was primarily used in Buddhist temples for its long shelf life and high-protein content, supporting monks during fasting and travel.[4] Archaeological evidence from this era, including storage vessels at temple sites, corroborates its institutional role in preservation and nutrition.[4] During the Heian period (794–1185 CE), the term "miso" first entered written records in the Sandai Jitsuroku (901–908 CE), marking its distinction from Chinese jiang as a rice- or barley-based paste adapted to Japanese ingredients. Excavations at Heian-period sites have uncovered miso crocks and fermentation jars, indicating widespread domestic and elite production, often as a luxury item using polished rice.[4] By the subsequent Kamakura period (1185–1333 CE), miso had become integral to samurai diets, prized as a portable, nutrient-dense food that provided sustained energy for warriors on campaigns, with variants like Kinzanji miso emerging through continued Buddhist exchanges.[4]Global Spread and Evolution
Miso's dissemination beyond Japan began in the 16th century through European contact, primarily via Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries who encountered the paste during early trade and missionary activities in Japan. As early as 1583, Jesuit Alessandro Valignano purchased miso in Japan, while Francesco Carletti described it as "misol" in 1597 during his travels in Nagasaki, marking one of the first European references to the product. A 1603 Jesuit dictionary further detailed miso as a fermented soybean seasoning, facilitating its conceptual introduction to Europe, though physical exports remained limited due to Japan's isolationist policies until the mid-19th century.[4] Significant exports commenced in the 19th century, coinciding with Japan's opening to international trade following the 1853 arrival of Commodore Perry's fleet. By 1818, miso shipments reached Batavia (modern-day Indonesia), followed by exports to Canton in 1844 (1,108 piculs) and Liverpool in 1850 (100 jars), often carried by Japanese emigrants to places like Hawaii in 1868. Miso gained visibility at world expositions, including Vienna in 1873, Paris in 1878, and London in 1884, where it was showcased alongside soy products, boosting interest in Western markets despite modest volumes compared to soy sauce.[4] During World War II, miso served as a key nutritional component in Japanese military provisions and indirectly entered Allied contexts through internment camps and postwar aid. Japanese soldiers relied on compressed rations containing miso paste for its portability and protein content, while in U.S. internment camps like Manzanar, over 15,000 pounds of miso were distributed to Japanese Americans by June 1945 to support dietary needs. Postwar, Allied relief efforts included miso in CARE packages sent to Japan starting in April 1948, aiding recovery and introducing the product to American humanitarian networks. This exposure sparked U.S. interest in the 1950s through the macrobiotic movement, led by Michio Kushi, who arrived in 1949 and began promoting miso as a health staple via teachings and the 1966 founding of Erewhon Natural Foods, which sold macrobiotic products including miso.[4][5] In the 20th century, miso's evolution reflected parallels with East Asian counterparts like Korean doenjang—documented in 1145 CE texts and produced industrially by 1972—and Chinese doubanjiang, a spicy fermented bean paste sharing ancient soybean fermentation roots. Western adaptations surged in the 1970s amid vegan and natural foods trends, with companies like Westbrae Natural Foods launching miso products in 1971 and Eden Foods expanding distribution by 1979, incorporating it into vegan recipes for soups and dressings. The 1980s health food boom in Europe and America, fueled by macrobiotic advocates like Kushi, saw rapid growth: Erewhon offered 4,000 natural products by 1981, South River Miso Company began artisanal production in 1982, and European importers like Lima Foods entered the market in 1985, capitalizing on post-Chernobyl interest in fermented foods for their probiotic benefits. By the 1990s, miso exports from Japan had increased tenfold from 1977 levels, reaching 10,083 tons in 2012 and further growing to 23,497 tons in 2024, underscoring its global integration.[4][6][7]Production Process
Key Ingredients
The primary ingredients in miso production are soybeans, koji mold, salt, and often grains such as rice or barley. Soybeans serve as the foundational base, supplying the essential proteins that are broken down during fermentation to contribute to the paste's structure and nutritional profile. Koji mold, specifically Aspergillus oryzae, is inoculated onto grains to produce enzymes like proteases and amylases that facilitate the breakdown of proteins and starches. Salt acts as a preservative by inhibiting unwanted microbial growth while enhancing flavor balance. Grains like rice or barley are commonly used as substrates for koji development, with rice yielding lighter misos and barley contributing to sweeter varieties.[2][1] Ingredient ratios vary by miso type and desired flavor, but soybeans typically comprise 50-70% of the total mixture, koji or grains 20-30%, and salt 10-15%. For instance, a common proportion is 1:1:0.5 for soybeans to koji to salt by weight, though higher koji ratios (e.g., up to 50% or more relative to soybeans) produce sweeter results, while elevated salt levels (12-14%) yield saltier profiles. Organic soybeans are preferred in artisanal production for their potentially superior flavor and absence of synthetic pesticides, though conventional varieties are more widely used in large-scale manufacturing due to cost efficiency.[2][8][9] Water plays a crucial role as the fermentation medium, hydrating the mashed soybeans, koji, and salt to enable enzymatic activity, with high-quality filtered water recommended to avoid impurities that could affect the final product. In sourcing, heirloom soybean varieties from regions like Hokkaido, such as Toyomusume or Yukipirika, are valued for their high protein content and adaptability to cooler climates, often used in local miso to enhance regional authenticity. Modern production increasingly avoids genetically modified organisms (GMOs), as Japanese food-grade soybeans for traditional miso are predominantly non-GMO to meet consumer preferences and regulatory standards for purity.[10][11][12] Specialty misos occasionally incorporate rare additions like seaweed for subtle umami depth or nuts for texture in niche varieties, though these remain uncommon compared to standard formulations. These ingredients interact during the initial mixing stage to initiate enzymatic processes that define miso's characteristic profile.[13]Fermentation Techniques
The fermentation of miso begins with the primary process of mixing cooked soybeans with koji as the starter culture, salt, and water to form a paste known as shikomi.[14] This mixture undergoes anaerobic fermentation, traditionally in cedar vats, where it is left to mature for periods ranging from 6 months to 5 years, allowing enzymes from the koji to break down proteins and carbohydrates into flavorful compounds.[15] The key stages include inoculation by combining the ingredients, mashing to homogenize the paste, packing into sealed containers to initiate fermentation, and aging under controlled conditions to develop depth.[1] Fermentation conditions are carefully managed to support microbial activity, with temperatures typically maintained between 15-25°C to favor the growth of lactic acid bacteria such as Tetragenococcus halophilus and yeasts like Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, which contribute to acidity, alcohol production, and overall flavor complexity.[15] These microorganisms thrive in the high-salt environment (around 10-12% salt content), driving the slow breakdown of starches and proteins while preventing spoilage.[14] Periodic aeration techniques, such as tenchi-gaeshi (inverting the mash), may be applied in traditional settings to balance oxygen levels without fully disrupting the anaerobic process.[1] Traditional Japanese methods emphasize manual intervention, including hand-stirring of the mash to ensure even fermentation and the use of wooden cedar vats that impart subtle aromatic notes over time.[15] In contrast, modern industrial production employs mechanized mixing and stainless steel or epoxy-coated vats for efficiency, often followed by pasteurization to halt fermentation and enhance shelf stability, allowing for year-round distribution without compromising safety.[14] Fermentation duration varies by miso type to achieve desired characteristics: lighter, milder misos such as white or rice-based varieties undergo shorter periods of 6-12 months, resulting in a sweeter profile, while darker, umami-rich misos like red or soybean-only types require 2-5 years of extended aging to intensify savory notes through prolonged microbial action.[1]Koji Preparation
Koji preparation is a critical initial stage in miso production, involving the cultivation of Aspergillus oryzae mold—commonly referred to as koji-kin—on steamed grains or soybeans to generate enzymes essential for subsequent fermentation.[1] The process begins with selecting and preparing the substrate: rice is steamed for 40-60 minutes until partially cooked, barley undergoes similar treatment adjusted for its higher protein content, and soybeans are steamed and formed into balls of 15-40 mm diameter to facilitate even mold growth.[1] These substrates are then inoculated with koji-kin spores at a concentration of approximately 5 × 10^5 per gram, ensuring uniform distribution to initiate mycelial growth.[1] The inoculated substrate is incubated at temperatures between 30-40°C, typically starting at 28-32°C and rising to 35-38°C depending on the desired flavor profile, for a duration of 40-50 hours to allow mycelium development.[1] Environmental controls are paramount: humidity is maintained at 90-95% to prevent drying and promote spore germination, while aeration is achieved through manual mixing—known as teire and tenchi-gaeshi—every 8-12 hours to supply oxygen, dissipate heat, and inhibit contamination by unwanted microbes.[1] These conditions foster aerobic fungal growth, with the substrate turned periodically to ensure even enzyme production across all particles.[1] Historically, koji was prepared using the tray method in dedicated attic spaces called koji-muro, insulated with rice straw and husks for temperature stability, where workers manually loaded steamed grains onto wooden trays, kneaded them with spores, and rearranged piles over the 40-hour cycle.[16] Since the 1920s, modern lab-based production of koji-kin has emerged through pure culture isolation techniques, beginning with strain developments in 1926 that confirmed spores as the sole source of mold, enabling reproducible, contamination-free starters propagated on controlled substrates like rice or barley.[17] Contemporary methods employ mechanical systems with automated ventilation and stainless steel chambers to regulate conditions precisely, reducing labor while maintaining consistency.[1] Quality of the finished koji is assessed by visual and biochemical indicators: successful preparation yields a dense, fluffy white mycelium coverage with deep hyphal penetration and minimal discoloration, signaling robust growth.[1] Enzymatic activity serves as a key metric, with high levels of amylase (such as Taka-amylase and glucoamylase) for starch breakdown in rice or barley koji, and proteases for protein hydrolysis in soybean varieties, tailoring the koji's saccharification and peptidization capabilities for miso integration.[1]Varieties and Characteristics
Regional Types
Miso varieties in Japan are distinguished by their geographic origins, which influence the choice of base ingredients, fermentation duration, and resulting physical properties. In the Kyoto region of the Kansai area, saikyo shiro miso, a type of white miso, is produced primarily from rice koji and soybeans, resulting in a mild, pale yellow paste with a smooth texture suitable for delicate applications.[18][19] This rice-based variety ferments for a shorter period, typically one to two months, yielding a lighter color compared to longer-aged types.[20] In the Aichi Prefecture around Nagoya, hatcho miso represents a distinctive soybean-only variety, made without added grains and fermented for up to two years in wooden kegs, producing a thick, dark red to brown paste with a denser, sometimes slightly chunky consistency due to the absence of rice or barley.[18][21] This pure mame miso type contrasts with blended awase miso, which combines rice and soybeans for a more balanced profile.[2] The Sendai region in Miyagi Prefecture is known for mugi miso, a barley-based variety that incorporates barley koji with soybeans, leading to a reddish-brown paste with a semi-smooth texture and moderate fermentation time of six to twelve months.[18][22] Across these Japanese types, colors range from light yellow in rice-dominant misos to deep brown in grain-free or long-fermented ones, while textures vary from velvety smooth in shorter-ferment whites to firmer and occasionally grainier in barley or soybean exclusives, reflecting regional production styles and ingredient ratios.[2][23] Outside Japan, analogous fermented soybean pastes exhibit regional adaptations. In China, doujiang is a traditional soybean paste fermented with salt and natural microbes, often resulting in a yellowish, smooth to semi-chunky texture that can incorporate spicy elements in certain preparations.[24] In Korea, cheonggukjang serves as a shorter-ferment analog to miso, produced from whole soybeans in about 2-3 days, yielding a sticky, chunky paste with a pronounced aroma and darker color due to rapid microbial activity. These non-Japanese varieties follow similar naming conventions, distinguishing pure soybean bases from blended or grain-inclusive types, though they differ in fermentation speed and physical form from Japanese miso.[25]Flavor Profiles and Compounds
Miso's flavor profile is characterized by a complex interplay of umami, saltiness, and subtle sweetness, with umami serving as the dominant taste derived primarily from free glutamic acid released through protein hydrolysis during fermentation.[1] Saltiness arises from the added sodium chloride, typically comprising 11-13% of the final product, which not only preserves the paste but also balances the savory notes.[1] A slight sweetness emerges in varieties with higher proportions of koji to soybeans, contributing to the overall palatability without overpowering the core savoriness.[1] The umami intensity in miso is amplified by the synergistic interaction between glutamates and 5'-ribonucleotides such as inosine monophosphate (IMP) and guanosine monophosphate (GMP), where these nucleotides can enhance the glutamate's effect by 7-8 times at optimal ratios of 1:5 to 1:20.[26] Aspartic acid also contributes to the umami profile, particularly in pastes fermented with strains like Aspergillus oryzae.[26] Aroma compounds further enrich the sensory experience, with alcohols like isoamyl alcohol produced by yeasts such as Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, esters formed from alcohol-organic acid reactions, and pyrazines generated via Maillard reactions during prolonged aging.[1] Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses have identified numerous volatile compounds in miso, including over 40 distinct types such as acetic acid, ethyl alcohol, ethyl acetate, aldehydes, and terpenes, which collectively contribute to its characteristic fermented bouquet.[27] These volatiles evolve during the aging process, with initial stages featuring more pronounced sour notes from organic acids like lactic acid, transitioning to deeper savoriness as pH stabilizes around 5 to 6 and enzymatic activities convert precursors into flavorful metabolites.[1][26] Sensory evaluations using taste panels reveal that longer-fermented miso types develop increased bitterness, often attributed to compounds like pyroglutamic acid formed from glutamate conversion, alongside enhanced mouthfulness and flavor continuity after 11 months of ripening.[28] This bitterness is more evident in darker, aged varieties like aka-miso, adding complexity to the profile without detracting from the umami dominance.[28]Culinary Applications
Preparation Methods
Miso requires careful storage to maintain its flavor, texture, and probiotic content. Once opened, it should be kept refrigerated at approximately 4°C, where it can last up to one year if stored in an airtight container to prevent drying and oxidation.[29] For longer-term preservation, portions can be frozen, retaining quality for up to a year without fully solidifying due to its high salt content.[30] Unopened shelf-stable miso, which is typically pasteurized, can be kept at room temperature in a cool, dark place, but raw or unpasteurized varieties must always be refrigerated to support their live cultures.[31] Preparation begins with proper handling of the paste. When using miso as a soup base, dissolve it gradually in a small amount of hot—but not boiling—water to create a smooth slurry, using a ratio of about 1 tablespoon of miso per 200 ml of liquid to achieve balanced flavor without overpowering the dish.[32] This method, often done with a strainer or whisk, prevents graininess from undissolved particles. Pasteurized miso lacks live enzymes and probiotics, as the heat treatment kills beneficial microorganisms, whereas raw miso retains these for potential digestive support when added at lower temperatures.[33] For home-made or raw miso stored in tubs, scoop portions with a clean, non-reactive utensil, and if white or green surface mold appears due to air exposure, skim it off safely before use, discarding any pinkish mold as a precaution.[34] Common pitfalls in preparation can compromise miso's quality. Overheating or boiling destroys enzymes and probiotics, diminishing nutritional benefits and altering the umami profile, so it is best added at the end of cooking over gentle heat or off the stove.[35] Inadequate dilution leads to grainy textures or lumps, which can be avoided by thoroughly whisking the miso into warm liquid before incorporating it into the full recipe. These techniques ensure miso integrates seamlessly in culinary applications.Traditional and Modern Uses
In traditional Japanese cuisine, miso forms the foundational seasoning for miso soup, a daily staple simmered with dashi stock and common additions like tofu cubes and wakame seaweed for texture and nutrition.[1] It also features prominently in marinades, such as the classic Saikyo yaki method where white miso, sake, and mirin coat black cod fillets before broiling to yield a tender, umami-rich dish.[36] Beyond soups and proteins, miso preserves vegetables through misozuke pickling, layering sliced cucumbers, eggplant, or radishes in a bed of the paste for a tangy, fermented side dish known as tsukemono.[37] On average, Japanese individuals consume around 15 to 20 grams of miso daily, reflecting its integral role in everyday meals.[38] Contemporary applications have expanded miso's versatility into global fusion cooking, where its savory depth enhances non-traditional dishes like miso butter brushed over grilled steak for a caramelized, nutty finish.[39] In vegan adaptations, miso glazes roasted vegetables or tempeh, while it thickens dressings for salads, blending seamlessly with ingredients like sesame oil and rice vinegar.[40] Miso paste also adds umami depth to chili, making it richer; typically, 1-2 tablespoons per large pot is used, dissolved in hot broth and stirred in during the last 5-10 minutes of simmering, suitable for vegetarian, vegan, or beef-based versions. Examples include three-bean miso chili, tempeh miso chili, and miso-boosted chili con carne.[41][42][43] Creative innovations extend to beverages and sweets, including craft beers such as Nagoya Aka Miso Lager, which infuses red miso for an earthy, malty profile, and desserts like miso-infused chocolate tarts that balance sweetness with subtle saltiness.[44][45] Recommended portions typically range from 1 to 2 tablespoons per serving to avoid overpowering flavors, often dissolved in warm liquid during preparation.[32] Miso complements beverages like sake, which amplifies its umami in pairings with grilled fish, or green tea, offering a harmonious contrast in lighter soup courses.[46] The surge in plant-based diets has propelled miso's global adoption, particularly in the U.S., where the market for miso paste has grown steadily, with a projected compound annual growth rate of 5.6% from 2025 to 2035 driven by demand for fermented, umami-rich ingredients in diverse cuisines.[47]Nutritional Profile
Composition and Nutrients
Miso paste, a fermented soybean product, has a macronutrient profile that varies slightly by type but generally consists of about 25 grams of carbohydrates, 13 grams of protein, and 6 grams of fat per 100 grams, contributing approximately 200 kilocalories.[48] The carbohydrates are largely derived from grains such as rice or barley incorporated during production, while proteins stem from soybeans and fats from the lipid content of the beans. In terms of micronutrients, miso is notable for its B vitamins, including riboflavin (vitamin B2) at 0.24 milligrams per 100 grams and small amounts of vitamin B12 (0.06 micrograms per 100 grams), both enhanced by the fermentation process.[48] Key minerals include manganese at 0.88 milligrams per 100 grams, iron at 2.47 milligrams per 100 grams, and zinc at 2.59 milligrams per 100 grams, supporting various metabolic functions. Additionally, miso contains isoflavones such as genistein (23.24 milligrams per 100 grams) and daidzein (16.43 milligrams per 100 grams), totaling around 40 milligrams per 100 grams, which are bioactive compounds from soybeans.[49] Bioactive components in miso include probiotics from fermentation microbes like Lactobacillus species, phenolic antioxidants, and dietary fiber at 5.4 grams per 100 grams, which contribute to its functional properties.[50] Nutritional variations occur across miso types; lighter varieties (e.g., white miso) tend to retain higher carbohydrate levels from shorter fermentation, while darker types (e.g., red miso) show elevated protein content due to prolonged microbial breakdown of starches. Soybean-based miso averages 15-17 grams of protein per 100 grams in darker forms, compared to 12-13 grams in lighter rice-based versions.[50]| Nutrient Category | Key Components (per 100g) | Amount |
|---|---|---|
| Macronutrients | Calories Carbohydrates Protein Fat Fiber | 200 kcal 25.3 g 12.9 g 5.9 g 5.4 g |
| Micronutrients | Riboflavin (B2) Vitamin B12 Manganese Iron Isoflavones (total) | 0.24 mg 0.06 µg 0.88 mg 2.47 mg ~40 mg |
| Bioactives | Probiotics (e.g., Lactobacillus) Phenolics (antioxidants) | Present (strain-dependent) Variable, from fermentation |