March 22

March 22 is the 81st day of the year (82nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 284 days remaining until the end of the year.^[1] The date is designated by the United Nations as World Water Day, an annual observance established to draw global attention to the sustainable management of freshwater resources and the challenges of water scarcity affecting billions.^[2][3] Among the most consequential historical occurrences on March 22 was the British Parliament's enactment of the Stamp Act in 1765, imposing the first direct tax on printed materials in the American colonies to fund British military presence, a measure that provoked widespread colonial opposition and accelerated momentum toward the American Revolution.^[4][5] In the modern era, March 22, 2016, saw coordinated suicide bombings by operatives affiliated with the Islamic State at Brussels Airport and a nearby metro station, killing 32 civilians and injuring more than 300 in Belgium's deadliest terrorist incident.^[6] Other defining events include the 1622 Powhatan uprising against English settlers in Virginia, which killed over 300 colonists and prompted fortified defenses, and the 2017 vehicle-ramming and stabbing attack outside the UK Houses of Parliament by an Islamist extremist, claiming five lives including the assailant.^[7][8]

Events

Pre-1600

In 1387, Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, issued a charter granting the city of Vilnius Magdeburg rights, which conferred self-governance, legal autonomy, and commercial privileges modeled on German municipal laws, marking an early step in the city's development as a key administrative center in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.^[9][10] The Battle of Baugé took place on March 22, 1421 (the day before Easter), during the Hundred Years' War, when a combined Franco-Scottish army under the Earl of Buchan ambushed and routed an English force led by Thomas, Duke of Clarence (brother of King Henry V), near the town of Baugé in Anjou, France.^[11][12] Clarence was killed in the melee after his knights, hampered by the surprise attack and lack of time to don full armor, charged prematurely without infantry support, resulting in heavy English losses including several high-ranking nobles, though the victory proved temporary as English fortunes revived later in the campaign.^[11][13]

1601–1900

On March 22, 1622, Opechancanough, paramount chief of the Powhatan Confederacy, directed coordinated surprise attacks by Native American warriors on multiple English settlements in the Virginia Colony, including Jamestown and outlying plantations.^[14] The assaults killed 347 colonists—men, women, and children—out of a total English population of approximately 1,240, representing nearly one-third of settlers.^[15] The attacks exploited English trust, with warriors using friendly interactions to approach victims before striking; despite partial warnings, the colonists' dispersion and overconfidence in alliances contributed to the high casualties.^[14] This event, termed the Indian Massacre of 1622 by contemporaries, marked the onset of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1622–1632), prompting English retaliation, fortification of settlements, and a shift toward more aggressive expansion and subjugation policies.^[16] On March 22, 1765, the British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act, imposing the first direct tax on the American colonies by requiring stamps on all printed materials, including legal documents, newspapers, licenses, and playing cards, to generate revenue for defending the colonies post-Seven Years' War.^[17] The tax, effective November 1, 1765, targeted colonial commerce and administration without colonial representation in Parliament, leading to widespread protests, boycotts, and the formation of groups like the Sons of Liberty.^[4] Colonial assemblies argued the measure violated rights as British subjects, culminating in the Stamp Act Congress in October 1765, where nine colonies petitioned for repeal on grounds of taxation without consent.^[5] Though repealed in 1766, the act's passage intensified colonial resistance to imperial authority, sowing seeds for the American Revolution.^[17] On March 22, 1873, the Spanish Cortes approved the Moret Law, formally abolishing slavery in Puerto Rico and freeing approximately 29,000 enslaved individuals of African descent, though with conditions including a three-year patronage period for former slaves and compensation of 35 million pesetas to owners.^[18] The legislation followed years of slave revolts, abolitionist advocacy, and economic pressures, marking Puerto Rico as the last Spanish colony to end the practice after Cuba. Patrones (former owners) retained labor obligations from freed individuals, delaying full emancipation until 1876, while the decree aimed to stabilize the island's sugar-based economy amid declining profitability of slave labor.^[18] This partial reform reflected Spain's gradualist approach to abolition, contrasting sharper transitions elsewhere, and integrated Puerto Rico into broader imperial liberalization efforts.^[19] On March 22, 1894, the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association defeated the Ottawa Capitals 3–2 in a two-game series in Montreal, Canada, claiming the first organized challenge for Lord Stanley's Cup, donated by Governor General Lord Stanley of Preston as a trophy for Canada's top amateur hockey club.^[20] The victory, under rudimentary rules with seven players per side and no forward passing, established the format for future competitions among senior amateur teams.^[20] The event formalized hockey's growing prominence in Canada, evolving from informal play into structured national competition by the late 19th century.^[20]

1901–2000

1933 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Cullen-Harrison Act into law, which amended the Volstead Act to legalize the manufacture and sale of beer and wine with an alcohol content not exceeding 3.2% by weight, serving as a preliminary measure to ease Prohibition restrictions ahead of its full repeal later that year.^[21][22] 1945 – Representatives from Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Transjordan signed the Pact of the League of Arab States in Cairo, establishing the Arab League as a regional organization aimed at coordinating political, economic, cultural, and social policies among member states.^[23][24] 1972 – The U.S. Congress approved the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) by the required two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate, proposing to add to the Constitution a provision stating that equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex, and forwarded it to the states for ratification.^[25][26] 1988 – The U.S. Congress overrode President Ronald Reagan's veto of the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 by substantial margins in both chambers (Senate 73–18, House 292–133), thereby expanding the scope of federal anti-discrimination laws to apply to all programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance, regardless of whether the specific program receiving funds was directly discriminatory. 1995 – Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov returned to Earth aboard Soyuz TM-20 after completing a mission of 437 days, 17 hours, and 38 minutes aboard the Mir space station, establishing the record for the longest continuous human spaceflight duration at that time, during which he conducted extensive medical experiments on long-term effects of microgravity.^[27]

2001–present

On March 22, 2016, suicide bombings and a gun attack targeted Brussels Airport in Zaventem and Maalbeek metro station, resulting in 32 deaths (excluding the three attackers) and more than 300 injuries; the Islamic State (ISIS) claimed responsibility, marking it as the deadliest terrorist incident in Belgium's history. The attacks occurred amid heightened European security concerns following the November 2015 Paris attacks, with perpetrators including Najim Laachraoui and Khalid el-Bakraoui, linked to the Paris cell. March 22, 2017 saw a terrorist attack in Westminster, London, when Khalid Masood drove a car into pedestrians on Westminster Bridge, killing four and injuring over 50, before stabbing a police officer to death near the Houses of Parliament; Masood, a 52-year-old British convert to Islam with prior extremism links, was shot dead by police.^[28] British authorities described it as an ISIS-inspired lone-wolf act, though no direct group direction was confirmed, amid a wave of vehicle-ramming attacks in Europe. On March 22, 2021, a mass shooting at the King Soopers supermarket in Boulder, Colorado, left 10 people dead, including a police officer; 21-year-old Ahmad Al Aliwi Alissa, motivated by mental health issues and anti-immigrant sentiments per family accounts, was arrested and charged with federal hate crimes and murder. The incident highlighted ongoing U.S. debates over gun control and public safety, occurring days after Atlanta spa shootings. March 22, 2024 featured a terrorist attack on Crocus City Hall concert venue near Moscow, where gunmen opened fire and set the building ablaze, killing at least 145 people and injuring over 550; ISIS-Khorasan Province claimed responsibility, with Russian authorities arresting suspects including Tajik nationals. The assault, the deadliest in Russia since the 2004 Beslan school siege, prompted Putin to allege Ukrainian involvement despite ISIS claims, amid Russia's invasion of Ukraine.

Births

Pre-1600

In 1387, Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, issued a charter granting the city of Vilnius Magdeburg rights, which conferred self-governance, legal autonomy, and commercial privileges modeled on German municipal laws, marking an early step in the city's development as a key administrative center in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.^[9][10] The Battle of Baugé took place on March 22, 1421 (the day before Easter), during the Hundred Years' War, when a combined Franco-Scottish army under the Earl of Buchan ambushed and routed an English force led by Thomas, Duke of Clarence (brother of King Henry V), near the town of Baugé in Anjou, France.^[11][12] Clarence was killed in the melee after his knights, hampered by the surprise attack and lack of time to don full armor, charged prematurely without infantry support, resulting in heavy English losses including several high-ranking nobles, though the victory proved temporary as English fortunes revived later in the campaign.^[11][13]

1601–1900

On March 22, 1622, Opechancanough, paramount chief of the Powhatan Confederacy, directed coordinated surprise attacks by Native American warriors on multiple English settlements in the Virginia Colony, including Jamestown and outlying plantations.^[14] The assaults killed 347 colonists—men, women, and children—out of a total English population of approximately 1,240, representing nearly one-third of settlers.^[15] The attacks exploited English trust, with warriors using friendly interactions to approach victims before striking; despite partial warnings, the colonists' dispersion and overconfidence in alliances contributed to the high casualties.^[14] This event, termed the Indian Massacre of 1622 by contemporaries, marked the onset of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1622–1632), prompting English retaliation, fortification of settlements, and a shift toward more aggressive expansion and subjugation policies.^[16] On March 22, 1765, the British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act, imposing the first direct tax on the American colonies by requiring stamps on all printed materials, including legal documents, newspapers, licenses, and playing cards, to generate revenue for defending the colonies post-Seven Years' War.^[17] The tax, effective November 1, 1765, targeted colonial commerce and administration without colonial representation in Parliament, leading to widespread protests, boycotts, and the formation of groups like the Sons of Liberty.^[4] Colonial assemblies argued the measure violated rights as British subjects, culminating in the Stamp Act Congress in October 1765, where nine colonies petitioned for repeal on grounds of taxation without consent.^[5] Though repealed in 1766, the act's passage intensified colonial resistance to imperial authority, sowing seeds for the American Revolution.^[17] On March 22, 1873, the Spanish Cortes approved the Moret Law, formally abolishing slavery in Puerto Rico and freeing approximately 29,000 enslaved individuals of African descent, though with conditions including a three-year patronage period for former slaves and compensation of 35 million pesetas to owners.^[18] The legislation followed years of slave revolts, abolitionist advocacy, and economic pressures, marking Puerto Rico as the last Spanish colony to end the practice after Cuba. Patrones (former owners) retained labor obligations from freed individuals, delaying full emancipation until 1876, while the decree aimed to stabilize the island's sugar-based economy amid declining profitability of slave labor.^[18] This partial reform reflected Spain's gradualist approach to abolition, contrasting sharper transitions elsewhere, and integrated Puerto Rico into broader imperial liberalization efforts.^[19] On March 22, 1894, the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association defeated the Ottawa Capitals 3–2 in a two-game series in Montreal, Canada, claiming the first organized challenge for Lord Stanley's Cup, donated by Governor General Lord Stanley of Preston as a trophy for Canada's top amateur hockey club.^[20] The victory, under rudimentary rules with seven players per side and no forward passing, established the format for future competitions among senior amateur teams.^[20] The event formalized hockey's growing prominence in Canada, evolving from informal play into structured national competition by the late 19th century.^[20]

1901–2000

1933 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Cullen-Harrison Act into law, which amended the Volstead Act to legalize the manufacture and sale of beer and wine with an alcohol content not exceeding 3.2% by weight, serving as a preliminary measure to ease Prohibition restrictions ahead of its full repeal later that year.^[21][22] 1945 – Representatives from Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Transjordan signed the Pact of the League of Arab States in Cairo, establishing the Arab League as a regional organization aimed at coordinating political, economic, cultural, and social policies among member states.^[23][24] 1972 – The U.S. Congress approved the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) by the required two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate, proposing to add to the Constitution a provision stating that equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex, and forwarded it to the states for ratification.^[25][26] 1988 – The U.S. Congress overrode President Ronald Reagan's veto of the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 by substantial margins in both chambers (Senate 73–18, House 292–133), thereby expanding the scope of federal anti-discrimination laws to apply to all programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance, regardless of whether the specific program receiving funds was directly discriminatory. 1995 – Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov returned to Earth aboard Soyuz TM-20 after completing a mission of 437 days, 17 hours, and 38 minutes aboard the Mir space station, establishing the record for the longest continuous human spaceflight duration at that time, during which he conducted extensive medical experiments on long-term effects of microgravity.^[27]

2001–present

On March 22, 2016, suicide bombings and a gun attack targeted Brussels Airport in Zaventem and Maalbeek metro station, resulting in 32 deaths (excluding the three attackers) and more than 300 injuries; the Islamic State (ISIS) claimed responsibility, marking it as the deadliest terrorist incident in Belgium's history. The attacks occurred amid heightened European security concerns following the November 2015 Paris attacks, with perpetrators including Najim Laachraoui and Khalid el-Bakraoui, linked to the Paris cell. March 22, 2017 saw a terrorist attack in Westminster, London, when Khalid Masood drove a car into pedestrians on Westminster Bridge, killing four and injuring over 50, before stabbing a police officer to death near the Houses of Parliament; Masood, a 52-year-old British convert to Islam with prior extremism links, was shot dead by police.^[28] British authorities described it as an ISIS-inspired lone-wolf act, though no direct group direction was confirmed, amid a wave of vehicle-ramming attacks in Europe. On March 22, 2021, a mass shooting at the King Soopers supermarket in Boulder, Colorado, left 10 people dead, including a police officer; 21-year-old Ahmad Al Aliwi Alissa, motivated by mental health issues and anti-immigrant sentiments per family accounts, was arrested and charged with federal hate crimes and murder. The incident highlighted ongoing U.S. debates over gun control and public safety, occurring days after Atlanta spa shootings. March 22, 2024 featured a terrorist attack on Crocus City Hall concert venue near Moscow, where gunmen opened fire and set the building ablaze, killing at least 145 people and injuring over 550; ISIS-Khorasan Province claimed responsibility, with Russian authorities arresting suspects including Tajik nationals. The assault, the deadliest in Russia since the 2004 Beslan school siege, prompted Putin to allege Ukrainian involvement despite ISIS claims, amid Russia's invasion of Ukraine.

Deaths

Pre-1600

In 1387, Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, issued a charter granting the city of Vilnius Magdeburg rights, which conferred self-governance, legal autonomy, and commercial privileges modeled on German municipal laws, marking an early step in the city's development as a key administrative center in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.^[9][10] The Battle of Baugé took place on March 22, 1421 (the day before Easter), during the Hundred Years' War, when a combined Franco-Scottish army under the Earl of Buchan ambushed and routed an English force led by Thomas, Duke of Clarence (brother of King Henry V), near the town of Baugé in Anjou, France.^[11][12] Clarence was killed in the melee after his knights, hampered by the surprise attack and lack of time to don full armor, charged prematurely without infantry support, resulting in heavy English losses including several high-ranking nobles, though the victory proved temporary as English fortunes revived later in the campaign.^[11][13]

1601–1900

On March 22, 1622, Opechancanough, paramount chief of the Powhatan Confederacy, directed coordinated surprise attacks by Native American warriors on multiple English settlements in the Virginia Colony, including Jamestown and outlying plantations.^[14] The assaults killed 347 colonists—men, women, and children—out of a total English population of approximately 1,240, representing nearly one-third of settlers.^[15] The attacks exploited English trust, with warriors using friendly interactions to approach victims before striking; despite partial warnings, the colonists' dispersion and overconfidence in alliances contributed to the high casualties.^[14] This event, termed the Indian Massacre of 1622 by contemporaries, marked the onset of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1622–1632), prompting English retaliation, fortification of settlements, and a shift toward more aggressive expansion and subjugation policies.^[16] On March 22, 1765, the British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act, imposing the first direct tax on the American colonies by requiring stamps on all printed materials, including legal documents, newspapers, licenses, and playing cards, to generate revenue for defending the colonies post-Seven Years' War.^[17] The tax, effective November 1, 1765, targeted colonial commerce and administration without colonial representation in Parliament, leading to widespread protests, boycotts, and the formation of groups like the Sons of Liberty.^[4] Colonial assemblies argued the measure violated rights as British subjects, culminating in the Stamp Act Congress in October 1765, where nine colonies petitioned for repeal on grounds of taxation without consent.^[5] Though repealed in 1766, the act's passage intensified colonial resistance to imperial authority, sowing seeds for the American Revolution.^[17] On March 22, 1873, the Spanish Cortes approved the Moret Law, formally abolishing slavery in Puerto Rico and freeing approximately 29,000 enslaved individuals of African descent, though with conditions including a three-year patronage period for former slaves and compensation of 35 million pesetas to owners.^[18] The legislation followed years of slave revolts, abolitionist advocacy, and economic pressures, marking Puerto Rico as the last Spanish colony to end the practice after Cuba. Patrones (former owners) retained labor obligations from freed individuals, delaying full emancipation until 1876, while the decree aimed to stabilize the island's sugar-based economy amid declining profitability of slave labor.^[18] This partial reform reflected Spain's gradualist approach to abolition, contrasting sharper transitions elsewhere, and integrated Puerto Rico into broader imperial liberalization efforts.^[19] On March 22, 1894, the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association defeated the Ottawa Capitals 3–2 in a two-game series in Montreal, Canada, claiming the first organized challenge for Lord Stanley's Cup, donated by Governor General Lord Stanley of Preston as a trophy for Canada's top amateur hockey club.^[20] The victory, under rudimentary rules with seven players per side and no forward passing, established the format for future competitions among senior amateur teams.^[20] The event formalized hockey's growing prominence in Canada, evolving from informal play into structured national competition by the late 19th century.^[20]

1901–2000

1933 – President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Cullen-Harrison Act into law, which amended the Volstead Act to legalize the manufacture and sale of beer and wine with an alcohol content not exceeding 3.2% by weight, serving as a preliminary measure to ease Prohibition restrictions ahead of its full repeal later that year.^[21][22] 1945 – Representatives from Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Transjordan signed the Pact of the League of Arab States in Cairo, establishing the Arab League as a regional organization aimed at coordinating political, economic, cultural, and social policies among member states.^[23][24] 1972 – The U.S. Congress approved the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) by the required two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate, proposing to add to the Constitution a provision stating that equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex, and forwarded it to the states for ratification.^[25][26] 1988 – The U.S. Congress overrode President Ronald Reagan's veto of the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 by substantial margins in both chambers (Senate 73–18, House 292–133), thereby expanding the scope of federal anti-discrimination laws to apply to all programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance, regardless of whether the specific program receiving funds was directly discriminatory. 1995 – Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov returned to Earth aboard Soyuz TM-20 after completing a mission of 437 days, 17 hours, and 38 minutes aboard the Mir space station, establishing the record for the longest continuous human spaceflight duration at that time, during which he conducted extensive medical experiments on long-term effects of microgravity.^[27]

2001–present

On March 22, 2016, suicide bombings and a gun attack targeted Brussels Airport in Zaventem and Maalbeek metro station, resulting in 32 deaths (excluding the three attackers) and more than 300 injuries; the Islamic State (ISIS) claimed responsibility, marking it as the deadliest terrorist incident in Belgium's history. The attacks occurred amid heightened European security concerns following the November 2015 Paris attacks, with perpetrators including Najim Laachraoui and Khalid el-Bakraoui, linked to the Paris cell. March 22, 2017 saw a terrorist attack in Westminster, London, when Khalid Masood drove a car into pedestrians on Westminster Bridge, killing four and injuring over 50, before stabbing a police officer to death near the Houses of Parliament; Masood, a 52-year-old British convert to Islam with prior extremism links, was shot dead by police.^[28] British authorities described it as an ISIS-inspired lone-wolf act, though no direct group direction was confirmed, amid a wave of vehicle-ramming attacks in Europe. On March 22, 2021, a mass shooting at the King Soopers supermarket in Boulder, Colorado, left 10 people dead, including a police officer; 21-year-old Ahmad Al Aliwi Alissa, motivated by mental health issues and anti-immigrant sentiments per family accounts, was arrested and charged with federal hate crimes and murder. The incident highlighted ongoing U.S. debates over gun control and public safety, occurring days after Atlanta spa shootings. March 22, 2024 featured a terrorist attack on Crocus City Hall concert venue near Moscow, where gunmen opened fire and set the building ablaze, killing at least 145 people and injuring over 550; ISIS-Khorasan Province claimed responsibility, with Russian authorities arresting suspects including Tajik nationals. The assault, the deadliest in Russia since the 2004 Beslan school siege, prompted Putin to allege Ukrainian involvement despite ISIS claims, amid Russia's invasion of Ukraine.

Holidays and observances

Religious observances

In the Roman Catholic Church, March 22 is the feast day of Saint Nicholas Owen, an English Jesuit lay brother born around 1560 who specialized in constructing concealed hiding places, known as "priest holes," to shelter Catholic priests from arrest and execution during the religious persecutions under Elizabeth I and James I; he was arrested in 1606, subjected to the brutal "topcliffe" torture device, and died from injuries sustained without confessing information that could endanger others.^[29] Owen's ingenuity saved numerous lives, and his canonization in 1970 by Pope Paul VI recognized his martyrdom amid England's penal laws against Catholicism, which imposed fines, imprisonment, and death for practicing the faith.^[30] The date also marks the commemoration of Saint Basil of Ancyra (died circa 362 AD), a priest and physician in Ancyra (modern Ankara, Turkey) who endured torture and execution under Emperor Julian the Apostate for refusing to renounce Christianity and participate in pagan sacrifices; historical accounts, including those by 4th-century hagiographer Metaphrastes, describe his steadfast defense of Trinitarian doctrine against Arianism before his beheading.^[31] Additional saints venerated on this day in Catholic calendars include Saint Deogratius of Carthage (died 457 AD), a bishop noted for his charitable works and opposition to Vandal Arianism in North Africa, and Saint Lea of Rome (died circa 384 AD), a wealthy widow who abandoned worldly status to embrace ascetic monastic life under Saint Jerome's influence, exemplifying renunciation of material wealth for spiritual poverty.^[32] In the Eastern Orthodox Church, March 22 (observed on April 4 in the Julian calendar for some jurisdictions) honors the Hieromartyr Basil of Ancyra alongside other pre-schism figures, with liturgical texts emphasizing his endurance of floggings, rack torture, and scalding for upholding orthodox Christology against imperial pagan revival. No major fixed observances occur in Judaism, Islam, or other Abrahamic faiths on this Gregorian date, as their lunar or adjusted calendars result in variable alignments; for instance, Jewish Purim occasionally falls near March 22 but is not fixed to it.^[33]

National and international observances

World Water Day, proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly, is observed annually on March 22 to highlight the importance of sustainable freshwater management and address global challenges such as water scarcity and pollution.^[2] The observance was established in 1993 following a recommendation from the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) leading coordination efforts.^[3] Each year features a specific theme to focus advocacy; the 2025 theme emphasizes glacier preservation, underscoring the role of glacial meltwater in supplying drinking water, agriculture, and ecosystems for billions.^[2] In Puerto Rico, a United States territory, March 22 is designated as Emancipation Day (Día de la Abolición de Esclavitud), a public holiday commemorating the Spanish National Assembly's abolition of slavery on that date in 1873, which freed approximately 29,000 enslaved individuals after compensating owners with 35 million pesetas.^[34][35] In the Indian state of Bihar, Bihar Diwas (Bihar Day) is celebrated on March 22 to mark the province's separation from Bengal Presidency by the British government in 1912, fostering state pride and cultural unity through official events organized by the state administration.^[36]