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Lithic stage
Lithic stage
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Periods in North American prehistory
 
Lithic stage before 8500 BC
Archaic period 8000–1000 BC
Formative stage 1000 BC – AD 500
Woodland period 1000 BC – AD 1000
Classic stageAD 500–1200
Post-Classic stage after 1200
See also

In the sequence of cultural stages first proposed for the archaeology of the Americas by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in 1958, the Lithic stage was the earliest period of human occupation in the Americas, as post-glacial hunter gatherers spread through the Americas.[1][2] The stage derived its name from the first appearance of flaked stone tools.[3] The term Paleo-Indian is an alternative, generally indicating much the same period.

This stage was conceived as embracing two major categories of the stone technology: (1) unspecialized and the largely unformulated core and flake industries, with percussion the dominant and perhaps only technique employed, and (2) industries exhibiting more advanced "blade" techniques of stoneworking, with specialized fluted or unfluted lanceolate points the most characteristic artifact types. Throughout South America, there are stone tool traditions of the lithic stage, such as the "fluted fishtail", that reflect localized adaptations to the diverse habitats of the continent.[4]

"Fishtail" point found in Belize.
Stemmed fluted "Fishtail" point found in Belize

The indications and timing of the end of the Lithic stage vary between regions. The use of textiles, fired pottery, and start of the gradual replacement of hunter gatherer lifestyles with agriculture and domesticated animals would all be factors. End dates vary, but are around 5000 to 3000 BC in many areas. The Archaic stage is the most widely used term for the succeeding stage, but in the periodization of pre-Columbian Peru, the Cotton Pre-Ceramic may be used. As in the Norte Chico civilization, cultivated cotton seems to have been very important in economic and power relations, from around 3200 BC.

Archeologist Alex Krieger has documented hundreds of sites that have yielded crude, percussion-flaked tools. The most convincing evidence for a lithic stage is based upon data recovered from sites in South America, where such crude tools have been found and dated to more than 20,000 years ago.[5]

In North America, the time encompasses the Paleo-Indian period, which subsequently is divided into more specific time terms, such as Early Lithic stage or Early Paleo-Indians, and Middle Paleo-Indians or Middle Lithic stage.[6] Examples include the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition groups.

The Lithic stage was followed by the Archaic stage.

Timeline

[edit]
Further information: Peopling of the Americas and Timeline of North American prehistory

Source:[7]

A Clovis point from Utah, dated to 11500–9000 BC.
  • 9500 BCE: Cordilleran and Laurentide Ice Sheets retreat enough to open a habitable ice-free corridor through the northern half of the continent along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains.
  • 9500 BCE: People craft early Clovis spear points, knives, and skin scrapers from rock in New Mexico.
  • 9250–8950 BCE: Clovis points – thin, fluted projectile points created using bifacial percussion flaking – are created by Clovis culture peoples in the Plains and Southwestern North America.[11]
  • 9001 BCE: Archaeological materials found on the Channel Islands of California and in coastal Peru.
  • 9000 BCE: Archaeological materials found on Channel Islands off the California coast
  • 9000 BCE: First settlers arrive in the Great Basin with its cool, wet prevailing climate
  • 9000–8900 BCE: The Folsom culture in New Mexico leaves bison bones and stone spear points.
  • 8700 BCE: Human settlement reaches the Northwestern Plateau region.[citation needed]
  • 8000 BCE: The last glacial ends, causing sea levels to rise and flood the Beringia land bridge, closing the primary migration route from Siberia.
  • 8000 BCE: Sufficient rain falls on the American Southwest to support many large mammal species – mammoth, mastodon, and bison – that soon go extinct.
  • 8000 BCE: Native Americans leave documented traces of their presence in every habitable corner of the Americas, including the American Northeast, the Pacific Northwest, and a cave on Prince of Wales Island in the Alexander archipelago of southeast Alaska, possibly following these game animals.[citation needed]
Kennewick Man
Further information: Archaic Period (Americas)

Times from the 8000 BCE to about 3000 BCE may be classified as part of the lithic stage or of an archaic stage, depending on authority and on region.[clarification needed][citation needed]

See also

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References

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Lithic stage

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The Lithic stage, also referred to as the Paleoindian period, represents the earliest phase of human occupation in the Americas, with current evidence indicating human presence from at least 23,000 years before present (circa 21,000 BCE), though the classic manifestations span approximately 15,000 to 8,000 years before present (circa 13,000–6,000 BCE), and is characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies that relied on chipped-stone tools for subsistence primarily through the hunting of large Pleistocene megafauna such as mammoths, mastodons, and giant bison, alongside gathering of wild plants. This stage marks the initial peopling of the by small, mobile bands of immigrants from , adapting to late glacial and early postglacial environments across North, Central, and through a migratory lifestyle that emphasized and without , ceramics, or permanent settlements. The term "Lithic stage" was formalized by archaeologists Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips in their influential 1958 work Method and Theory in American Archaeology, where it is defined as the foundational developmental phase distinguished by rudimentary stone technology, including percussion-flaked choppers, scrapers, and later pressure-flaked blades, preceding the Archaic stage's introduction of ground-stone implements and broader subsistence diversification. Key technological hallmarks include distinctive fluted projectile points, such as those of the Clovis complex (dated around 13,000–12,500 years ago), which feature basal fluting for to spears or atlatls, and subsequent traditions like Folsom (circa 10,900–10,200 years ago) with finer, lanceolate points adapted to post-megafaunal hunting of smaller game. These tools, often made from high-quality cherts, jaspers, or obsidians sourced from distant quarries, reflect long-distance mobility and specialized big-game hunting strategies, with evidence of minimal use of bone, antler, or perishable materials due to poor preservation. The stage's spatial extent is vast, with phases occupying large geographical areas due to low population densities and high mobility, though representation varies regionally—abundant in the and Southwest U.S. (e.g., Clovis and Folsom sites), sparser in zones, and transitional or absent in some coastal South American areas where Archaic patterns appear earlier. Notable archaeological sites underscore the stage's significance, including the Clovis type-site in (dated to about 11,050 BCE), which yielded fluted points alongside remains, and the in (circa 10,500 years ago), famous for its namesake points found with extinct bison bones, both illustrating the shift from dependence as climates warmed and species extinctions occurred around 10,000 years ago. The Lithic stage's end is marked by gradual transitions to the Archaic period, driven by environmental changes like the end of the Pleistocene, leading to diversified , increased use of atlatls for smaller prey, and the of regional adaptations, with fluted-point technologies spanning several thousand years in various regions. While Willey and Phillips' framework emphasized chronological and spatial phases over strict cultural uniformity, modern interpretations integrate genetic, paleoenvironmental, and lithic network analyses to refine migration routes and technological continuity, confirming the stage's role as the foundation of American prehistory.

Overview

Definition

The Lithic stage refers to the earliest period of human occupation in the , spanning roughly 16,000 to 8,000 BCE, and encompassing the initial adaptation of post-glacial societies that relied primarily on flaked stone tools for subsistence activities. This stage is characterized by migratory populations engaging in large Pleistocene mammals and gathering wild , without evidence of , ceramics, or permanent settlements. The term was proposed by archaeologists Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips in their 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology, where it forms the first of five developmental stages (Lithic, Archaic, Formative, , and Postclassic) tailored specifically to the of the . Unlike Old World lithic periods such as the or , which are rooted in Eurasian contexts, the Lithic stage emphasizes the unique environmental and cultural adaptations of immigrant societies to late glacial and early postglacial conditions in the . In scholarly usage, the Lithic stage is often synonymous with the Paleo-Indian period, both denoting the same foundational era of human presence in the , though the former highlights the Americas-specific classificatory framework. Its scope covers the dispersal of the first human groups from southward across North, Central, and , representing a foundational migratory expansion. For example, the exemplifies a key tradition within this stage, while it generally transitions into the Archaic stage around 8000 BCE as environmental changes prompted shifts in subsistence strategies, though with regional variations.

Historical Development of the Concept

The recognition of Paleo-Indian artifacts in the early marked a pivotal shift in American , as discoveries like the in —excavated starting in 1926 and formally recognized in 1929—provided evidence of human presence dating back approximately 10,000 years, challenging prevailing views that limited Native American history to a few thousand years. These findings, including distinctive fluted projectile points associated with extinct , compelled archaeologists to extend timelines for human occupation in the far beyond biblical or short-chronology interpretations dominant at the time. Pre-1950s archaeological discourse in the Americas was heavily shaped by debates between diffusionist perspectives, which posited cultural traits spread from Old World centers like Asia via migration, and advocates of independent invention, emphasizing local development of technologies among indigenous populations. Diffusionism, influenced by figures like Franz Boas and A.L. Kroeber, often framed Paleo-Indian cultures as derivatives of Asian migrations, while independent invention gained traction through evidence of adaptive innovations in isolated New World contexts, setting the stage for more systematic classificatory frameworks. A landmark formalization came in 1958 with Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips' Method and Theory in American Archaeology, which introduced the Lithic stage as the earliest in a sequence of five developmental stages—Lithic, Archaic, Formative, , and Postclassic—applicable across the to organize post-glacial human adaptations based on technological and subsistence shifts. This system integrated regional data into a continental narrative, emphasizing the Lithic stage's focus on and lithic technologies during initial . Post-1958 refinements to the Lithic stage concept incorporated , which proliferated in the 1960s and provided precise chronologies for early sites, enabling archaeologists to correlate artifact assemblages with environmental changes and migration patterns. By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, genetic evidence from further supported the framework, revealing population bottlenecks and Siberian origins for Lithic-stage peoples around 15,000–25,000 years ago. The Clovis-first model served as an initial paradigm for Lithic-stage entry via an ice-free corridor, though ongoing debates highlight potential pre-Clovis occupations along coastal routes, with recent 2025 studies confirming human footprints in dating to 21,000–23,000 years ago and evidence for Pacific coastal migrations.

Technological Characteristics

Stone Tool Technologies

The Lithic stage is characterized by core and industries, where artisans employed percussion flaking to produce unspecialized implements such as scrapers and choppers from prepared cores. Percussion flaking involved striking the core with a hard or soft hammerstone to detach flakes, creating a of percussion on the flake's ventral surface and enabling the production of sharp-edged tools suitable for basic processing tasks. These techniques relied on materials with predictable patterns, allowing for efficient blank production without extensive specialization. Advanced lithic technologies during this period included and biface production, refined through flaking to create more precise points and knives. flaking utilized tools like tines or to apply controlled , removing small flakes for edge retouch, thinning, and shaping without risking core breakage. Biface technologies involved flaking both surfaces of a nodule or flake blank to form symmetrical tools, often progressing from rough percussion reduction to fine finishing. production, by contrast, yielded elongated flakes at least twice as long as wide, struck from specialized prismatic cores for versatile inserts or blanks. Prominent artifact types include fluted points, such as Clovis-style examples featuring basal fluting achieved via overshot flaking to thin the base and facilitate . Unfluted lanceolate points, exemplified by Folsom types, incorporated intricate pressure flaking for narrow, parallel-sided forms with lateral edge . In northern regions, microblade traditions emerged, involving the detachment of small, standardized blades from wedge-shaped microcores for composite tools, reflecting adaptations to diverse environments. These technologies were primarily associated with , with regional variations such as fishtail points appearing in . Recent syntheses as of 2025 highlight the diversity of these early lithic complexes along the from to , underscoring their role in coastal migration hypotheses. Raw material selection emphasized high-quality stones like cherts and , prized for their predictability and durability, often quarried from primary outcrops. Artisans transported nodules or preforms over considerable distances, as evidenced by geochemical sourcing of and chert varieties like Knife River Flint, indicating organized and exchange networks spanning hundreds of kilometers. Such preferences underscore the mobility of Lithic stage groups and the strategic value of superior lithics in tool maintenance.

Subsistence and Material Culture

The peoples of the Lithic stage in the led a nomadic lifestyle, primarily focused on exploiting such as mammoths, mastodons, horses, and , while supplementing their diet with small game, fish, and gathered plants. This subsistence strategy emphasized high residential mobility to track migratory herds across diverse Pleistocene landscapes, enabling small groups to maximize encounters with high-return resources in sparsely populated environments. Faunal remains and associated tool residues provide key evidence of these patterns, revealing seasonal mobility tied to animal migrations and specialized kill-site strategies where groups ambushed or drove herds into traps for efficient butchery and processing. Immunological analysis of blood residues on Clovis-era artifacts, for instance, confirms direct exploitation of extinct megafauna like proboscideans and equids, with tools showing microwear from projectile impacts, hide scraping, and carcass dismemberment, indicating organized hunting parties that targeted prime individuals during predictable seasonal concentrations. Fluted points played a crucial role in these hunts as versatile spear tips, though the broader subsistence base included opportunistic foraging to buffer against variable big-game availability. Beyond lithic technologies, incorporated rare perishable non-stone artifacts, including and tools such as beveled rods used as foreshafts or wedges for spears, and atlatls (spear-throwers) that extended throwing range for big-game pursuits. Evidence for basketry and other fiber-based items remains indirect, inferred from site patterns suggesting storage and transport needs, such as dispersed faunal processing areas implying communal hauling of meat and hides. In later phases of the Lithic stage, environmental adaptations emerged, particularly along coasts where rising sea levels post-glaciation facilitated exploitation of like and , reflecting a gradual diversification amid megafauna declines.

Chronology

Timeline and Phases

The Lithic stage in the encompasses a broad temporal span from approximately 20,000 to 5,000 years ago, reflecting the initial human occupation and adaptation during the and early epochs. In , the focus narrows to roughly 13,000 to 8,000 years (BP), marking the period of post-glacial expansion across diverse landscapes. This timeframe aligns with the Paleo-Indian tradition, characterized by mobile populations relying on lithic technologies for and . The stage is divided into several major phases based on technological innovations and cultural adaptations, beginning with the debated Pre-Clovis phase, which may extend beyond 13,000 BP and includes early evidence of human presence predating the classic fluted-point traditions, such as confirmed human footprints at dated to approximately 23,000–21,000 calibrated years BP as of 2025. This is followed by the Clovis phase, dated to 11,500–10,900 BP (or approximately 13,050–12,750 calibrated years BP), distinguished by the widespread use of distinctive fluted projectile points associated with hunting. The subsequent Folsom and Plano phases span 10,900–8,000 BP, featuring unfluted lanceolate points adapted to smaller game and bison hunting on the Plains, with Folsom specifically from around 12,900–12,490 calibrated BP. Regional variations include equivalents like stemmed points in the Southeast, reflecting localized technological developments during this interval. In , the Lithic stage timeline begins around 15,000 BP, evidenced by sites like with occupations dated to approximately 14,500 calibrated BP, and extends to about 7,000 BP, paralleling the North American sequence but with distinct early stemmed technologies. Phase transitions across the were influenced by climatic factors, particularly the warming trends at the end of the Pleistocene around 11,700 BP, which led to megafaunal extinctions, habitat shifts, and broader subsistence diversification. These environmental changes facilitated the evolution from specialized Paleo-Indian hunting complexes to more generalized patterns approaching the Archaic stage.

Dating Methods and Evidence

The primary method for dating Lithic stage occupations is , which measures the decay of in associated organic materials such as from hearths, , and carbonized plant remains. This technique has been applied extensively to Paleoindian sites, providing direct ages for cultural layers where organics are preserved. For instance, (AMS) variants of radiocarbon dating allow for precise analysis of small samples, improving accuracy on sparse materials. Other dating techniques complement radiocarbon when organics are absent, including optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) for dating the last exposure of quartz sediments to sunlight, uranium-series dating for carbonate deposits in cave contexts, and stratigraphic correlation to establish relative sequences based on layer superposition and tephrochronology. OSL has been particularly useful for open-air sites in arid environments, while uranium-series provides minimum ages for speleothems overlying artifacts in shelters. Stratigraphic methods rely on consistent depositional patterns across sites to correlate cultural horizons without absolute dates. A major challenge in Lithic stage sites is the poor preservation of organic materials in many open-air locations due to acidic soils, oxidation, and post-depositional disturbances, often necessitating indirect dating through associations with typologically similar stone tools or dated faunal remains. This reliance can introduce uncertainties, as tool styles may overlap temporally or be reworked into younger strata. Key evidence milestones include the first radiocarbon dates from Clovis sites in the 1950s, which confirmed ages around 11,000 radiocarbon years (), solidifying the Lithic stage's temporal framework. These early applications, building on the method's refinement post-1949, aligned Clovis phases with contexts, while later pre-Clovis claims from sites like have been supported by complementary dating techniques.

Regional Variations

North America

In , the Lithic stage followed the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet around 14,000 years ago, creating expansive grasslands and environments that supported such as mammoths and , enabling human groups to pursue strategies while also engaging in coastal along the . These post-glacial landscapes facilitated mobile lifeways, with evidence of fluted point technologies associated with exploitation. Population expansion into the continent occurred via both ice-free corridors between the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets, viable by approximately 13,000 years ago following ecological suitability for migration, and coastal routes along the North Pacific, potentially as early as 16,000 years ago following ice retreat. Archaeological and genetic evidence indicates that initial migrants traversed these pathways, leading to widespread occupation south of the ice sheets by 13,000 years ago. Dominant traditions during this period included the Clovis complex in the and eastern regions, characterized by fluted lanceolate points used for hunting large herbivores around 13,000–12,700 years ago. In the High Plains, the emerged post-Clovis, around 10,900–10,200 years ago, adapting to grassland bison herds with smaller fluted points suited to post-glacial environments. Further west, the Western Stemmed Tradition prevailed in the Far West, including the and , featuring stemmed points and evidence of diverse from approximately 13,000 to 9,000 years ago. Early phases of the North American Lithic stage exhibited cultural uniformity, exemplified by the broad distribution of Clovis-like technologies among founding populations. By around 10,000 years before present, this homogeneity gave way to regional specialization, with traditions like Folsom and Western Stemmed reflecting adaptations to local ecosystems, such as intensified bison hunting on the plains and broader resource use in coastal and intermontane areas. Evidence for even earlier human presence includes footprints at White Sands in , dated 23,000–21,000 years ago as confirmed by 2025 studies using multiple dating methods on associated plant materials, implying humans traversed ice-age barriers far earlier than traditional Clovis-first models suggest and supporting rapid migration pathways to the southern .

Central and South America

In Central and , the Lithic stage is marked by early human occupations at sites like in southern , dated to approximately 14,500 calibrated years (cal ), where preserved wooden artifacts, plant remains such as stems of and edible species like and , and faunal bones indicate a diverse subsistence strategy involving gathering, , and high mobility in a cold sandur plain environment. These findings, including burned plant materials and stone tools like percussion flakes and pebble tools, suggest seasonal adaptations to post-glacial landscapes with both terrestrial and potential aquatic resources. Distinct artifact styles characterize regional variations during this period. In the , fishtail projectile points, first identified at Fell's Cave in , date to around 12,800–12,100 cal BP and are distributed across sites in , , and , reflecting early mobility and adaptation to the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. In the and central , the Itaparica technocomplex features unifacial tools such as limaces and plano-convex scrapers, dated from about 13,000 cal BP, which were shaped from local and for processing plants and small game in tropical parklands. Along Peru's northern and southern coasts, the Paiján complex includes stemmed bifacial points, often made from sourced up to 250 km away, spanning 13,000–9,000 cal BP and indicating long-distance exchange networks among coastal s. Human groups adapted to diverse environments, from the Andean highlands to coastal lagoons and tropical forests, with evidence of specialized subsistence. In the Andean highlands, sites like Guitarrero Cave (10,400–7,500 BP) and Telarmachay (ca. 10,500 BP) show exploitation of tubers, fruits, and camelids such as in puna grasslands above 4,000 m, using bifacial points post-deglaciation. Coastal lagoons in southern , as at the Ring site (10,500–9,000 BP), yield unifacial tools alongside shellfish and remains, demonstrating early marine resource use supplemented by inland . In tropical forests of eastern , unifacial traditions from 12,000–10,500 BP facilitated broad-spectrum economies focused on and small animals, with low reliance on . Evidence for even earlier human presence includes debated findings at in , where lithic artifacts in deposits have been proposed as signs of occupation potentially exceeding 20,000 years ago, though their anthropic origin remains controversial due to possible natural formation processes.

Key Sites and Discoveries

Major North American Sites

The Clovis type-site, located at Blackwater Draw in eastern New Mexico, was first identified in 1929 when local resident Ridgely Whiteman discovered bison bones and artifacts in a gravel pit, leading to excavations by the Smithsonian Institution and Eastern New Mexico University starting in 1932. These efforts uncovered a cache of distinctive fluted projectile points embedded in mammoth remains, establishing the site as the type locality for the Clovis culture and providing key evidence of Paleoindian hunting practices around 13,000–12,000 years before present. The , situated near the town of Folsom in northeastern , was initially spotted in 1908 by rancher after a flood exposed bones in Wild Horse Arroyo, but systematic excavation occurred in 1926 under the leadership of Jesse Dade Figgins from the Denver Museum of Nature & Science. This work revealed an in-situ bison kill site with 23 extinct Bison antiquus skeletons and 19 fluted points, confirming human presence in by approximately 10,800 years before present and challenging earlier timelines of indigenous occupation. In southeastern , the Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site on the Lehner Ranch near was excavated by the State between 1955 and 1956, yielding remains of at least 13 Columbian mammoths (Mammuthus columbi) alongside Clovis-style tools, including unfluted bifaces and , indicative of a communal event. places the occupation around 11,000 years , with associated camp debris suggesting prolonged processing activities at the kill locale. The Gault Site in , along Buttermilk Creek, features deep stratigraphic layers excavated since the by the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory, revealing pre-Clovis occupations below Clovis horizons with artifacts such as crescent-shaped tools and bladelets dated to approximately 16,000–13,500 years via optically stimulated luminescence. These findings, including over 150,000 lithic artifacts from the Buttermilk Creek Complex, demonstrate early lithic technologies predating fluted points and highlight the site's role in documenting sequential human adaptations in the region. Recent discoveries at in have provided direct evidence of human presence during the Lithic stage, with fossilized human footprints dated to 23,000–21,000 years ago using on seeds embedded in the track-bearing layers. These tracks, including those of adults, children, and animals like giant sloths, indicate early human activity in a wetland environment and support pre-Clovis migration models.

Significant Finds in the Americas

One of the most pivotal discoveries challenging traditional models of to the is the site in southern , where excavations have uncovered evidence of human occupation dating back approximately 14,500 years (). Artifacts include preserved wooden tools, such as a tent-like structure made from wood stakes and cordage, alongside hearths, plant remains indicating diverse , and even human footprints preserved in a layer, suggesting a semi-sedentary group adapted to a cool, wet environment. These findings, first systematically reported in the 1980s and reaffirmed through of multiple organic samples, predate the by millennia and support coastal migration routes along the Pacific. In Brazil, the Pedra Furada rock shelter has yielded artifacts that push the timeline of human presence even further, with quartzite tools and possible hearths dated to over 20,000 BP, and some controversial evidence extending to 50,000 years or more. The site features chipped stone tools, including small flakes and cores, alongside red ochre pigments and rock art engravings that may represent early symbolic behavior, though debates persist over whether some "tools" are naturally fractured rather than human-modified. Excavations since the 1970s, led by Niède Guidon, have produced stratified layers with optically stimulated luminescence dating supporting pre-Last Glacial Maximum occupation, implying early peopling via interior routes or long-term isolation. Further north in , the El Inga site provides insights into early lithic technologies with fishtail projectile points and ground stone tools dated around 10,000–11,000 , indicating specialized hunting and activities. These bifacial points, resembling those from the Pampean tradition in , were found in association with grinding slabs and manos for processing plants or minerals, suggesting a diverse subsistence strategy in highland environments. Discovered in the , the site's intact deposits have been analyzed through stratigraphic and radiocarbon methods, highlighting technological continuity with later Andean cultures. Although located in , , the exhibits stratigraphic parallels to South American pre-Clovis sites, with a sequence of lithic artifacts extending to at least 16,000 , including micro-tools and in lower layers. The site's deep cultural deposits contain pre-projectile point industries with chert flakes and hearths, corroborated by over 50 radiocarbon dates on charcoal and bone, which align with evidence for early, non-Clovis occupations across the . Ongoing debates focus on potential contamination, but has validated the antiquity, underscoring pan-American patterns in early tool use.

Transition and Legacy

Environmental and Cultural Shifts

The end of the Pleistocene epoch around 11,700 years before present () was characterized by rapid climatic warming, which triggered widespread ecological changes including shifts in vegetation from and to forests and grasslands, thereby contributing to habitat loss for many large mammals. This warming, combined with human overhunting by Paleoindian groups, is widely regarded as a primary driver of the extinctions that occurred across during this period, affecting species such as mammoths, mastodons, and giant . The synergistic effects of these factors—altered habitats reducing forage availability and intensified predation pressure from expanding human populations—led to the collapse of these megafaunal populations by approximately 10,000 . As became scarce, Paleoindian societies transitioned from specialized focused on large herbivores to a more generalized strategy that emphasized smaller , plants, and , reflecting adaptations to the stabilizing environment. This subsistence shift was accompanied by the development of broader tool kits, incorporating a wider array of projectile points, knives, and processing implements suited to diverse resources, moving beyond the narrow emphasis on fluted spear points of earlier phases. The Folsom phase, with its finely crafted points, served as a transitional bridge during this period of adaptation toward Archaic patterns. Archaeological evidence indicates a increase during the late Lithic stage, inferred from the rising density of sites and artifact concentrations across landscapes, particularly in resource-rich areas like river valleys and chert outcrops. This denser distribution of settlements suggests emerging territoriality, as groups established more defined ranges in response to resource predictability and , marking a departure from the highly mobile, low-density patterns of earlier Paleoindian lifeways. Key markers of the transition to the Archaic stage include the appearance of ground stone tools, such as axes and milling implements for processing plant foods, alongside the establishment of early semi-permanent camps that supported seasonal occupations and storage. These developments, evident between approximately 8,000 and 5,000 BP, underscore the increasing reliance on stable, local resources and sedentary tendencies that defined Archaic societies.

Interpretations and Debates

The Clovis-first model, which posits that the Clovis culture around 13,000 years ago represented the initial human occupation of the Americas, has been increasingly challenged by archaeological and genetic evidence supporting pre-Clovis arrivals dating back to at least 23,000 calibrated years before present (cal yr BP). Human footprints discovered at White Sands National Park in New Mexico, dated between 23,000 and 21,000 cal yr BP through radiocarbon analysis of associated seeds and pollen, provide direct evidence of human presence south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum, predating Clovis by over 10,000 years. Independent analyses in 2025 have confirmed this dating using additional radiocarbon methods from separate labs, resolving prior methodological debates and solidifying the pre-Clovis timeline. Genetic studies of ancient DNA from later Native American populations indicate a shared ancestry with Siberian groups, with divergence times suggesting isolation in Beringia that could align with pre-Clovis timelines, though direct DNA from pre-Clovis sites remains elusive. A 2025 genomic study tracing migrations from Asia to South America further reveals deep genetic footprints and lost immune diversity in Native lineages, reinforcing early isolation and dispersal models. Debates over migration models center on the Beringian standstill hypothesis, which proposes that ancestral populations were isolated in —a now-submerged between and —for several millennia around 25,000 to 15,000 cal yr BP, allowing genetic differentiation before southward dispersal. This hypothesis is supported by genomic evidence showing a prolonged period of isolation, with novel alleles emerging in Native American lineages during this time, consistent with a bottleneck event in rather than continuous migration from . Competing models emphasize coastal versus inland routes: a Pacific coastal migration pathway, viable as early as 16,000 cal yr BP due to deglaciated shorelines and resources, is favored for pre-Clovis populations based on site distributions and paleoenvironmental data, while the inland Ice-Free Corridor opened later, around 13,000 cal yr BP, potentially facilitating Clovis expansion. A 2025 analysis of stone tools has provided additional evidence for this Pacific coastal route, linking artifacts to traditions from the Asian . The role of humans in the extinction of North American megafauna, including mammoths and mastodons, around 13,000 to 11,000 cal yr , remains contested between overhunting and climate-driven hypotheses. Proponents of the overkill model argue that the rapid arrival of Clovis hunters, equipped with efficient projectile technology, targeted large herbivores, leading to population collapses as evidenced by kill sites with cut marks on bones. However, analyses correlating extinction timings with paleoclimate records show stronger alignment with abrupt warming events and at the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, suggesting as the primary driver, with impacts playing a secondary role in already stressed ecosystems. Integrated models incorporating both factors indicate that human predation amplified climate effects, particularly on species with low reproductive rates, but no single cause fully explains the pattern across all taxa. Interpretations of cultural complexity during the Lithic stage reveal evidence of beyond small, mobile bands, including long-distance exchange networks that facilitated the movement of materials over hundreds of kilometers. artifacts at sites like Upward Sun River in , sourced from deposits 200–300 km away, suggest systematic procurement or trade, implying seasonal aggregations or alliances among groups for resource access. Similarly, Clovis points in the often incorporate exotic cherts and jaspers transported up to 800 km, indicating interconnected social landscapes that supported technological standardization and possibly exchanges, challenging views of the period as uniformly egalitarian. These networks highlight adaptive strategies in diverse environments, with ongoing debates focusing on whether they reflect kin-based cooperation or emerging hierarchies.

References

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