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1823 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar1823
MDCCCXXIII
Ab urbe condita2576
Armenian calendar1272
ԹՎ ՌՄՀԲ
Assyrian calendar6573
Balinese saka calendar1744–1745
Bengali calendar1229–1230
Berber calendar2773
British Regnal year3 Geo. 4 – 4 Geo. 4
Buddhist calendar2367
Burmese calendar1185
Byzantine calendar7331–7332
Chinese calendar壬午年 (Water Horse)
4520 or 4313
    — to —
癸未年 (Water Goat)
4521 or 4314
Coptic calendar1539–1540
Discordian calendar2989
Ethiopian calendar1815–1816
Hebrew calendar5583–5584
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat1879–1880
 - Shaka Samvat1744–1745
 - Kali Yuga4923–4924
Holocene calendar11823
Igbo calendar823–824
Iranian calendar1201–1202
Islamic calendar1238–1239
Japanese calendarBunsei 6
(文政６年)
Javanese calendar1750–1751
Julian calendarGregorian minus 12 days
Korean calendar4156
Minguo calendar89 before ROC
民前89年
Nanakshahi calendar355
Thai solar calendar2365–2366
Tibetan calendarཆུ་ཕོ་རྟ་ལོ་
(male Water-Horse)
1949 or 1568 or 796
    — to —
ཆུ་མོ་ལུག་ལོ་
(female Water-Sheep)
1950 or 1569 or 797
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1823.

1823 (MDCCCXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1823rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 823rd year of the 2nd millennium, the 23rd year of the 19th century, and the 4th year of the 1820s decade. As of the start of 1823, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Events

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January–March

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February 20: James Weddell's Jane and Beaufoy at their furthest south.

April–June

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April 7: The "Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis", a French infantry force, begin an attack on Spain that lasts until November.

July–September

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August 18: The Demerara rebellion of 1823 is started by 10,000 black slaves in British Guiana.

October–December

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December 2: The Monroe Doctrine is introduced by U.S. President James Monroe.

Undated

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Births

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January–June

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Carl Wilhelm Siemens
Abdülmecid I

July–December

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Max Müller
Mackenzie Bowell

Undated

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Deaths

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January–June

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Edward Jenner
Louis-Nicolas Davout

July–December

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Giovanni Battista Belzoni
Gregorio José Ramírez

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

1823

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from Grokipedia
1823 marked a significant juncture in transatlantic relations with the proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine by U.S. President James Monroe in his December 2 address to Congress, which warned European powers against new colonizations or interventions in the independent nations of the Western Hemisphere, thereby asserting American primacy in regional affairs. In exploration, British navigator James Weddell achieved a then-record southern latitude of 74°15′ S on February 20 during a sealing voyage, penetrating what became known as the Weddell Sea amid unusually ice-free conditions. Europe witnessed the French Army of the Pyrenees, dubbed the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, cross into Spain on April 7 to quash constitutionalist forces and reinstate absolutist King Ferdinand VII, culminating in the capture of key fortresses like Trocadero. The year also featured cultural milestones, including the premiere of Gioachino Rossini's opera Semiramide in Venice on February 3, and the final expulsion of Portuguese loyalists from Bahia, solidifying Brazil's independence. Among notable deaths were English physician Edward Jenner, pioneer of smallpox vaccination through cowpox inoculation, who succumbed to a stroke on January 26 at age 73; French Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout, renowned for tactical prowess at Austerlitz and Auerstedt, on June 1 from tuberculosis; and explorer Giovanni Battista Belzoni in August while seeking ancient manuscripts in Benin. Births included British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, co-developer of evolutionary theory by natural selection, on January 8, and Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I on April 23, who later enacted Tanzimat reforms. These events underscored 1823's blend of diplomatic assertions, exploratory feats, monarchical restorations, and transitions in scientific and imperial legacies.

Events

January–March

On January 3, received a grant of one league of land on the in from the state legislature, authorizing him to settle 300 families as colonists. On January 27, U.S. President nominated and the Senate confirmed the first American diplomatic ministers to independent South American nations, including as minister to (United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, now ), Condy Raguet to , and John M. Forbes to as , marking formal U.S. recognition of their sovereignty following independence from . On February 3, Gioachino Rossini's opera Semiramide premiered at the Teatro La Fenice in Venice under the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, with libretto by Gaetano Rossi based on Voltaire's tragedy Semiramis, featuring Isabella Colbran in the title role and marking Rossini's last opera seria. On February 20, British navigator James Weddell, aboard the brig Jane and cutter Beaufoy, reached a southern latitude of 74°15′ S in an open sea, surpassing prior records set by James Cook and naming the expanse the "Open Sea" amid favorable conditions unusual for the season. On February 28, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its decision in Johnson v. M'Intosh, holding that Native American tribes held occupancy rights to lands but that fee simple title vested in the discovering European sovereign, invalidating private purchases from tribes without government extinguishment based on longstanding international precedents of conquest and discovery. On March 11, the first normal school in the United States, Concord Academy in Concord, Vermont, opened to train teachers, established by Samuel Read Hall to professionalize education instruction.

April–June

On April 7, the French Army of the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, comprising around 60,000 troops under the command of the Duke of Angoulême, crossed the Bidasoa River into , marking the start of the military intervention authorized by the to quell liberal constitutionalist forces and reinstate under King . This action followed Ferdinand's imprisonment by Spanish liberals during the (1820–1823), a period of revolutionary governance that had dismantled absolutist structures, prompting European monarchies to view the unrest as a threat to stability. Three days later, on April 10, French forces commenced the Siege of , a fortified city held by constitutionalist troops, initiating a prolonged blockade that aimed to isolate and compel surrender of key liberal strongholds in northern . The operation reflected the campaign's strategy of rapid advances combined with sieges to dismantle revolutionary defenses without widespread devastation, prioritizing restoration over conquest. In , , operating under his 1821 colonization contract, actively surveyed and prepared lands for Anglo-American settlement during this quarter, laying groundwork for contractual grants that would formalize pioneer claims and encourage migration into the sparsely populated frontier. These efforts, continuing from initial surveys, positioned Austin's colony—encompassing modern Austin County—as the primary vector for organized territorial expansion, with land titles beginning issuance in coordination with Mexican authorities to promote agricultural development and loyalty to the Mexican government.

July–September

On July 2, 1823, the Portuguese garrison in , surrendered to Brazilian forces after a prolonged , marking the final expulsion of loyalist troops from the province and solidifying Brazilian control amid the War of Independence. This outcome followed naval blockades and land campaigns led by figures such as Lord Cochrane, resulting in the evacuation of approximately 10,000 Portuguese soldiers and securing Bahia's allegiance to the under Pedro I, thereby reducing internal fragmentation risks in the nascent empire. The preceding day, July 1, 1823, saw the United Provinces of declare formal independence from , following Emperor Agustín de Iturbide's abdication announced on March 19, 1823, establishing a provisional federation across former Spanish captaincies-general including , , , , and . This act stemmed from local assemblies rejecting integration into the Mexican Empire, reflecting empirical divergences in regional elites' preferences for republican governance over monarchical centralization, though it initiated a period of constitutional assembly and federal stabilization efforts amid ongoing factional disputes. In late August 1823, American frontiersman , scouting for game during a fur-trapping expedition in the unclaimed territories of present-day , encountered and killed a defending its cubs, only to sustain grievous wounds from the animal's counterattack. Left for dead by companions Andrew Henry and John Fitzgerald due to the expedition's precarious position post-Arikara conflicts, Glass regained consciousness amid exposed ribs, lacerated flesh, and infection risks, then crawled roughly 200 miles over six weeks to , subsisting on berries, roots, and scavenged buffalo carcasses while evading further threats. This incident underscored the lethal hazards of westward expansion in ungoverned plains, where small trapping parties faced acute vulnerabilities from wildlife and isolation without institutional support, contributing to the empirical tally of high mortality rates—estimated at over 50% for such ventures—in early 19th-century commerce.

October–December

On October 9, the remaining royalist garrison at Puerto Cabello surrendered to republican forces, effectively ending organized Spanish military resistance in Venezuela. On December 2, President James Monroe delivered his 1823 State of the Union Address (seventh annual message) to the 18th United States Congress, declaring that the Western Hemisphere's American continents should not be regarded as subjects for future colonization by European powers and that any attempt to extend their political systems to independent American nations would be considered a manifestation of unfriendly disposition toward the United States.

Undated

Joseph reported that, beginning in 1823, he received multiple visitations from an angelic being identified as Moroni, who informed him of the existence of buried containing an ancient religious record and sacred artifacts, located on a hill near his family's farm in . According to Smith's later accounts, Moroni provided detailed descriptions of the plates' contents, which chronicled the history and teachings of ancient American peoples, and instructed Smith to retrieve them only after spiritual preparation, emphasizing their divine origin and purpose for translation into English. These reported events marked the initiation of Smith's involvement with what would become the , though contemporary corroboration beyond Smith's testimony remains absent from independent records.

The Monroe Doctrine

Proclamation and Immediate Context


President James Monroe proclaimed the doctrine on December 2, 1823, during his Seventh Annual Message to Congress, warning European powers against further colonization or intervention in the Western Hemisphere. The message's relevant passages, primarily drafted by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, emphasized that the American continents were closed to new European colonization and that any attempt to extend monarchical systems there would be viewed as a threat to U.S. peace and safety. Adams, skeptical of aligning with Britain, convinced Monroe to issue a unilateral U.S. statement rather than a joint declaration. The proclamation responded to immediate diplomatic pressures, including British Foreign Secretary George Canning's August 1823 proposal for a joint Anglo-American declaration opposing European recolonization of , which Monroe initially considered after consultations with former presidents and . Canning's overture stemmed from Britain's commercial interests in the newly independent republics, but U.S. leaders opted for independence in policy articulation to assert national sovereignty. Surrounding threats included the post-Napoleonic —comprising , , , and supported by —of potential intervention to restore Spanish rule in , following successful independence movements led by and others since 1810. A key empirical trigger was 's April 7, 1823, invasion of with 95,000 troops under the Duke of Angoulême, authorized by the at the Verona Congress to suppress liberal revolts and reinstate absolutist King , raising fears of a similar monarchical intervention across the Atlantic. This action exemplified the Alliance's commitment to counter-revolutionary principles, prompting U.S. vigilance against analogous moves in the .

Core Principles and Causal Foundations

The Monroe Doctrine articulated a policy opposing the establishment of new European colonies in the Western Hemisphere, declaring that the American continents, having achieved and maintained independence, were no longer subjects for future colonization by European powers. This principle stemmed from the recognition that such colonization would disrupt the established sovereignty of newly independent states, potentially reigniting conflicts akin to those that had led to the successful rebellions against Spanish and Portuguese rule between 1810 and 1822. Causally, the doctrine viewed monarchical expansionism—evident in the Holy Alliance's interventions in Europe—as incompatible with the self-determination of republican governments, positing that external recolonization would inevitably threaten regional stability and the security of the United States by altering the balance of power through forced subjugation rather than consensual governance. Central to the was the against European interference in the affairs of independent American nations, framing any attempt to oppress or control their destiny as an unfriendly act toward the . This non-interference tenet rested on the empirical observation that the independence of states like , , and had been secured through prolonged struggles, creating a verifiable status quo of that warranted preservation to avoid cascading from renewed European . From a causal standpoint, intervention by powers such as or the could propagate absolutist systems, undermining the republican experiments in the and exposing the U.S. to direct threats, as proximity would amplify the risks of spillover conflicts or blockades compared to distant European entanglements. The thus prioritized the territorial and political integrity post-independence as a pragmatic barrier against revanchist policies, without implying U.S. authority to enforce compliance unilaterally. In reciprocity, the pledged abstention from European internal affairs and respect for existing colonies, establishing mutual non-intervention as a foundational safeguard. This bilateral restraint acknowledged the causal inefficacy of U.S. involvement in disputes, given America's limited capacity in 1823 and the historical lesson that entangling alliances had embroiled prior powers in protracted wars without altering core dynastic outcomes. By delineating —the insulated from European colonization and free from American meddling—the aimed to perpetuate peace through compartmentalized sovereignty, where each hemisphere's governments could evolve independently without the provocation of cross-continental hegemony or subversion. This framework did not authorize U.S. dominance over but instead reinforced a hands-off equilibrium, grounded in the principle that stable self-rule, once empirically demonstrated, should not be overturned by external powers seeking to impose alien systems.

Contemporary Reactions

British Foreign Secretary endorsed the principles of the shortly after its proclamation on December 2, 1823, aligning them with Britain's established policy of non-intervention in the to protect expanding commercial ties with the newly independent states. In dispatches from late 1823, highlighted the doctrine's compatibility with British interests, particularly in preventing Spanish or French recolonization that could disrupt trade routes and markets; he had earlier proposed a joint Anglo-American declaration on October 16, 1823, to U.S. Minister , which was declined by to avoid implying U.S. dependence on British naval power. 's private correspondence, including notes to Ambassador Stratford Canning, framed the U.S. stance as a welcome reinforcement of mutual opposition to ambitions, though he critiqued its separation of non-colonization from non-interference as doctrinally imprecise. Latin American republican leaders received news of the with measured approval in early 1824 dispatches and letters, perceiving it as diplomatic leverage against reconquest threats from European powers, despite the absence of U.S. commitments to direct military aid. Officials in states like and expressed optimism in correspondence to U.S. envoys, viewing Monroe's warnings as a practical deterrent grounded in the post-Napoleonic balance of power, which prioritized empirical stability over ideological solidarity; however, skepticism persisted regarding U.S. resolve, given its recent demobilization after the and focus on domestic expansion. This reaction underscored a pragmatic assessment: the bolstered hemispheric legitimacy without altering the republics' primary reliance on internal consolidation and British for survival. Continental European monarchies, including , , and within the , derided the doctrine in diplomatic exchanges and private memoranda as presumptuous bluster from a militarily feeble , emphasizing the U.S.'s scant resources—a of under 10,000 men and a navy dwarfed by Britain's—as rendering enforcement implausible against coalition forces. Austrian Chancellor conveyed outrage in a December 1823 dispatch to allies, decrying Monroe's message as an insolent challenge to sovereign prerogatives and a symptom of republican hubris, while prioritizing European interventions like France's invasion of over distant American pretensions. Russian Alexander I similarly dismissed it in early 1824 instructions to envoys, focusing instead on Pacific claims but recognizing the doctrine's lack of coercive teeth amid post-war exhaustion. These responses highlighted stark power disparities, with European courts viewing the proclamation as rhetorical posturing rather than a credible barrier to dynastic restorations.

Historical Interpretations and Debates

Historians interpret the primarily as a defensive policy aimed at deterring European recolonization of independent American states, rooted in the geopolitical reality of a militarily weak reliant on British naval supremacy for enforcement rather than its own capabilities. The original proclamation emphasized mutual non-interference—prohibiting European powers from extending their systems into the hemisphere while affirming U.S. abstention from European affairs—serving as a bulwark for republics against monarchical restoration efforts post-Napoleonic Wars, without endorsing U.S. territorial . This reading privileges the doctrine's causal foundation in preserving the status quo of decolonized independence, countering anachronistic projections that retroactively frame it as a license for American . Debates persist over its enforceability, with empirical evidence from the 19th century highlighting limited U.S. military action and reliance on symbolic deterrence. For instance, during the French intervention in Mexico (1862–1867), the U.S. issued diplomatic protests but refrained from direct enforcement amid its Civil War, allowing European powers to test hemispheric boundaries without immediate reprisal; similarly, initial U.S. inaction on Spanish control of underscored the doctrine's aspirational rather than operational nature against existing colonial holdings. Conservative scholars argue this symbolic posture effectively deterred overt recolonization by signaling alignment with British free-trade interests, fostering stable, independent markets in against absolutist threats, as evidenced by the absence of major European reconquests post-1823. In contrast, progressive critiques highlight perceived hypocrisy in U.S. continental expansions, such as the 1845 , portraying the doctrine as a veil for manifest destiny; however, these actions targeted unsettled or disputed territories rather than sovereign states, aligning with the principle's focus on preventing new European encroachments rather than prohibiting all hemispheric change. Evolving interpretations reveal tensions between the doctrine's anti-colonial origins and later expansions, such as the (1904), which repurposed it for U.S. interventions to preempt European debt collections, diverging from Monroe's non-interventionist intent. Right-leaning analyses emphasize its role in shielding nascent republics from socialist or monarchist ideologies, promoting and economic liberty over imperial subjugation, while left-leaning views decry it as proto-imperialist for enabling U.S. dominance; yet, the original text's explicit rejection of and evidence of non-enforcement in crises like the 1830s Texas recognition by substantiate a narrower, reciprocal non-interference framework, not a blueprint for unilateral U.S. control. This distinction underscores how post-19th-century misapplications, often by expansionist administrations, obscured the doctrine's foundational realism in a multipolar world where U.S. power was nascent and deterrence depended on alliances rather than coercion.

Births

January–June

![Edward Jenner oil painting][float-right] Edward Jenner, the English physician who pioneered against , died on 26 January 1823 in , at the age of 73 from a . In 1796, Jenner empirically tested the folk observation that milkmaids exposed to appeared immune to by inoculating an 8-year-old boy, , with pus and later exposing him to variolous matter, confirming cross-immunity without disease development; this causal mechanism of inducing immunity via a milder related underpinned the vaccine's efficacy, averting millions of deaths and enabling 's eradication. Ann Radcliffe, influential English Gothic novelist, died on 7 February 1823 in at age 58, likely from or a respiratory ailment. Her novels, including (1791) and (1794), established conventions of the Gothic genre such as remote castles, supernatural hints resolved rationally, and heroines navigating peril through sensibility and virtue, achieving commercial success with Udolpho selling over 1,000 copies in its first year. Louis-Nicolas Davout, Duke of Auerstedt and Napoleonic marshal, died on 1 June 1823 in at age 53 from pulmonary . As war minister under the restored Bourbon monarchy from 1815, Davout reformed army administration by standardizing logistics and discipline, drawing on his prior record of undefeated corps commands, notably at Auerstedt where his 27,000 men repelled 63,000 Prussians through coordinated and squares, inflicting 13,000 casualties while suffering 7,000.

July–December

, a French , , and instrumental in organizing the French Revolutionary armies—earning the moniker "Organizer of Victory" through efficient mobilization and strategic planning—died in exile on August 2, 1823, in , , following the Bourbon Restoration's suppression of revolutionary figures. Pope Pius VII (Barnaba Chiaramonti), who as pontiff from 1800 pragmatically navigated the Napoleonic upheavals—including negotiating the 1801 to restore Church influence in amid and occupation, while later excommunicating for annexing papal territories—died on August 20, 1823, in , succumbing to complications from a thigh fracture sustained in a fall on July 6. His diplomatic balancing preserved the papacy's institutional continuity despite temporal losses, prioritizing long-term ecclesiastical autonomy over immediate confrontation. David Ricardo, a British political economist of Sephardic Jewish descent who amassed wealth as a before entering , advanced through , notably formulating the —positing that commodity prices derive from embodied labor—and championing via , arguing nations benefit from specializing in lower-opportunity-cost goods regardless of absolute efficiencies. He died suddenly on September 11, 1823, at age 51, at , , from an acute ear infection. Ricardo's parliamentary advocacy influenced Britain's 1846 repeal of the , grounding policy in empirical observation of market dynamics over mercantilist restrictions. Giovanni Battista Belzoni, an Italian strongman-turned-explorer who pioneered modern by mechanically extracting obelisks, sarcophagi, and statues—such as the colossal bust of now in the —from sites like Thebes and , thereby enabling European study of ancient artifacts—died on December 3, 1823, aged 45, from at Gwato (near modern Ughoton, ) during an expedition to trace the Niger River's source. His physical prowess and ingenuity facilitated the removal of massive relics previously deemed immovable, though his methods involved forceful interventions that later drew ethical scrutiny absent at the time.

Deaths

January–June

![Edward Jenner oil painting][float-right] Edward Jenner, the English physician who pioneered against , died on 26 January 1823 in , at the age of 73 from a . In 1796, Jenner empirically tested the folk observation that milkmaids exposed to appeared immune to by inoculating an 8-year-old boy, , with cowpox pus and later exposing him to smallpox variolous matter, confirming cross-immunity without disease development; this causal mechanism of inducing immunity via a milder related pathogen underpinned the vaccine's efficacy, averting millions of deaths and enabling smallpox's eradication. Ann Radcliffe, influential English Gothic novelist, died on 7 February 1823 in at age 58, likely from or a respiratory ailment. Her novels, including (1791) and (1794), established conventions of the Gothic genre such as remote castles, supernatural hints resolved rationally, and heroines navigating peril through sensibility and virtue, achieving commercial success with Udolpho selling over 1,000 copies in its first year. Louis-Nicolas Davout, Duke of Auerstedt and Napoleonic marshal, died on 1 June 1823 in at age 53 from pulmonary . As war minister under the restored Bourbon monarchy from 1815, Davout reformed army administration by standardizing logistics and discipline, drawing on his prior record of undefeated corps commands, notably at Auerstedt where his 27,000 men repelled 63,000 Prussians through coordinated and squares, inflicting 13,000 casualties while suffering 7,000.

July–December

Lazare Carnot, a French engineer, mathematician, and politician instrumental in organizing the French Revolutionary armies—earning the moniker "Organizer of Victory" through efficient mobilization and strategic planning—died in exile on August 2, 1823, in Magdeburg, Prussia, following the Bourbon Restoration's suppression of revolutionary figures. Pope Pius VII (Barnaba Chiaramonti), who as pontiff from 1800 pragmatically navigated the Napoleonic upheavals—including negotiating the 1801 to restore Church influence in amid and occupation, while later excommunicating for annexing papal territories—died on August 20, 1823, in , succumbing to complications from a sustained in a fall on July 6. His diplomatic balancing preserved the papacy's institutional continuity despite temporal losses, prioritizing long-term ecclesiastical autonomy over immediate confrontation. David Ricardo, a British political economist of Sephardic Jewish descent who amassed wealth as a before entering , advanced through , notably formulating the —positing that commodity prices derive from embodied labor—and championing via , arguing nations benefit from specializing in lower-opportunity-cost goods regardless of absolute efficiencies. He died suddenly on September 11, 1823, at age 51, at , , from an acute ear infection. Ricardo's parliamentary advocacy influenced Britain's 1846 repeal of the , grounding policy in empirical observation of market dynamics over mercantilist restrictions. Giovanni Battista Belzoni, an Italian strongman-turned-explorer who pioneered modern by mechanically extracting obelisks, sarcophagi, and statues—such as the colossal bust of now in the —from sites like Thebes and , thereby enabling European study of ancient artifacts—died on December 3, 1823, aged 45, from at Gwato (near modern Ughoton, ) during an expedition to trace the Niger River's source. His physical prowess and ingenuity facilitated the removal of massive relics previously deemed immovable, though his methods involved forceful interventions that later drew ethical scrutiny absent at the time.
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  61. https://carleton.ca/keirarmstrong/learning-resources/selected-biographies/ricardo-david-1772-1823/
  62. http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/node/63286/
  63. https://fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/explore-our-collection/highlights/context/patrons-donors-collectors/the-great-belzoni-1778-1823
  64. https://www.academia.edu/5296200/Giovanni_Battista_Belzoni_1778_1823_
  65. https://www.academia.edu/5296200/Giovanni_Battista_Belzoni_1778-1823_
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