Hubbry Logo
Ruta graveolensRuta graveolensMain
Open search
Ruta graveolens
Community hub
Ruta graveolens
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Ruta graveolens
Ruta graveolens
Ruta graveolens
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Common rue
Common rue in flower
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Ruta
Species:
R. graveolens
Binomial name
Ruta graveolens

Ruta graveolens, commonly known as rue, common rue or herb-of-grace, is a species of the genus Ruta grown as an ornamental plant and herb. It is native to the Mediterranean. It is grown throughout the world in gardens, especially for its bluish leaves, and sometimes for its tolerance of hot and dry soil conditions. It is also cultivated as a culinary herb, and to a lesser extent as an insect repellent and incense.

Etymology

[edit]

The specific epithet graveolens refers to the strong-smelling leaves.[1]

Description

[edit]
Foliage

Rue is a woody, perennial shrub. Its leaves are oblong, blue green and arranged bipinnately with rounded leaflets; they release a strong aroma when they are bruised.[2]

The flowers are small with 4 to 5 dull yellow petals in cymes. The first flower in each cyme is pentamerous (five sepals, five petals, five stamens and five carpels. All the others are tetramerous (four of each part). They bear brown seed capsules when pollinated.[2]

Uses

[edit]

Traditional use

[edit]

In the ancient Roman world, the naturalists Pedanius Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder recommended that rue be combined with the poisonous shrub oleander to be drunk as an antidote to venomous snake bites.[3][4]

Illustration in the Tacuinum Sanitatis

The refined oil of rue is an emmenagogue[5] and was cited by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder and Soranus as an abortifacient (inducing abortion).[6][7]

Culinary use

[edit]
Capsule and seed - MHNT

Rue has a culinary use, but since it is bitter and gastric discomfort may be experienced by some individuals, it is used sparingly. Although used more extensively as a culinary herb in former times, it is not typically found in modern cuisine. Due to small amounts of toxins it contains, it must be used in small amounts, and should be avoided by pregnant women or women who have liver issues.

It has a variety of other culinary uses:

  • It was used extensively in ancient Near Eastern and Roman cuisine (according to Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq and Apicius).
  • Rue is used as a traditional flavouring in Greece and other Mediterranean countries.[1]
  • In Istria (a region spanning Croatia and Slovenia), and in northern Italy, it is used to give a special flavour to grappa/rakia and most of the time a little branch of the plant can be found in the bottle. This is called grappa alla ruta.
  • Seeds can be used for porridge.
  • The bitter leaf can be added to eggs, cheese, fish, or mixed with damson plums and wine to produce a meat sauce.
  • In Italy in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, the young branches of the plant are dipped in a batter, deep-fried in oil, and consumed with salt or sugar. They are also used on their own to aromatise a specific type of omelette.[8]
  • Used in Old World beers as flavouring ingredient.[9]
  • The rue that is widespread in Ethiopian culture is a different species, R. chalapensis.[10]

Other

[edit]

Rue is also grown as an ornamental plant, both as a low hedge and so the leaves can be used in nosegays.

Most cats dislike the smell of it, and it can, therefore, be used as a deterrent to them (see also Plectranthus caninus).[citation needed]

Caterpillars of some subspecies of the butterfly Papilio machaon feed on rue, as well as other plants. The caterpillars of Papilio xuthus also feed readily on it.[11]

In Sephardic Jewish tradition, ruda is believed to possess protective qualities against malevolent forces, particularly the evil eye. It is often placed near vulnerable individuals, such as newborns, children, and mothers, to ward off evil.[12] Beyond its symbolic significance, ruda is valued for its medicinal properties. When combined with sugar, it is traditionally used to soothe eye discomfort and alleviate the symptoms of a mild cold. Additionally, inhaling ruda is thought to mitigate the effects of shock. Ruda's significance in Sephardic Jewish culture also extends to religious practices. During Yom Kippur, a Jewish holiday marked by fasting, Sephardic synagogues often pass ruda among congregants to revitalise them.[12]

Beyond the Sephardic tradition, Hasidic Jews also recognized the protective qualities of ruda. Hasidic Jews also were taught that rue should be placed into amulets to protect them from epidemics and plagues.[13] Other Hasidim rely on the works of a famous Baghdadi Kabbalist Yaakov Chaim Sofer who makes mention of the plant "ruda" (רודה) as an effective device against both black magic and the evil eye.[14]

It finds many household uses around the world as well. It is traditionally used in Central Asia as an insect repellent and room deodorizer.[clarification needed]

Toxicity

[edit]

Rue is generally safe if consumed in small amounts as an herb to flavor food. Rue extracts are mutagenic and hepatotoxic.[5] Large doses can cause violent gastric pain, vomiting, liver damage, and death.[5] This is due to a variety of toxic compounds in the plant's sap. It is recommended to only use small amounts in food, and to not consume it excessively. It should be strictly avoided by pregnant women, as it can be an abortifacient and teratogen.[15]

Exposure to common rue, or herbal preparations derived from it, can cause severe phytophotodermatitis, which results in burn-like blisters on the skin.[16][17][18][19] The mechanism of action is currently unknown.[20]

Effect of the common rue on skin in sunny weather

Chemistry

[edit]
R. graveolens essential oil in a clear glass vial

A series of furanoacridones and two acridone alkaloids (arborinine and evoxanthine) have been isolated from R. graveolens.[21] It also contains coumarins and limonoids.[22]

Cell cultures produce the coumarins umbelliferone, scopoletin, psoralen, xanthotoxin, isopimpinellin, rutamarin and rutacultin, and the alkaloids skimmianine, kokusaginine, 6-methoxydictamnine and edulinine.[23]

The ethyl acetate extract of R. graveolens leaves yields two furanocoumarins, one quinoline alkaloid and four quinolone alkaloids including graveoline.[24][25]

The chloroform extracts of the root, stem and leaf shows the isolation of the furanocoumarin chalepensin.[26]

The essential oil of R. graveolens contains two main constituents, undecan-2-one (46.8%) and nonan-2-one (18.8%).[27]

Symbolism

[edit]

The bitter taste of its leaves led to rue being associated with the (etymologically unrelated) verb rue "to regret". Rue is well known for its symbolic meaning of regret and it has sometimes been called "herb-of-grace" in literary works. In mythology,[28] the basilisk, whose breath could cause plants to wilt and stones to crack, had no effect on rue. Weasels who were bitten by the basilisk would retreat and eat rue in order to recover and return to fight.

In the Bible

[edit]

Rue is mentioned in the New Testament, Luke 11:42:

"But woe unto you, Pharisees! For ye tithe mint and rue and all manner of herbs".

In Jewish culture

[edit]

Sephardic Jewish tradition has long valued ruda for its diverse applications in health, religious practices, and spiritual well-being. It was in the Ottoman Balkans, rather than Medieval Spain, that Sephardic Jews encountered ruda and adopted its associated traditions and beliefs.[12]

For Sephardic Jews, Ruda is believed to protect against the evil eye and is often placed near newborns, children, and mothers to ward off harm. It is also traditionally used for its healing properties; when combined with sugar, it can soothe eye discomfort. Inhaling ruda is thought to alleviate symptoms of shock.[12] During Yom Kippur, ruda is sometimes used in synagogues to revitalize fasting worshippers.[12]

In Sephardic culture, ruda also symbolizes affection and is incorporated into celebratory rituals such as bridal showers. This symbolism is also featured in the traditional Sephardic song "Una Matica de Ruda", a popular Ladino ballad sung by Sephardic Jews for centuries. It's a retelling of a 16th-century Spanish ballad, and depicts a conversation between a mother and daughter about love and marriage. The daughter receives a cluster of ruda from a suitor, while the mother warns her of the dangers of new love.[12]

In Lithuania

[edit]

Rue is considered a national herb of Lithuania and it is the most frequently referenced herb in Lithuanian folk songs, as an attribute of young girls, associated with virginity and maidenhood. It was common in traditional Lithuanian weddings for only virgins to wear a rue (Lithuanian: rūta) at their wedding, a symbol to show their purity.

In Ukraine

[edit]

Likewise, rue is prominent in Ukrainian folklore, songs and culture. In the Ukrainian folk song "Oi poli ruta, ruta" (O, rue, rue in the field), the girl regrets losing her virginity, reproaching the lover for "breaking the green hazel tree".[29] "Chervona Ruta" (Червона Рута—"Red Rue") is a song, written by Volodymyr Ivasyuk, a popular Ukrainian poet and composer. Pop singer Sofia Rotaru performed the song in 1971.

In Germany

[edit]

Rue as heraldic charge (Crancelin) is used on the coats of arms of Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt.

In Shakespeare

[edit]

It is one of the flowers distributed by the mad Ophelia in William Shakespeare's Hamlet (IV.5):

"There's fennel for you, and columbines:
there's rue for you; and here's some for me:
we may call it herb-grace o' Sundays:
O you must wear your rue with a difference..."

It is used by the clown Lavatch in All's Well That Ends Well (IV.5) to describe Helena and his regret at her apparent death:

"she was the sweet marjoram of the salad, or rather, the herb of grace."

It was planted by the gardener in Richard II to mark the spot where the Queen wept upon hearing news of Richard's capture (III.4.104–105):

"Here did she fall a tear, here in this place
I'll set a bank of rue, sour herb of grace."

It is also given by the rusticated Perdita to her disguised royal father-in-law on the occasion of a sheep-shearing (Winter's Tale, IV.4):

"For you there's rosemary and rue; these keep
Seeming and savour all the winter long."

In other English literature

[edit]

It is used by Michael in Milton's Paradise Lost to give Adam clear sight (11.414):

"Then purg'd with euphrasy and rue
The visual nerve, for he had much to see."

Rue is used by Gulliver in Gulliver's Travels (by Jonathan Swift) when he returns to England after living among the "Houyhnhnms". Gulliver can no longer stand the smell of the English Yahoos (people), so he stuffs rue or tobacco in his nose to block out the smell.

"I was at last bold enough to walk the street in his (Don Pedro's) company, but kept my nose well with rue, or sometimes with tobacco".

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ruta graveolens

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Ruta graveolens L., commonly known as rue, common rue, or herb-of-grace, is a in the family native to the Mediterranean region, including the Balkan Peninsula and . It typically grows 0.5 to 1 meter (1.6 to 3.3 feet) tall and wide, forming a compact, bushy habit with slender, smooth, pale -green stems and strongly aromatic, glaucous blue-green leaves that are alternate, 2- to 3-pinnately compound, and dotted with glandular oil reservoirs. The plant produces small, dull yellow flowers in erect terminal clusters (corymbs or umbels) from June to September, followed by brown schizocarpic fruits that split into five seed-containing segments. Widely cultivated since ancient times as an ornamental and medicinal , R. graveolens has naturalized in temperate regions worldwide, thriving in well-drained soils with full sun and tolerating USDA hardiness zones 4 to 9. Historically revered as the "herb of grace" for its symbolic role in religious ceremonies representing , from , and grace—particularly in Christian and Mediterranean traditions—it has been integrated into cultural practices, , and herbalism across , the , and beyond. In , R. graveolens has been employed for centuries to treat a range of conditions, including inflammatory disorders, menstrual cramps, digestive spasms, fever, headaches, bruises, , and ailments like eczema and ulcers, often prepared as infusions, extracts, or poultices. Its pharmacological potential stems from bioactive compounds such as alkaloids (e.g., graveoline), , coumarins, and essential oils, which exhibit , , , and activities in preliminary studies. However, the plant is notably toxic, containing phototoxic furocoumarins and other irritants that can cause severe ( burns upon sun exposure), gastrointestinal distress, liver damage, and even or death if ingested in large amounts; its use requires caution and is largely restricted to diluted homeopathic preparations today.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Classification

Ruta graveolens is a within the kingdom Plantae, Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Sapindales, Rutaceae, genus , and graveolens. This placement reflects its status as a vascular, in the eudicot clade, aligned with the (APG) IV system. The genus belongs to the subfamily Rutoideae of the family, which includes other genera characterized by aromatic compounds and often medicinal properties. Within Ruta, approximately eight are currently accepted, including R. chalepensis (fringed rue), R. montana (mountain rue), and R. corsica, all sharing similar shrubby habits and native distributions in the Mediterranean region. These species are distinguished primarily by leaf morphology and geographic range, with R. graveolens noted for its broader cultivation history. The binomial name Ruta graveolens was formally established by in his seminal 1753 publication , marking a key moment in the Linnaean system's application to botanical taxonomy. No are widely recognized in current classifications, though several cultivated varieties and cultivars, such as 'Jackman's Blue' with its intensified foliage, have been developed for ornamental purposes.

Etymology

The scientific name Ruta graveolens follows the established by in 1753, with the genus name derived from the Latin ruta, which itself was borrowed from terms such as rhytē (ῥυτή) or pēganon used by classical authors like Dioscorides to denote the plant. The Greek rhytē may connect to rheō (to flow), reflecting the plant's reputed emmenagogic properties, while pēganon alludes to its coagulating effects on bodily fluids, as described in ancient herbal texts. The specific epithet graveolens combines the Latin adjectives gravis (heavy or strong) and olens (smelling or odorous), referring to the plant's intensely pungent aroma, a descriptor shared with other aromatic herbs in classical botany. Among common names, "rue" traces directly from Latin ruta through Old French reue or rue, entering English by the 14th century, while an Old English form rūde also denoted the plant in early herbal traditions. The epithet "herb-of-grace" (or herba gratia in Latin) arose in medieval Europe from the plant's ritual use in Catholic ceremonies, where branches of rue were dipped in holy water for asperges, symbolizing spiritual purification and grace.

Description and biology

Morphology

Ruta graveolens is a herbaceous that typically reaches heights of 0.5–1 m, forming a compact, bushy growth habit with a woody base and erect, branching stems. The stems are slender, smooth, and pale green, often becoming semi-woody at the base with age, supporting an alternate arrangement of leaves along their length. The leaves are green, in mild climates, and pinnately , usually 2- to 3-pinnate, measuring up to 20 cm in length. Leaflets are oblong-oblanceolate to broadly spatulate, 7–25 long × 2–9 wide, sessile, and either entire or slightly crenate at the margins, with surfaces dotted by pellucid glands that contribute to the 's distinctive sensory profile. These glandular trichomes exude a strong, bitter aroma when the plant is bruised or crushed, serving as a key identifying feature. Flowers are bisexual, yellow to yellowish-green, and approximately 1 cm in diameter, borne in terminal panicles or dichasial cymes on stout peduncles up to 9 cm long. Each flower features 4–5 sepals, 4–5 clawed petals up to 8 mm long with concave limbs and lacerate margins, and 8 stamens arranged in two whorls. The emerges in mid-summer, adding to the plant's ornamental appeal. The fruit is an oblong capsule, 5–6 mm long, 4–5-valved, and dehiscent, containing numerous small ; it matures in late summer, turning from to as it ripens. This capsule structure aids in and underscores the plant's as a in Mediterranean environments.

Reproduction and life cycle

Ruta graveolens is a perennial that completes vegetative growth during its first year before reaching reproductive maturity in the second year, after which it continues to flower annually under favorable conditions. The plant exhibits a mixed mating system, being self-fertile through delayed selfing facilitated by complex stamen movements, yet it is primarily cross-pollinated by insects such as bees and flies that are attracted to its yellow flowers. These movements, involving sequential uplifting and repositioning of stamens, promote outcrossing by positioning anthers away from the stigma initially, while allowing self-pollination if cross-pollinators are absent. Flowering typically occurs from June to September in temperate regions, aligning with summer phenology and producing clusters of small, yellowish-green blooms. Following , the flowers develop into dry capsules containing numerous small black . often benefits from stratification to overcome potential , with optimal rates achieved at temperatures around 30°C after a stratification period. demonstrate orthodox storage , maintaining viability for up to 3 years when stored under , dry conditions at -10°C and 6-9% content. Although sexual reproduction via seeds is predominant, asexual propagation can occur through stem cuttings or root division, methods that are less commonly employed but effective for clonal propagation in cultivation. Seed dispersal is mainly achieved by gravity from dehiscing capsules, with wind occasionally aiding the spread of the lightweight seeds over short distances.

Distribution and ecology

Native and introduced ranges

Ruta graveolens is native to the northern Balkan Peninsula, with its original range encompassing countries such as , , and parts of the former Yugoslavia, extending to Turkey-in-Europe and the Crimean Peninsula. This temperate thrives in its indigenous habitats of rocky slopes and scrublands across these regions. The species has been introduced to , , and the since Roman times, facilitated by ancient trade routes that carried it as a medicinal and ornamental . It has become naturalized in many areas with Mediterranean climates, including parts of , , , and various locations in North and , where it persists in disturbed sites. In its current global distribution, R. graveolens appears in and , often as an escaped ornamental that has established self-sustaining populations. In , it has become naturalized and is considered a low-impact in certain coastal and dryland areas, potentially outcompeting native vegetation to a limited extent. Historical records in medieval herbals further document its cultivation and spread across for therapeutic uses, underscoring its long-standing role beyond the native range.

Habitat preferences

_Ruta graveolens thrives in dry, rocky, and calcareous soils under full sun exposure, exhibiting strong drought tolerance once established. It is particularly adapted to well-drained, poor to moderately fertile substrates, often found on limestone outcrops and stony hillsides in its native range originating from southeastern Europe. This preference aligns with Mediterranean-type ecosystems, where it contributes to the shrubby understory of dry, open habitats. As a , R. graveolens readily colonizes disturbed areas such as roadsides, fields, and meadows, where its allelopathic properties play a key role in inhibiting the and growth of nearby through chemical compounds in its . These effects allow it to establish dominance in open, human-altered landscapes, potentially reducing competition from other vegetation. In non-native regions, including parts of , it has naturalized in such disturbed sites, raising concerns about its ability to outcompete local flora via these inhibitory mechanisms. Ecologically, R. graveolens interacts variably with fauna; while toxic to livestock such as goats, causing renal damage and other pathological effects upon ingestion, its yellow flowers attract pollinators including bees and butterflies by providing nectar and pollen. This duality supports its role in pollinator networks but limits grazing in pastoral areas. The plant demonstrates climate tolerance across USDA hardiness zones 4–9, with frost hardiness down to -15°C in well-drained conditions, enabling persistence in temperate to subtropical environments.

Cultivation

Growing requirements

Ruta graveolens thrives in well-drained soils, preferably sandy or loamy types with a neutral to slightly alkaline pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.5, as poor drainage can lead to root rot. The plant tolerates nutritionally poor conditions and should be planted in sites that mimic its native Mediterranean rocky habitats to prevent waterlogging. It requires full sun exposure, ideally at least six hours of direct daily, to promote compact growth and prolific flowering, though it can adapt to partial shade with reduced blooms. Once established, the plant is highly drought-tolerant and needs minimal , with watering sufficient to keep the from drying out completely during prolonged dry spells. Ruta graveolens is hardy in USDA zones 4 to 9, tolerating temperatures down to about -10°C (14°F) provided the soil remains dry during winter, but it benefits from protection against excessive winter wetness to avoid rot. It performs best in moderate climates with summer temperatures between 15–24°C (60–75°F) but can endure higher heat up to 38°C (100°F) in well-drained conditions. Fertilization requirements are low, as the plant grows well in nutrient-poor soils; excessive nutrients from fertilizers can result in leggy, weak growth, so application is generally unnecessary unless the soil is exceptionally infertile, in which case a balanced, slow-release applied sparingly in spring suffices. Common issues include infestations, such as by , which can cause leaf distortion, and in overly moist soils; organic controls like insecticidal soaps for and ensuring proper drainage for rot prevention are recommended. No major diseases affect the plant under optimal conditions, though powdery mildew may occur in humid environments.

Propagation methods

Ruta graveolens can be effectively propagated through , stem cuttings, and division, with each method suited to different cultivation scales and timelines. For seed propagation, surface-sowing is recommended in spring, as is light-dependent and occurs best in a warm, sunny location at temperatures of approximately 15–20°C, typically taking 14–21 days. Seeds should not be covered deeply to ensure exposure to , though shallow covering of 0.5–1 cm may be used in some protocols; once germinated, seedlings are thinned to 30 cm spacing. Stem cuttings provide a reliable vegetative method, using semi-hardwood or half-woody shoots taken in summer from healthy plants; cuttings of 10–15 cm are prepared by removing lower leaves, optionally dipped in rooting hormone, and inserted into a sandy, well-draining medium such as seedling mixed with (1:1 ratio). They root under high , such as in a system or covered , at around 20°C in a bright but cool environment, often within several weeks. Division is suitable for established and is best carried out in spring to minimize stress, involving careful separation of the ball into sections while preserving integrity for each new ; this method ensures clonal and quick establishment in the garden. In commercial production, particularly for medicinal farms, seed-based remains primary due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness, though is increasingly adopted for high-volume, uniform stock with success rates often exceeding 70–80% in optimized protocols.

Chemical composition

Major constituents

Ruta graveolens contains a diverse array of secondary metabolites, with alkaloids primarily in the form of and acridone types such as graveoline, rutamarin, and skimmianine. A 2024 review confirms acridone alkaloids as the most frequently reported non-volatile components. These alkaloids are concentrated in the leaves and seeds, where they contribute to the plant's mechanisms. Furanocoumarins represent another major class of constituents, including bergapten (up to 0.5% dry weight) and psoralen, which are linear coumarins abundant in the aerial parts. These compounds accumulate on leaf surfaces and within tissues, varying with environmental factors like UV exposure. Flavonoids, particularly rutin (quercetin-3-rutinoside), are prominent phenolic compounds, often the major flavonoid identified in leaf extracts at concentrations around 465 μg/g dry weight. Rutin occurs alongside other flavonoids like quercetin and naringenin, primarily in the leaves. The essential oils of R. graveolens yield 0.8–1.2% upon hydrodistillation, dominated by the aliphatic 2-undecanone (up to 80%), with monoterpenes such as present in smaller amounts. These volatiles are most abundant in leaves, showing seasonal fluctuations influenced by growth stage and . Overall, constituent quantities vary by plant part, with leaves richest in volatiles and seeds in alkaloids, and by season due to biosynthetic responses to environmental cues.

Biosynthetic pathways

The alkaloids in Ruta graveolens are primarily acridone derivatives synthesized through a branch of the biosynthetic pathway, originating from derived from the . Anthranilate synthase catalyzes the conversion of chorismate to , serving as a key branch point for both primary metabolism and secondary acridone alkaloid production. From , the pathway proceeds via , involving to form tryptamine intermediates and subsequent N- steps using S-adenosyl-L-methionine as the methyl donor, leading to N-methylanthranilic acid as a critical precursor for acridone ring formation. Enzymes such as anthranilate N-methyltransferase facilitate the , with cell-free extracts from R. graveolens suspension cultures demonstrating the incorporation of labeled into rutacridone via these steps. Furanocoumarin biosynthesis in R. graveolens begins with , which is deaminated to trans-cinnamic acid by , followed by hydroxylation and lactonization to form the backbone, such as . The pathway then involves prenylation of at the 6-position by a dimethylallyl diphosphate:umbelliferone 6-O-prenyltransferase, yielding marmesin, which undergoes angular cyclization via synthase—a monooxygenase—to form , the core structure for linear like xanthotoxin and . Subsequent O-methylations by soluble O-methyltransferases complete the synthesis of methoxylated derivatives such as isopimpinellin. Flavonoids in R. graveolens, notably , are produced via the phenylpropanoid pathway, where synthase initiates the core structure by condensing one molecule of p-coumaroyl-CoA (derived from ) with three molecules of (from ) to form naringenin . isomerase then cyclizes this to naringenin, which undergoes further hydroxylations and ; specifically, is formed and subsequently glycosylated at the 3-position with and glucose by flavonoid 3-O-glycosyltransferase and rhamnosyltransferase to yield . This enhances solubility and stability, with light induction promoting overall accumulation in R. graveolens tissues. Essential oil components in R. graveolens, including aliphatic ketones like 2-undecanone, are biosynthesized in glandular trichomes primarily through the , which generates isoprenoid precursors in the . is converted to by , leading to and , which serve as building blocks for volatiles; however, the dominant ketones such as 2-undecanone arise from downstream modifications involving fatty acid-derived chains elongated and oxidized in these specialized cells. Environmental stresses, particularly (UV) radiation, significantly influence biosynthetic pathways in R. graveolens, with UV exposure upregulating and production as a defense response. Low-intensity UV-A (366 nm) increases concentrations by approximately 20% in leaves, while UV-C light enhances the accumulation of specific like and through induction of pathway enzymes such as 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases. This upregulation aids in photoprotection and deterrence against herbivores and pathogens.

Medicinal and pharmacological uses

Traditional applications

In and Roman medicine, Ruta graveolens (commonly known as rue) was valued for its versatile therapeutic applications, particularly in treating eye ailments and menstrual disorders. recommended it as a universal to poisons from animal, vegetable, or sources, while praised it as one of the foremost medicinal herbs for sharpening and preserving eyesight, often applied in eyewashes or ointments to alleviate discomfort and inflammation. The plant was also employed as an to promote menstrual flow and address irregularities, with the refined oil noted for its efficacy in such cases by Pliny and Soranus. During the medieval period in , rue retained its reputation as a protective agent against poisons, appearing in grimoires and alchemical texts where it was incorporated into amulets or infusions for warding off toxins and evil influences. classified it as possessing a hot and dry temperament in the third degree, aligning with humoral theory to counter cold and moist imbalances, and it was commonly used in compound antidotes like mithridatum to prevent poisoning. In Middle Eastern and Islamic , (Ibn Sina) prescribed rue for headaches, including migraines, advising the application of rue oil topically to relieve pain and spasms. It was similarly utilized for and in Iranian folk practices, often prepared as a or to soothe affected areas. Traditional dosages involved infusions of 1–2 g of dried per day, though caution was emphasized due to its potency. Among indigenous Balkan communities, where rue is native, the plant featured prominently in folk remedies as poultices made from crushed leaves to treat bruises, swellings, and insect bites, leveraging its and effects. It also held symbolic roles in rituals, often burned or carried for protection against misfortune and malevolent forces. In 19th-century European herbalism, detailed rue's uses in his Complete Herbal, advocating ointments or poultices for and joint pains, as well as warm infusions to expel intestinal worms, emphasizing its and vermifuge qualities.

Modern research findings

Recent studies have investigated the properties of Ruta graveolens extracts, particularly focusing on the as a key . In vitro experiments using murine cells demonstrated that the plant extract significantly suppresses the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6, while also reducing the transcription of the (COX-2) gene, which is central to prostaglandin-mediated inflammation. Post-2000 research has shown that from R. graveolens attenuates inflammation by inhibiting COX-2 activity and reducing markers. The potential of R. graveolens has been substantiated in 2010s investigations, revealing activity against including . Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for the against S. aureus ranged from 0.75 to 1.4 μg/mL, demonstrating moderate efficacy comparable to some conventional antibiotics in disc diffusion assays. Further studies from the decade highlighted the oil's ability to disrupt biofilms formed by S. aureus and other pathogens, suggesting potential applications in combating antibiotic-resistant strains through interference with mechanisms. Regarding anticancer effects, alkaloid components like graveoline from R. graveolens ethanolic extracts have shown promise in inducing apoptosis in cancer cells. In vitro assays on melanoma cell lines indicated that graveoline triggers both apoptotic and autophagic pathways, leading to cell death independent of traditional apoptosis resistance. In a 2015 study using rodent models of induced skin cancer, administration of R. graveolens extract at doses around 75 mg/kg body weight significantly reduced tumor incidence and progression, with mechanisms involving caspase-3 activation and Beclin-1-mediated autophagy. Antioxidant evaluations of R. graveolens leaf extracts have consistently demonstrated strong free radical scavenging via assays, with inhibition rates reaching up to 80% at concentrations of 100–500 μg/mL, attributed to high phenolic and content. However, clinical trials remain limited, primarily confined to topical formulations for skin conditions like , where extracts provided oxidative protection without systemic evaluation. Despite these findings, significant research gaps persist, including a of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in humans to validate and . Recent 2025 reviews emphasize the variability in extract composition due to environmental factors, underscoring the need for standardized preparations to ensure reproducible pharmacological outcomes in future studies.

Culinary and other practical uses

In food preparation

Ruta graveolens, known as rue, finds limited but distinctive applications in food preparation across various regional cuisines, primarily due to its intensely bitter flavor derived from compounds such as 2-undecanone. In , rue leaves are incorporated into the spice blend, where small amounts contribute a pungent, slightly citrus-like bitterness to stews and dishes. Similarly, in Italian cooking, rue complements acidic tomato-based sauces with olives and capers, often added sparingly alongside herbs like and to balance flavors in or preparations. Historically, ancient Romans utilized rue to honeyed wines, infusing the beverage with its aromatic bitterness to create popular of mulsum, a sweetened wine served at meals. In modern contexts, rue's flavors certain liqueurs, such as the Italian grappa con ruta, where a small per imparts a robust, bitter note to the brandy. Due to its strong bitterness and potential for gastric discomfort, rue is employed in very small doses and is generally avoided in large quantities or in Anglo-American culinary practices, which favor milder seasonings.

Ornamental and industrial applications

Ruta graveolens is prized in ornamental for its striking blue-green foliage, which offers textural contrast and interest in gardens, borders, rock gardens, and low edging. The plant's aromatic, fern-like leaves, pinnately divided into rounded segments, release a pungent scent when bruised and maintain their color through winter, enhancing visual appeal in mixed plantings. Its exceptional once established makes it ideal for xeriscapes, gardens, and mass displays in hot, dry climates, where it thrives in poor, rocky soils without excessive watering. Select cultivars, such as 'Jackman's Blue', feature intensified blue-grey leaves and a compact, bushy habit, reaching 18-24 inches tall, suitable for borders and drought-tolerant landscapes. In industrial applications, leaves of Ruta graveolens yield dyes that produce soft greenish-yellow shades when extracted for coloring. Essential oils derived from the leaves and shoots serve as repellents, historically applied against fleas, lice, and other pests on and in households. These oils exhibit fumigant toxicity toward stored-product , supporting eco-friendly pest management. The plant's essential oil finds minor use in perfumery and soaps for its herbaceous, fruity notes, though the inherent bitterness and acrid undertone restrict widespread adoption. Twentieth-century research explored rue extracts for pesticidal formulations, with patents documenting their efficacy against agricultural pests due to bioactive compounds like . Ecologically, the deep-rooted contributes to in arid environments, aiding through its adaptation to dry, infertile sites.

Toxicity and safety concerns

Toxic mechanisms

Ruta graveolens exerts toxicity through several biochemical and physiological mechanisms, primarily driven by its key constituents including , alkaloids, and other secondary metabolites. These compounds interact with cellular processes in ways that disrupt normal function, leading to organ-specific damage upon exposure or ingestion. is one of the most prominent mechanisms, mediated by furanocoumarins such as and . These linear furanocoumarins penetrate the skin and, upon activation by A (UVA) radiation, intercalate between DNA base pairs, forming monoadducts with pyrimidine bases like . Subsequent UVA exposure triggers the formation of interstrand cross-links, which inhibit and transcription, resulting in of epidermal cells and manifestations such as , , and severe burns. The minimal erythema dose for such reactions typically ranges from 0.6 to 10 J/cm², depending on skin type and concentration of the sensitizer. Hepatotoxicity arises largely from furanocoumarins and quinoline alkaloids present in the plant, which dysregulate hepatic (CYP450) enzymes. These compounds act as competitive and mechanism-based inhibitors of CYP450 isoforms, such as , impairing the metabolism of endogenous and exogenous substrates. This inhibition leads to accumulation of toxic intermediates, , and elevated liver enzymes, potentially progressing to and coagulation disorders. Alkaloids like skimmianine further contribute by altering phase I and II detoxification pathways, exacerbating . The effects of R. graveolens involve modulation of calcium channels in uterine , primarily attributed to and coumarins that exhibit spasmolytic or contractile properties depending on dose and context. At higher concentrations, these constituents enhance calcium influx or release from intracellular stores, promoting myometrial contractions that can precipitate in doses exceeding 5 g. Neurotoxicity occurs at high doses through (CNS) excitation mediated by alkaloids, leading to symptoms such as , , and convulsions. These compounds interfere with systems, potentially antagonizing gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, thereby reducing inhibitory signaling and promoting seizure activity. Animal studies demonstrate the 's overall acute oral , with an LD50 greater than 4 g/kg in rats for methanol extracts, indicating moderate hazard potential; however, chronic exposure can lead to bioaccumulation in , posing risks to offspring.

Health risks and precautions

Handling Ruta graveolens, commonly known as rue, poses significant health risks primarily due to its phototoxic properties, leading to upon contact followed by ultraviolet light exposure. Documented cases include a 1999 incident in where individuals applied rue leaves as a protective charm against evil spells, resulting in severe linear blisters and on exposed areas; treatment involved topical corticosteroids and avoidance of . Similarly, a 1983 family case involved children and their mother developing after handling rue plants in a , manifesting as painful and bullae on sun-exposed limbs. These outbreaks highlight the dangers for gardeners and others in direct contact with the plant's sap. Internal misuse of rue as an herbal abortifacient has led to serious incidents, including a series of 26 cases in where women self-administered rue to induce , resulting in , , , and multiorgan failure in several patients; four fatalities were reported, including cases of hepatic necrosis. Rue is contraindicated during because it can stimulate , potentially causing or fetal harm. Vulnerable populations include pregnant women, children—who may inadvertently handle the plant—and individuals with , who experience more severe phototoxic reactions due to lower protection. Regulatory bodies have imposed restrictions to mitigate risks. In the , rue oil is permitted in only if the concentration of furocoumarin-like substances does not exceed 1 mg/kg in the finished product, effectively limiting its use to trace amounts to prevent . The U.S. classifies rue oil as (GRAS) for use as a agent in food, but only in small quantities, and it is not approved for medicinal or cosmetic applications due to concerns. Precautions for safe handling include wearing protective gloves to avoid skin contact with the sap and immediately washing exposed areas with soap and water; subsequent sun exposure should be avoided for at least 48 hours to prevent phototoxic burns. In cases of severe dermatitis, medical intervention with topical or systemic corticosteroids, along with analgesics for pain, is recommended, and affected individuals should seek shade or use broad-spectrum sunscreen on healing skin. Veterinary reports indicate rue's toxicity to livestock, particularly cattle, causing photosensitization dermatitis characterized by inflamed, necrotic skin on light-colored areas after ingestion or contact; such cases have been noted in grazing animals worldwide, including potential risks in regions like Australia where rue may invade pastures.

Cultural and symbolic significance

Religious and historical symbolism

In ancient traditions, Ruta graveolens, commonly known as rue, held protective symbolism against evil influences, with its pungent leaves believed to ward off malevolent spirits in Mediterranean cultures. The plant's name derives from reuo, meaning "to set free," reflecting its reputed ability to liberate from afflictions, a concept echoed in its English "herb of grace," tied to spiritual redemption. Within , rue has been valued in folk practices for purification and protection, often as a substitute for hyssop in rituals involving sprinkling for cleansing, symbolizing and warding off negative forces. In , rue earned the "herb of grace" during the medieval period due to its use in church rites, where branches were dipped in and sprinkled over congregants during services, including observances, to invoke forgiveness and repel evil. This practice linked rue to and , as in its association with :7's theme of purification, though not directly identified as the biblical hyssop. Medieval devotion further tied rue to the Virgin Mary, symbolizing her sorrow at the , often planted in Mary gardens to honor her compassion. In Eastern European folklore, particularly Lithuanian and Ukrainian traditions, rue serves as a national flower emblematic of sorrow, , and . Traditionally, only unmarried virgins wore rue in bouquets or crowns to signify purity and , while its wilted form evoked and in rituals. This dual symbolism reinforced rue's historical role in marking life's transitions and emotional depths across religious contexts.

Literary and artistic references

Ruta graveolens, known as rue or herb-of-grace, frequently symbolizes regret, sorrow, and repentance in English literature, drawing on its bitter taste and historical associations with grace. In William Shakespeare's Richard II (Act 3, Scene 4), the exiled Queen vows to plant a "bank of rue" over the spot where she shed tears, punning on "rue" as both the plant and "ruth" meaning pity or sorrow, to commemorate her grief. In Hamlet (Act 4, Scene 5), Ophelia distributes flowers while singing, "There's rue for you, and here's some for me; we may call it herb of grace o' Sundays," retaining rue for herself as an emblem of personal remorse and repentance, a motif tied to its Sunday use in church rituals. Although mentioned medicinally in Romeo and Juliet (Act 1, Scene 3) as a remedy for the nurse's ailments, rue's broader symbolic role across Shakespeare's works reinforces its link to emotional bitterness and moral reflection. This tradition of rue as a marker of melancholy persists in later English literature. invokes rue in (Book XI, lines 415–417), where the angel Michael applies "euphrasy and rue" to purge a film from Adam's eyes, restoring clear vision; the herb's inherent bitterness underscores the painful clarity gained from confronting sin and loss. In Victorian poetry, employs rue to evoke enduring regret in "Ah, Are You Digging on My Grave?" (1914), where the deceased speaker imagines her husband "planting rue" over her plot as a gesture of sorrow, only to learn he has moved on, highlighting themes of abandonment and futile mourning. In visual art, rue appears in herbals as both a practical and emblematic plant. Detailed illustrations in works like Leonhart Fuchs's De historia stirpium (1542) depict Ruta graveolens with its bluish-green leaves and yellow flowers, emphasizing its medicinal uses while alluding to its protective and sorrowful connotations in classical lore. Pre-Raphaelite painters later adopted rue for its Shakespearean symbolism; in John Everett Millais's (1851–52), the drowning figure is surrounded by floating rue among other herbs from , representing Ophelia's regret and tragic demise. Across and , rue embodies protective and emotional . In German traditions, rue features in charms against , as seen in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's allusions to herbal wards in Faust (Part I), where such plants evoke safeguarding amid supernatural peril. In Ukrainian folk songs, rue (ruta) is portrayed as the "maiden's tear," a red-blooming flower signifying youthful sorrow and lost innocence, as in the Carpathian legend underlying Volodymyr Ivasyuk's "Chervona Ruta" (1968), rooted in 19th-century oral traditions.

References

  1. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/ruta-graveolens/
  2. https://dsps.lib.uiowa.edu/roots/rue/
  3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3733200/
  4. https://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile/RUGR3
  5. http://heritagegarden.uic.edu/rue-ruta-graveolens
  6. https://fieldreport.caes.uga.edu/publications/B1170/herbs-in-southern-gardens/
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11697671/
  8. https://www.science.gov/topicpages/r/rue%2Bruta%2Bgraveolens.html
  9. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2991689/
  10. https://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?seq_num=1030746&one=T
  11. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:775099-1
  12. https://v3.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_Taxonpage?taxid=437819
  13. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=b714
  14. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/ruta
  15. http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Ruta_gra.html
  16. https://www.mnhn.fr/en/rue
  17. https://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/r/rue---20.html
  18. https://herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/plants400/Profiles/qr/ruta
  19. https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000463744
  20. https://nwwildflowers.com/compare/?t=Ruta%2Bgraveolens%2C%2BRuta%2Bchalepensis
  21. https://uzbbg.uz/en/plants/kop-yillik/ruta-graveolens-l
  22. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3448434/
  23. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1146609X11000865
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261592427_Effect_of_temperature_and_salinity_on_germination_of_Ruta_graveolens_L
  25. https://palmpedia.net/wiki/books/06_Compendium_of_Information_On_Seed_Storage_Behaviour.pdf
  26. https://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?pid=S0122-87062019000300491&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
  27. https://plantdavenir.com/product/ruta-graveolens/
  28. https://www.herbalreality.com/herbalism/history/italian-herbal-influence-the-roman-roots-of-british-herbalism/
  29. https://invasives.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/WWF-National-list-of-naturalised-Invasive-garden-plants-2004.pdf
  30. https://blog.metmuseum.org/cloistersgardens/2012/09/21/rue/
  31. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Ruta%2Bgraveolens
  32. http://www.consultaplantas.com/index.php/en/plants-from-m-to-r/2657-ruta-graveolens-or-common-rue-care-and-growing
  33. https://davisla.wordpress.com/2012/07/10/plant-of-the-week-ruta-graveolens/
  34. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/ruta/graveolens/
  35. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031942202002844
  36. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12166328/
  37. https://www.thespruce.com/rue-flowers-plant-profile-4768997
  38. https://plants.sorumatik.co/t/common-rue-plant-care/42103
  39. https://www.bhg.com/gardening/plant-dictionary/perennial/rue/
  40. https://myplantin.com/plant/1582
  41. http://www.gardening.cornell.edu/homegardening/scene6ed6.html
  42. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/16/11/1088
  43. https://www.johnnyseeds.com/growers-library/herbs/rue/rue-key-growing-information.html
  44. https://plantura.garden/uk/herbs/rue/rue-overview
  45. https://forums.botanicalgarden.ubc.ca/threads/propagating-ruta-graveolens.27976/
  46. https://everglades.farm/blogs/news/rue-flowers-plant
  47. https://harvesttotable.com/how-to-grow-rue-ruta/
  48. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1871678408000071
  49. https://www.dovepress.com/traditional-uses-phytochemistry-pharmacology-and-toxicology-of-ruta-gr-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-DDDT
  50. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/ruta-graveolens
  51. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168945201004137
  52. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00993729
  53. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cbdv.202200545
  54. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/8/5/531
  55. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8400350/
  56. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1018364721002962
  57. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7757119/
  58. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17404973/
  59. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2025.1625337/full
  60. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17404992/
  61. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/003194227380384X
  62. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssynbio.4c00892
  63. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666952823000213
  64. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003986178800095
  65. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9864322/
  66. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/75782
  67. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9747538/
  68. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8309233/
  69. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42161-024-01752-7
  70. https://inis.iaea.org/records/8p8em-w8h10
  71. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274123881_Effect_of_light_on_contents_of_coumarin_compounds_in_shoots_of_Ruta_graveolens_L_cultivated_in_vitro
  72. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2011.04879.x
  73. https://tjn.org.tr/full-text-pdf/764/eng
  74. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19205849/
  75. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288207586_Ruta_graveolens_rue
  76. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227331778_Rue_Ruta_L_Rutaceae_in_Traditional_Spain_Frequency_and_Distribution_of_its_Medicinal_and_Symbolic_Applications
  77. https://www.icysedgwick.com/rue-folklore/
  78. https://www.joellane.org/history/the-gardens/rue
  79. https://medicinalherbinfo.org/000Herbs2016/1herbs/rue/
  80. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16207519/
  81. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0254629915002628
  82. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24343999/
  83. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S209549641560156X
  84. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270792711_Evaluation_of_antioxidant_activity_of_Ruta_graveolens_L_extract_on_inhibition_of_lipid_peroxidation_and_DPPH_radicals_and_the_effects_of_some_external_factors_on_plant_extract%27s_potency
  85. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10451875/
  86. https://www.wjpmr.com/download/article/134042025/1746442516.pdf
  87. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/ruta-graveolens
  88. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/90569/ruta-graveolens-jackman-s-blue/details
  89. https://plantlust.com/plants/17019/ruta-graveolens-jackmans-blue/
  90. https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/herbs/rue/harvesting-rue-plants.htm
  91. https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0032-1307598
  92. https://www.arpgweb.com/pdf-files/ajls5%288%2948-54.pdf
  93. http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/ex1615311.html
  94. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0362028X2305696X
  95. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/furanocoumarin
  96. https://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/plant/rutagrav.htm
  97. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/14/8/1019
  98. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378427411016493
  99. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9351787/
  100. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15639078/
  101. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9011952_Ruta_graveolens_aqueous_extract_retards_mouse_preimplantation_embryo_development
  102. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3722849/
  103. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10515113/
  104. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1983.tb04390.x
  105. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/ruta
  106. https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-885/rue
  107. https://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_sccp/docs/sccp_o_036.pdf
  108. https://hfpappexternal.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/index.cfm?set=FoodSubstances&id=RUEOILRUTAGRAVEOLENS
  109. https://www.rxlist.com/supplements/rue.htm
  110. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/photosensitization
  111. https://txmg.org/randall/staying-connected/gardening-with-the-masters/gardening-tips-2/rue-an-overlooked-herb/
  112. https://devotaj.substack.com/p/rue-in-jewish-traditions
  113. http://www.herbsociety-stu.org/bible-herbs.html
  114. https://udayton.edu/marianlibrary/marysgardens/b/blessing-mary-gardens.php
  115. https://mary.org/resources/mary-garden/
  116. https://blog.russianflora.com/blogs/national-flower-lithuania-rue/
  117. https://www.folklore.ee/balkan_baltic_yearbook/vol4/03.pdf
  118. https://www.academia.edu/126361379/The_codification_and_transformations_of_rue_s_image_in_Lithuanian_tradition
  119. https://www.natureshakespeare.org/shakespeare-species/rue
  120. https://knarf.english.upenn.edu/Milton/pl11.html
  121. https://crees.ku.edu/ukrainian-folk-music
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.