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Periods in North American prehistory
 
Lithic stage before 8500 BC
Archaic period 8000–1000 BC
Formative stage 1000 BC – AD 500
Woodland period 1000 BC – AD 1000
Classic stageAD 500–1200
Post-Classic stage after 1200
See also

Several chronologies in the archaeology of the Americas include a Formative Period or Formative stage etc. It is often sub-divided, for example into "Early", "Middle" and "Late" stages.

The Formative is the third of five stages defined by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in their 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology.[1] Cultures of the Formative Stage are supposed to possess the technologies of pottery, weaving, and developed food production; normally they are very largely reliant on agriculture. Social organization is supposed to involve permanent towns and villages, as well as the first ceremonial centers. Ideologically, an early priestly class or theocracy is often present or in development.[2]

Sometimes also referred to as the "Pre-Classic stage", it followed the Archaic stage and was superseded by the Classic stage.[3]

  1. The Lithic stage
  2. The Archaic stage
  3. The Formative stage
  4. The Classic stage
  5. The Post-Classic stage

The dates, and the characteristics of the period called "Formative" vary considerably between different parts of the Americas. The typical broad use of the terms is as follows below.

North America

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In the classification of North American chronology, the Formative Stage or "Neo-Indian period" is a term applied to theoretical North American cultures that existed between 1000 BC and 500 AD. There are alternative classification systems, and this ranking would overlap what others classify as the Woodland period cultures.

The Formative, Classic and post-Classic stages are sometimes incorporated together as the Post-archaic period, which runs from 1000 BC to the present. Sites and cultures include: Adena, Old Copper, Oasisamerica, Woodland, Fort Ancient, Hopewell tradition and Mississippian cultures.

Meso-America

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Zapotec art.

In Mesoamerican chronology the Preclassic or Formative runs from about 2000 BC to 250 AD, covering all the Olmec culture, and the early stages of the Maya culture and Zapotec civilization.

South America

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In the periodization of pre-Columbian Peru the Formative Period divides into 1) the Initial Period, from 1800 BC – 900 BC (sites & cultures: Early Chiripa, Kotosh culture, Cupisnique, Las Haldas, Sechin Alto), and 2) the Early Horizon or Formative Period, 900 BC – 200 BC, (Chavín, Late Chiripa, Paracas, Chankillo).

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Formative stage

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The Formative stage is the third of five developmental stages defined by archaeologists Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips in their 1958 work Method and Theory in American Archaeology, applicable to pre-Columbian societies across the . It is characterized by the transition from nomadic lifestyles to sedentary communities reliant on or comparable subsistence economies, along with the development of , , ground stone tools, and village organization, laying the groundwork for more complex societies. The timing and specific traits of this stage vary significantly by region, generally spanning from around 2500 BCE to 500 CE or later in different areas. In , the Formative stage is also known as the Preclassic period, representing a pivotal era of cultural and societal transformation approximately from 2000 BCE to 250 CE, during which groups transitioned to sedentary agricultural communities. This period in is typically divided into subphases—Initial or Early Formative (2000–900/800 BCE), Middle Formative (900–300 BCE), and Late or Terminal Formative (300 BCE–250 CE)—each marked by progressive advancements in subsistence, technology, and social organization. In the Initial Formative, the adoption of maize agriculture and the production of ceramics supported the establishment of permanent villages, particularly along the and in the region, fostering and early craft specialization. The Early and Middle Formative witnessed the rise of , exemplified by the Olmec culture at sites like San Lorenzo and , where monumental earthworks, jade carvings, and long-distance trade networks in and other prestige goods indicated emerging classes and shared ideological systems. Differential burial practices and multi-tiered settlement hierarchies further highlighted growing inequality, with elites controlling resources and ritual activities. By the Late Formative, urbanization accelerated across the highlands and lowlands, leading to the formation of state-level societies with divine kingship, as seen in early Maya centers like , alongside the construction of temple-pyramids and the precursors to writing and calendrical systems. However, the Terminal Formative in some regions, such as the , faced challenges including droughts that contributed to societal shifts, though responses varied, with growth in areas like central . Contemporary research, employing technologies like and analysis, continues to refine understandings of population movements, environmental influences, and the decentralized nature of early complexity, revealing that Formative developments were more widespread and earlier than once thought.

Overview

Definition and Scope

The Formative stage represents a key in American archaeology, originating from the three-stage chronological system—Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Formative—developed by Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips in their seminal 1958 work Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Initially formulated to classify prehistoric in , this system emphasized broad developmental patterns rather than rigid timelines, with the Formative positioned as the phase of emerging complexity following the Archaic. Temporally, the Formative stage encompasses roughly 2000 BCE to 500 CE across much of the , though this range varies significantly by region to account for local environmental and cultural factors; in , for example, early markers like appear as early as 3500 BCE in coastal . This flexibility reflects the stage's role as a pan-American heuristic rather than a uniform chronology, allowing adaptation to diverse ecological contexts from Mesoamerican highlands to Andean coasts. At its core, the Formative stage defines the transition from mobile societies characteristic of the Archaic period to sedentary agricultural communities, driven by innovations in food production, vessels for storage and cooking, and incipient social hierarchies. Unlike the Archaic's emphasis on and seasonal mobility, the Formative signals the socioeconomic integration of cultivated crops—such as in or manioc in parts of —enabling permanent villages and specialized crafts. Comparatively, the "Formative" terminology aligns closely with the Preclassic period in Mesoamerican archaeology (circa 2000 BCE–250 CE), where it denotes similar shifts toward complexity, and extends to equivalent phases like the Initial Period in ; however, scholars debate the stage's uniformity across continents due to asynchronous developments, such as earlier sedentism in resource-rich Andean valleys versus delayed agricultural intensification in North American interiors.

Key Characteristics

The Formative stage across the was defined by profound economic shifts toward , with the widespread adoption of (Zea mays) as a staple in and , alongside complementary cultigens such as beans, squash (the "three sisters" complex), potatoes and in the , and manioc in lowland . and records from archaeological sites demonstrate that this agricultural intensification occurred around 1500 BCE in , with earlier developments in dating to 7000–5000 BCE, marking a transition from foraging-dominated economies to more productive systems that supported larger populations. These developments, rooted in the of wild teosinte into domesticated varieties, enabled surplus production and seasonal cultivation practices that laid the groundwork for societal complexity. Technological advancements during this period included the invention and diffusion of ceramics, primarily fired clay vessels designed for efficient storage, cooking, and food preparation, which first appeared as early as c. 3500 BCE in coastal and spread northward. Ground stone tools, such as manos and metates, became essential for grinding and processing and other crops, reflecting adaptations to intensive . Early weaving technologies, evidenced by spindle whorls and textile impressions, supported the production of baskets and fabrics for daily and ritual use. Social developments featured the rise of , with the establishment of permanent villages typically spanning 1-10 hectares and accommodating 100-500 inhabitants, as indicated by clustered pit houses and communal features at sites. Initial signs of emerged through disparities in burial goods—ranging from simple interments to those with exotic items—and variations in house sizes, suggesting differential access to resources and labor organization. Cultural markers of the Formative stage encompassed the development of ritual practices, including the of earthworks and early earthen mounds that served as platforms for ceremonies and ancestor veneration, precursors to later monumental . Trade networks expanded significantly, enabling the long-distance exchange of prestige goods such as obsidian for tools, for ornaments, and marine shells for rituals, often spanning hundreds of kilometers and fostering inter-regional interactions. These innovations represented environmental adaptations to the post-glacial stabilization of the early , which warmed temperatures and stabilized patterns after the Pleistocene, facilitating flood-recessional farming in fertile river valleys where seasonal inundations enriched soils for crop growth. Overall, the Formative stage's key characteristics—, ceramics, , ritual elaboration, and —formed the foundational elements of pre-Columbian civilizations, as outlined in the seminal chronological framework.

North America

Eastern Woodlands

The Formative stage in the Eastern Woodlands of , spanning approximately 1000 BCE to 500 CE, corresponds closely with the Early and Middle Woodland periods and is marked by the emergence of mound-building traditions, the adoption of , and expanded networks within temperate forest environments. This period saw the transition from primarily economies to ones incorporating cultivated plants, with communities constructing earthen monuments that served ceremonial and functions, reflecting increasing . Key cultures during this stage include the Adena, active from around 1000 BCE to 200 BCE, who are renowned for building conical burial mounds that could reach heights of up to 20 meters, such as the Miamisburg Mound in . These mounds, often containing multiple burials with , indicate ritual practices centered on ancestor veneration and communal labor. Succeeding the Adena, the Hopewell culture flourished from 200 BCE to 500 CE, constructing large geometric enclosures—such as circles and octagons up to approximately 500 meters in diameter—along with effigy and burial mounds that facilitated ceremonies and gatherings. The Hopewell are distinguished by extensive trade networks that brought exotic materials, including from the , into central sites like those in the Scioto Valley, where artisans fashioned it into ornaments, tools, and ceremonial objects. Subsistence strategies evolved with the introduction of around 200 BCE, marking a shift toward mixed economies that integrated cultivated crops with and . This adoption supplemented the indigenous , which included domesticated plants like sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri), gathered and cultivated for their nutrient-rich seeds; archaeological evidence from charred remains at Middle Woodland sites in the Illinois Valley and drainage confirms their dietary importance alongside early kernels. While initially played a supplementary role, its cultivation in small garden plots near settlements contributed to nutritional diversification in the region's oak-hickory forests. Settlements during the Formative stage consisted of semi-permanent villages featuring small, circular pit houses—typically 3 to 5 meters in diameter—excavated into the earth and covered with pole-and-thatch roofs, accommodating family groups in locations near rivers and fertile floodplains. These communities supported low population densities, estimated at around 0.1 persons per square kilometer across the broader Ohio Valley, though localized growth occurred near resource-rich areas, enabling the labor-intensive construction of mounds and enclosures. Such settlements reflect adaptive strategies to the seasonal availability of forest resources, with villages serving as bases for , deer and small game, and seasonal . Characteristic artifacts include , formed from coiled clay tempered with grit or shell and impressed with twisted cordage for texture and grip, which appears widely in Early contexts across the Midwest and Southeast. Atlatl weights, often polished stone bannerstones or boatstones hafted to spear-throwers, enhanced hunting efficiency and were commonly deposited in burials, symbolizing status or use. Additionally, intricately carved stone pipes, particularly platform varieties depicting animals like birds, frogs, and deer, were crafted by Hopewell artisans from materials such as pipestone, underscoring artistic traditions tied to ceremonial practices.

Southwest and Plains

The Formative stage in the Southwest and Great Plains of spanned approximately 500 BCE to 500 CE, marked by gradual and agricultural intensification in arid environments. In the Southwest, this period corresponds to the Basketmaker II (ca. 500 BCE–500 CE) and early Basketmaker III phases, characterized by the emergence of the , who developed villages as precursors to more permanent surface architecture. On the Plains, precursors to the Plains Village Tradition appeared around 200 BCE–500 CE, featuring early fortified sites that indicated defensive adaptations to nomadic pressures. Subsistence strategies during this era relied on the diffusion of from , which reached the Southwest around 2100 BCE, enabling dry farming techniques and early canal irrigation systems in regions like the precursors to Chaco Canyon. Early evidence includes finds at sites like the Old Corn Site (ca. 1200 BCE). This was supplemented by the cultivation of beans by around 500 CE and for wild resources such as piñon nuts, prickly pear, and game, which supported small-scale communities. In the Plains, economies were primarily based on bison hunting and , with only rare early traces of appearing around AD 100 but no significant until later periods. Settlements in the Southwest consisted of clustered pithouses, typically 5–20 semi-subterranean structures per site, often arranged in pit structures with ventilation shafts and hearths for year-round habitation. These evolved toward surface pueblos by the late Formative, signaling increased . In contrast, Plains sites featured seasonal villages with earth lodges, built in semi-permanent locations near valleys to facilitate exploitation. Key artifacts from this period include corrugated pottery, which emerged in the Southwest around 600 CE for cooking and storage, reflecting technological advancements in ceramics. domestication began during Basketmaker II for production and ritual use, evidenced by remains at sites like Obelisk Cave. Basketry, including coiled and twined techniques, was prevalent for carrying and processing foods. panels, such as those in the Pecos River style, depicted hunters, farmers, and abstract motifs, providing insights into cultural narratives and environmental interactions.

Mesoamerica

Early Formative

The Early Formative period in , spanning approximately 2000 BCE to 800 BCE, marked the transition from nomadic to sedentary village life, driven by the intensification of and the establishment of permanent settlements. By this time, the domestication of key crops such as (Zea mays), squash (Cucurbita spp.), and chili peppers ( spp.) had become widespread, supporting population growth and community stability; , originally domesticated from teosinte around 7000 BCE in central 's Balsas River Valley, was cultivated extensively by 1900 BCE, while squash had been domesticated in as early as 10,000 years ago, and chili peppers around 6000 BCE in the region. These developments enabled the formation of the earliest known sedentary villages, such as Paso de la Amada in , , settled around 1900 BCE with over 100 residents organized in clustered households. Paso de la Amada exemplifies the initial phase of village formation in the region along the Pacific coast, featuring earthen platform mounds up to 200 meters long and the oldest known ballcourt, dating to 1650–1400 BCE, which consisted of parallel earthen ridges used for ritual games involving rubber balls made from latex. Artifacts from the site include early handmade in the Ocós style, characterized by simple forms like tecomates and vessels for cooking, alongside evidence of processing and small-scale craft activities such as tool production. The presence of white-slipped wares, with a fine clay slip applied before firing to create a smooth, polished surface, indicates emerging ceramic technologies that facilitated trade and ritual use across coastal communities. The latter part of the Early Formative witnessed the emergence of the Olmec culture, centered at in the Gulf Coast lowlands, occupied from roughly 1400 BCE to 400 BCE, where monumental architecture and sculpture signaled increasing social complexity. Olmec artifacts include basalt colossal heads, sculpted portraits of rulers up to 3.4 meters tall and weighing as much as 25 tons, quarried from distant sources and transported over 80 kilometers without wheels or draft animals, alongside finely crafted jade celts used in elite rituals symbolizing fertility and authority. The origins of the Mesoamerican rubber ballgame trace to this era, with latex balls deposited as offerings at sites like El Manatí around 1600 BCE, likely tied to rain-making ceremonies, and advanced drainage systems of -lined channels at San Lorenzo managing seasonal flooding to support intensive agriculture. Ceramic figurines, often depicting human-animal hybrids interpreted as shamans in transformative states, reflect spiritual practices involving visionary trances and communal rituals. Social organization during this period showed nascent , with evidence of residences distinguished by larger platforms and richer artifact assemblages at sites like Paso de la Amada, where architectural disparities suggest status differences among residential groups, though economic control remained decentralized. At San Lorenzo, specialized craft workshops for and jade working indicate organized labor under oversight, fostering interregional exchange networks that distributed prestige goods like and ceramics, laying the groundwork for later Mesoamerican polities.

Middle and Late Formative

The Middle and Late Formative periods in , spanning approximately 800 BCE to 250 CE—with the Middle phase from 800 to 200 BCE and the Late phase from 200 BCE to 250 CE—marked a profound escalation in , characterized by the emergence of early urban centers, hierarchical societies, and symbolic systems that laid the groundwork for later civilizations. During this time, regional cultures expanded beyond localized chiefdoms, fostering interconnected networks that supported and cultural . Key developments included the construction of monumental architecture and the proliferation of iconographic art reflecting elite authority and ritual practices. While the Olmec culture at sites like (ca. 900–400 BCE) represented a peak of influence with features such as the Great Pyramid, ceremonial courts, and elaborate jade offerings buried in sacred precincts, recent scholarship debates the extent of Olmec dominance, emphasizing parallel developments in ideology and trade across regions rather than a singular "mother culture." Prominent among these were the Zapotec at , established around 500 BCE on a mountaintop in the Valley of , where rulers oversaw the carving of danzantes—low-relief stone figures depicting contorted human forms interpreted as bound war captives or sacrificial victims, symbolizing military dominance and ritual violence. In the , early centers like Nakbe and flourished from the Late Middle Formative onward, featuring colossal platforms and pyramids, such as El Mirador's La Danta complex rising up to 70 meters, which served as bases for elite residences and ceremonial activities. These sites exemplified the shift toward urbanism, with in producing stelae between 300 BCE and 50 CE that illustrated mythological motifs, including tree-of-life imagery and narrative scenes possibly linked to creation stories. Meanwhile, Teotihuacan's foundations around 100 BCE initiated what would become a sprawling metropolis, with early constructions signaling centralized planning and resource mobilization. Long-distance trade networks facilitated the exchange of prestige goods like cacao beans, used in elite beverages and rituals, and vibrant feathers, valued for adornments that denoted status across regions from the to central . Recent lidar surveys, as of 2023, have revealed extensive hidden settlements and infrastructure in the Maya lowlands, indicating earlier and more widespread urbanization during the Late Formative, while ancient DNA studies highlight population movements influenced by environmental factors like droughts. Artifacts from this era underscore the growing sophistication of symbolic communication and craftsmanship. Grayware pottery, prevalent in Oaxaca and central Mexico, featured incised or excised decorations depicting deities, animals, and abstract motifs, reflecting shared stylistic horizons across distant communities and evidencing potter mobility or exchange. Hieroglyphic inscriptions began appearing on monuments at sites like La Mojarra and Tres Zapotes by the Late Formative, recording dates, royal names, and events in early scripts that combined logographic and phonetic elements, precursors to Classic Maya writing. Narrative painting styles, seen in ceramic vessels and mural fragments, anticipated codex traditions with sequential scenes of myth and ritual, often employing red and black pigments to convey elite genealogies and cosmological themes. Social structures evolved with priestly elites dominating temple-priest roles, as inferred from burial goods and iconography, while warfare motifs—such as captive figures and weapon-bearing warriors on stelae and reliefs—highlighted conflict as a mechanism for alliance-building and resource control. Population densities in core areas reached up to 50 individuals per square kilometer, supporting these hierarchies through intensified agriculture and labor organization.

South America

Coastal Ecuador and Peru

The Formative stage along the coasts of and , spanning approximately 3500 BCE to 500 BCE, marks the emergence of sedentary villages, early ceramic production, and mixed subsistence economies reliant on and incipient . This period is exemplified by the (3500–1800 BCE), one of the earliest complex societies in the , known for pioneering traditions including steatite-tempered bowls that represent the oldest ceramics in the . Valdivia communities also produced distinctive female figurines, often depicting stylized nude women with exaggerated features such as prominent breasts and elaborate hairstyles, likely linked to or practices. These artifacts, alongside vessels characterized by simple forms and surface decorations like rocker stamping, indicate a sophisticated developed in coastal settings. Succeeding the , the Machalilla culture (1500–800 BCE) built upon these foundations, introducing hints of through rare and artifacts, such as small ornaments, signaling early experimentation with techniques. Machalilla sites feature urns, often painted ceramics used for secondary interments, reflecting evolving funerary customs and a shift toward more decorated styles including red-banded and black-on-white designs. Key developments include the Loma Alta site, where starch residue analysis on grinding stones and cooking pots reveals early manioc (Manihot esculenta) processing, demonstrating advanced food preparation methods to detoxify this root crop as a dietary staple. Villages during this era typically supported populations of 200–300 individuals, organized around planned layouts with communal spaces, as evidenced by excavations at major Valdivia-Machalilla settlements like Real Alto. Subsistence strategies centered on coastal fishing using nets and hooks, yielding abundant marine resources documented in extensive shell middens reaching up to 5 meters in depth, composed primarily of oyster and clam shells that highlight intensive exploitation of estuarine environments. The fishing economy was supplemented by cultivated maize (Zea mays) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) during the Valdivia period (ca. 3500–1800 BCE), integrated into diets alongside root crops, as confirmed by phytolith and starch evidence from domestic contexts. Artifacts beyond ceramics include polished stone bowls for food preparation, shell ornaments such as beads and pendants for personal adornment, and impressions of early woven textiles on pottery bases, indicating the use of fibers like cotton for mats and nets. These elements underscore a transition to village life with diversified crafts and resource management along the Pacific coast. Following the Machalilla phase, the Chorrera culture (ca. 1000–500 BCE) represented a peak of regional interaction and artistic achievement, with finely crafted ceramics, including modeled figurines and elaborate vessels, and evidence of broader trade networks extending influences across and northern .

Andean Highlands

The Formative stage in the Andean Highlands spanned approximately from 1800 BCE to 200 CE, marking a period of increasing through the development of sedentary communities, monumental , and ritual practices centered on religious cults. This era laid foundational elements for later Andean societies, with early innovations in and supporting in high-altitude environments. Key sites such as Kotosh and exemplify the emergence of ceremonial centers that fostered pilgrimage and centralized authority. Kotosh, occupied from around 1800 to 200 BCE, featured temple platforms that represent some of the earliest known monumental constructions in the highlands, associated with the involving enclosures and offerings. These structures, built in phases like the Kotosh and Wairajirca periods, indicate organized labor and ideological continuity that influenced subsequent highland traditions. , flourishing from 900 to 200 BCE, served as a major pilgrimage center in north-central , drawing participants from across the region to its U-shaped temple complex, which included underground galleries and plazas designed for acoustic and visual s. At its core, the Lanzón Stela—a 4.5-meter-tall depicting a staff-wielding with feline and serpentine features—likely functioned as an oracle, symbolizing supernatural authority within these ceremonies. These sites prefigured the administrative and systems of later polities like Wari and , with Chavín's influence extending through shared iconography and architectural forms. Economic developments during this period included high-altitude farming of and potatoes, which provided staple crops resilient to the harsh Andean environment, alongside camelid herding for , , and transport, enabling surplus production and trade networks. Artifacts reflect these advancements, with Chavín-style featuring incised feline motifs symbolizing predatory deities and shamanic transformation, often produced in specialized workshops. Early goldwork, including high-purity beads and ornaments, emerged around 1500 BCE, signaling the onset of tied to rituals. Socially, centralized was reinforced through cults at sites like Chavín, where priestly intermediaries interpreted divine will, supported by long-distance trade in shells from the Ecuadorian coast, valued for their red hue in ceremonial contexts. This trade, alongside and , integrated highland communities into broader exchange systems, promoting chiefdom-level organization without full .

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