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Names of God in Judaism
Names of God in Judaism
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The Tetragrammaton (YHWH), the main Hebrew name of God inscribed on the page of a Sephardic manuscript of the Hebrew Bible (1385)
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Judaism has different names given to God, which are considered sacred: יהוה (YHWH), אֲדֹנָי (Adonai transl. my Lord[s]), אֵל (El transl. God), אֱלֹהִים (Elohim transl. Gods/Godhead),[n 1] שַׁדַּי (Shaddai transl. Almighty), and צְבָאוֹת (Tzevaoth transl. [Lord of] Hosts); some also include I Am that I Am.[1] Early authorities considered other Hebrew names mere epithets or descriptions of God, and wrote that they and names in other languages may be written and erased freely.[2] Some moderns advise special care even in these cases,[3] and many Orthodox Jews have adopted the chumras of writing "G-d" instead of "God" in English or saying Ṭēt-Vav (טו, lit. '9-6') instead of Yōd-Hē (יה, '10-5', but also 'Jah') for the number fifteen or Ṭēt-Zayin (טז, '9-7') instead of Yōd-Vav (יו, '10-6') for the Hebrew number sixteen.[4]

Seven names of God

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The names of God that, once written, cannot be erased because of their holiness[5] are the Tetragrammaton (YHWH), Adonai, El, Elohim,[n 1] Shaddai, Tzevaot; some also include I Am that I Am, from which "YHWH" is believed to be derived.[1] In addition, the name Jah—because it forms part of the Tetragrammaton—is similarly protected.[6] The tanna Jose ben Halafta considered "Tzevaot" a common name in the second century[7] and Rabbi Ishmael considered "Elohim" to be one.[8] All other names, such as "Merciful", "Gracious" and "Faithful", merely represent attributes that are also common to human beings.[9]

Tetragrammaton

[edit]
Main articles: Tetragrammaton, Yahweh, and Lord § Religion
The Tetragrammaton in Paleo-Hebrew (fl. 1100 BCE – 500 CE) (two forms), and Aramaic (fl. 1100 BCE – 200 CE) or modern Hebrew scripts
The Tetragrammaton in the Ketef Hinnom silver scrolls with the Priestly Blessing from the Book of Numbers[10] (c. 600 BCE)

Also abbreviated Jah, the most common name of God in the Hebrew Bible is the Tetragrammaton, יהוה. The Hebrew script is an abjad, and thus vowels are often omitted in writing. The Tetragrammaton is sometimes rendered with vowels, though it is not known which vowels were used originally. Direct transliteration is avoided in Jewish custom.[11]

Modern Rabbinical Jewish culture forbids pronunciation of this name. In prayers it is replaced by saying the word אֲדֹנָי (Adonai, Hebrew pronunciation: [adoˈnaj] 'My Lords', Pluralis majestatis taken as singular), and in discussion by HaShem 'The Name'. Nothing in the Torah explicitly prohibits speaking the name[12] and the Book of Ruth shows that it continued to be pronounced as late as the 5th century BCE.[13][n 2] Mark Sameth argues that only a pseudo name was pronounced, the four letters יהוה (YHVH, YHWH) being a cryptogram which the priests of ancient Israel read in reverse as huhi, 'he–she', signifying a dual-gendered deity, as earlier theorized by Guillaume Postel (16th century) and Michelangelo Lanci [it] (19th century).[15][16][17][18] It had ceased to be spoken aloud by at least the 3rd century BCE, during Second Temple Judaism.[19] The Talmud relates, perhaps anecdotally, that this began with the death of Simeon the Just.[20] Vowel points began to be added to the Hebrew text only in the early medieval period. The Masoretic Text adds to the Tetragrammaton the vowel points of Adonai or Elohim (depending on the context), indicating that these are the words to be pronounced in place of the Tetragrammaton (see Qere and Ketiv),[21][22] as shown also by the pronunciation changes when combined with a preposition or a conjunction. This is in contrast to Karaite Jews, who traditionally viewed pronouncing the Tetragrammaton as a mitzvah because the name appears some 6800 times throughout the Tanakh; however, most modern Karaites, under pressure and seeking acceptance from mainstream Rabbinical Jews, now also use the term Adonai instead.[23] The Beta Israel pronounce the Tetragrammaton as Yahu, but also use the Geʽez term Igziabeher.[24]

The Tetragrammaton appears in Genesis[25] and occurs 6,828 times in total in the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia edition of the Masoretic Text. It is thought to be an archaic third-person singular of the imperfective aspect[n 3] of the verb "to be" (i.e., "[He] is/was/will be"). This agrees with the passage in Exodus where God names himself as "I Will Be What I Will Be"[26] using the first-person singular imperfective aspect, open to interpretation as present tense ("I am what I am"), future ("I shall be what I shall be"), or imperfect ("I used to be what I used to be").[27]

Rabbinic Judaism teaches that the name is forbidden to all except the High Priest of Israel, who should only speak it in the Holy of Holies of the Temple in Jerusalem on Yom Kippur. He then pronounces the name "just as it is written."[28] As each blessing was made, the people in the courtyard were to prostrate themselves completely as they heard it spoken aloud. As the Temple has not been rebuilt since its destruction in 70 CE, most modern Jews never pronounce YHWH but instead read אֲדֹנָי (Adonai, Hebrew pronunciation: [adoˈnaj], 'My Lords', Pluralis majestatis taken as singular) during prayer and while reading the Torah and as HaShem 'The Name' at other times.[29][30] Most English translations of the Bible write "the LORD" for YHWH, and "the LORD God" or "the Lord GOD" for Adonai YHWH instead of transcribing the name. The Septuagint may have originally used the Hebrew letters themselves amid its Greek text,[31][32] but there is no scholarly consensus on this point.

Adonai

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Shefa Tal – A Kabbalistic explanation of the Priestly Blessing with Adonai inscribed
Adonai
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אֲדֹנָי (ăḏonāy, Biblical Hebrew pronunciation: [aðoˈnɔːj], lit. transl. My Lords, pluralis majestatis taken as singular) is the possessive form of adon ('Lord'), along with the first-person singular pronoun enclitic.[n 4] As with Elohim, Adonai's grammatical form is usually explained as a form akin to the "royal we". In the Hebrew Bible, the word is nearly always used to refer to God (approximately 450 occurrences). As the pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton came to be avoided in the Hellenistic period, Jews may have begun to drop the Tetragrammaton when presented alongside Adonai and subsequently to expand it to cover for the Tetragrammaton in the forms of spoken prayer and written scripture. Owing to the expansion of chumra, the idea of 'building a fence around the Torah', the word Adonai itself has come to be too holy to say for Orthodox Jews outside of prayer, leading to its replacement by HaShem ('The Name').

The singular forms adon and adoni ('my lord') are used in the Hebrew Bible as royal titles,[33][34] as in the First Book of Samuel,[35] and for distinguished persons. The Phoenicians used it as a title of Tammuz (the origin of the Greek god's name Adonis). It is also used very occasionally in Hebrew texts to refer to God (e.g. Psalm 136:3).[36] Deuteronomy 10:17 has the Tetragrammaton alongside the superlative constructions "God of gods" (elōhê ha-elōhîm, literally, "the gods of gods") and "Lord of lords" (adōnê ha-adōnîm, "the lords of lords": כִּי יְהוָה אֱלֹהֵיכֶם הוּא אֱלֹהֵי הָאֱלֹהִים וַאֲדֹנֵי הָאֲדֹנִים; JPS 2006: "For your God יהוה is God supreme and Lord supreme").[37]

The final syllable of Adonai uses the vowel kamatz rather than patach, which would be expected from the Hebrew for 'my lord(s)'. Professor Yoel Elitzur explains this as a normal transformation when a Hebrew word becomes a name, citing other examples such as Nathan, Yitzhak, and Yigal.[38] As Adonai became the most common reverent substitute for the Tetragrammaton, it too became considered un-erasable due to its holiness. As such, most prayer books avoid spelling out the word Adonai, and instead write two yodhs (יְיָ) in its place.[39]

The forms Adaunoi, Adoinoi, and Adonoi[40] represent Ashkenazi Hebrew variant pronunciations of the word Adonai.

El

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See also: Names of God in Judaism § Seven names of God
El
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El appears in Ugaritic, Phoenician and other late Bronze and Iron Age Levant texts both as generic "god" and as the head of the divine pantheon.[41] In the Hebrew Bible, El (אל, ʾel) appears very occasionally alone (e.g. Genesis 33:20, el elohei yisrael, 'Mighty God of Israel',[42] and Genesis 46:3, ha'el elohei abika, 'El the God of thy father'),[43] but usually with some epithet or attribute attached (e.g. El Elyon, 'Most High El', El Shaddai, El Shaddai, El ʿOlām 'Everlasting El', El Hai, 'Living El', El Ro'i 'El my Shepherd', and El Gibbor 'El of Strength'). In these cases, it can be understood as the generic "god". In theophoric names such as Gabriel ("Strength of God"), Michael ("Who is like God?"), Raphael ("God healed"), Ariel ("My lion is God"), Daniel ("My judgment is God"), Ezekiel ("God shall strengthen"), Israel ("one who has struggled with God"), Immanuel ("God is with us"), and Ishmael ("God hears/ will hear / listens/ will listen") it is usually interpreted and translated as "God".

El also appears in the form אֱלוֹהַּ (Eloah).

Elohim

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Main article: Elohim

A common name of God in the Hebrew Bible is Elohim (אלהים, ʾĕlōhīm), the plural of אֱלוֹהַּ (Eloha). When Elohim refers to God in the Hebrew Bible, singular verbs are used. The word is identical to elohim meaning gods and is cognate to the 'lhm found in Ugaritic, where it is used for the pantheon of Canaanite gods, the children of El and conventionally vocalized as "Elohim" although the original Ugaritic vowels are unknown. When the Hebrew Bible uses elohim not in reference to God, it is plural (for example, Exodus 20:2). There are a few other such uses in Hebrew, for example Behemoth. In Modern Hebrew, the singular word ba'alim ('owner') looks plural, but likewise takes a singular verb.

A number of scholars have traced the etymology to the Semitic root *yl, 'to be first, powerful', despite some difficulties with this view.[44] Elohim is thus the plural construct 'powers'. Hebrew grammar allows for this form to mean "He is the Power (singular) over powers (plural)", just as the word Ba'alim means 'owner' (see above). "He is lord (singular) even over any of those things that he owns that are lordly (plural)".

Theologians who dispute this claim cite the hypothesis that plurals of majesty came about in more modern times. Richard Toporoski, a classics scholar, asserts that plurals of majesty first appeared in the reign of Diocletian (CE 284–305).[45] Indeed, Gesenius states in his book Hebrew Grammar the following:[46]

The Jewish grammarians call such plurals ... plur. virium or virtutum; later grammarians call them plur. excellentiae, magnitudinis, or plur. maiestaticus. This last name may have been suggested by the we used by kings when speaking of themselves (compare 1 Maccabees 10:19 and 11:31); and the plural used by God in Genesis 1:26 and 11:7; Isaiah 6:8 has been incorrectly explained in this way. It is, however, either communicative (including the attendant angels: so at all events in Isaiah 6:8 and Genesis 3:22), or according to others, an indication of the fullness of power and might implied. It is best explained as a plural of self-deliberation. The use of the plural as a form of respectful address is quite foreign to Hebrew.

Mark S. Smith has cited the use of plural as possible evidence to suggest an evolution in the formation of early Jewish conceptions of monotheism, wherein references to "the gods" (plural) in earlier accounts of verbal tradition became either interpreted as multiple aspects of a single monotheistic God at the time of writing, or subsumed under a form of monolatry, wherein the god(s) of a certain city would be accepted after the fact as a reference to the God of Israel and the plural deliberately dropped.[47]

The plural form ending in -im can also be understood as denoting abstraction, as in the Hebrew words chayyim (חיים, 'life') or betulim (בתולים, 'virginity'). If understood this way, Elohim means 'divinity' or 'deity'. The word chayyim is similarly syntactically singular when used as a name but syntactically plural otherwise. In many of the passages in which elohim occurs in the Bible, it refers to non-Israelite deities, or in some instances to powerful men or judges, and even angels (Exodus 21:6, Psalms 8:5) as a simple plural in those instances.

Shaddai

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Main article: El Shaddai

El Shaddai (אל שדי, ʾel šadday, pronounced [ʃaˈdaj]) is one of the names of God in Judaism, with its etymology coming from the influence of the Ugaritic religion on modern Judaism. El Shaddai is conventionally translated as "God Almighty". While the translation of El as 'god' in Ugaritic/Canaanite languages is straightforward, the literal meaning of Shaddai is the subject of debate.

Tzevaot

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For the Gnostic deity, see Sabaoth (Gnosticism).

Tzevaot, Tzevaoth, Tsebaoth or Sabaoth (צבאות, ṣəḇāʾōṯ, pronounced [tsvaot] ⓘ, lit. "Armies"), usually translated "Hosts", appears in reference to armies or armed hosts of men but is not used as a divine epithet in the Torah, Joshua, or Judges. Starting in the Books of Samuel, the term "Lord of Hosts" appears hundreds of times throughout the Prophetic books, in Psalms, and in Chronicles.

The Hebrew word Sabaoth was also absorbed in Ancient Greek (σαβαωθ, sabaōth) and Latin (Sabaoth, with no declension). Tertullian and other Fathers of the Church used it with the meaning of "Army of angels of God".[48]

Ehyeh

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Main article: I Am that I Am

Ehyeh asher ehyeh (אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה) is the first of three responses given to Moses when he asks for God's name in the Book of Exodus.[26] The King James Version of the Bible translates the Hebrew as "I Am that I Am" and uses it as a way to describe God.

Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh
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The word ehyeh is the first-person singular imperfect form of hayah, 'to be'. Biblical Hebrew does not distinguish between grammatical tenses. It has instead an aspectual system in which the imperfect denotes any actions that are not yet completed,[49][50][51] Accordingly, Ehyeh asher ehyeh can be rendered in English not only as "I am that I am" but also as "I will be what I will be" or "I will be who I will be", or "I shall prove to be whatsoever I shall prove to be" or even "I will be because I will be". Other renderings include: Leeser, "I Will Be that I Will Be"; Rotherham, "I Will Become whatsoever I please", Greek, Ego eimi ho on (ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ὤν), "I am Being/the Existing One" in the Septuagint,[52] and Philo,[53][54] and Revelation;[55] Latin, ego sum qui sum, "I am Who I am."

The word asher is a relative pronoun whose meaning depends on the immediate context, so that "that", "who", "which", or "where" are all possible translations of that word.[56]

Other names and titles

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Baal

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Main article: Baal

Baal meant 'owner' and, by extension, 'lord',[57] 'master', and 'husband' in Hebrew and the other Northwest Semitic languages.[58][59] In some early contexts and theophoric names, it and Baali (/ˈbeɪəlaɪ/; "My Lord") were treated as synonyms of Adon and Adonai.[60] After the time of Solomon[61] and particularly after Jezebel's attempt to promote the worship of the Lord of Tyre Melqart,[60] however, the name became particularly associated with the Canaanite storm god Baʿal Haddu and was gradually avoided as a title for Yahweh.[61] Several names that included it were rewritten as bosheth ("shame").[62] The prophet Hosea in particular reproached the Israelites for continuing to use the term:[63]

"It will come about in that day," declares the Lord, "That you will call Me Ishi[n 5] And will no longer call Me Baali."[65]

Elah

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Elah (Hebrew: אֱלָה, romanized: ʾelāh, pl. Elim or Elohim; Imperial Aramaic: אלהא) is the Aramaic word for God and the absolute singular form of אלהא, ʾilāhā. The origin of the word is from Proto-Semitic *ʔil and is thus cognate to the Hebrew, Arabic, Akkadian, and other Semitic languages' words for god. Elah is found in the Tanakh in the books of Ezra, Jeremiah (Jeremiah 10:11,[66] the only verse in the entire book written in Aramaic),[67] and Daniel. Elah is used to describe both pagan gods and the Abrahamic God.

  • Elah Yisrael, God of Israel (Ezra 5:1)
  • Elah Yerushelem, God of Jerusalem (Ezra 7:19)
  • Elah Shemaya, God of Heaven (Ezra 7:23)
  • Elah-avahati, God of my fathers, (Daniel 2:23)
  • Elah Elahin, God of gods (Daniel 2:47)

El Roi

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Main article: El Roi

In the Book of Genesis, Hagar uses this name for the God who spoke to her through his angel. In Hebrew, her phrase El Roi, literally, 'God of Seeing Me',[68] is translated in the King James Version as "Thou God seest me."[69][70]

Elyon

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`Elyon
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Main article: Elyon

The name Elyon (עליון) occurs in combination with El, YHWH, Elohim and alone. It appears chiefly in poetic and later Biblical passages. The modern Hebrew adjective 'Elyon means 'supreme' (as in "Supreme Court": Hebrew: בית המשפט העליון) or 'Most High'. El Elyon has been traditionally translated into English as 'God Most High'. The Phoenicians used what appears to be a similar name for God, one that the Greeks wrote as Έλιονα.

Eternal One

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The Eternal One or The Eternal is increasingly used, particularly in Reform and Reconstructionist communities seeking to use gender-neutral language.[71] In the Torah, YHWH El Olam ("the Everlasting God") is used at Genesis 21:33 to refer to God.[72]

HaShem

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Sign near the site of the Safed massacre, reading הי״ד‎ (H.Y.D., abbreviation of הַשֵּׁם יִקּוֹם דָּמָם‎ Hashem yikkom damam, "may HaShem avenge their blood").
Biblical text on a synagogue in Holešov, Czech Republic: "HaShem (ה׳‎) kills and makes alive; He brings down to Sheol and raises up." (1 Samuel 2:6)
"HaShem" redirects here. For people with similar names, see Hashem.

It is common Jewish practice to restrict the use of the names of God to a liturgical context. In casual conversation some Jews, even when not speaking Hebrew, will call God HaShem (השם), which is Hebrew for 'the Name' (compare Leviticus 24:11 and Deuteronomy 28:58). When written, it is often abbreviated to ה׳. Likewise, when quoting from the Tanakh or prayers, some pious Jews will replace Adonai with HaShem. For example, when making audio recordings of prayer services, HaShem[73] will generally be substituted for Adonai.

A popular expression containing this phrase is Baruch HaShem, meaning "Thank God" (literally, 'Blessed be the Name').[74]

Samaritans use the Aramaic equivalent Shema (ࠔࠌࠀ, 'the name') in much the same situations as Jews use HaShem.

Shalom

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Main article: Shalom

Talmudic authors,[75] ruling on the basis of Gideon's name for an altar (YHVH-Shalom, according to Judges 6:24), write that "the name of God is 'Peace'" (Pereq ha-Shalom, Shabbat 10b); consequently, a Talmudic opinion (Shabbat, 10b) asserts that one would greet another with the word shalom in order for the word not to be forgotten in the exile. But one is not permitted to greet another with the word Shalom in unholy places such as a bathroom, because of the holiness of the name.

Shekhinah

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Main article: Shekhinah

Shekhinah (שכינה) is the presence or manifestation of God which has descended to "dwell" among humanity. The term never appears in the Hebrew Bible; later rabbis used the word when speaking of God dwelling either in the Tabernacle or amongst the people of Israel. The root of the word means "dwelling". Of the principal names of God, it is the only one that is of the feminine gender in Hebrew grammar. Some believe that this was the name of a female counterpart of God, but this is unlikely as the name is always mentioned in conjunction with an article (e.g.: "the Shekhina descended and dwelt among them" or "He removed Himself and His Shekhina from their midst"). This kind of usage does not occur in Semitic languages in conjunction with proper names.[citation needed] The term, however, may not be a name, as it may merely describe the presence of God, and not God Himself.

Uncommon or esoteric names

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  • Abir – 'Strong One'[76]
  • Adir – 'Great One'[77]
  • Adon Olam – 'Master of the World'
  • Aleim – sometimes seen as an alternative transliteration of Elohim
  • Ani Sh'ani - 'I am that I am': another modern Hebrew form of "Ehyeh asher Ehyeh"
  • Aravat (or Avarat) – 'Father of Creation'; mentioned once in 2 Enoch, "On the tenth heaven is God, in the Hebrew tongue he is called Aravat".
  • Av Harachamim – 'Father of Mercy'
  • Avinu Malkeinuⓘ – 'Our Father, Our King'
  • Boreⓘ – 'The Creator'
  • Bore Olam – 'Creator of the World'
  • Dibbura or Dibbera – 'The Word (The Law)' – used primarily in the Palestinian Targums of the Pentateuch (Aramaic); e.g. Num 7:89, The Word spoke to Moses from between the cherubim in the holy of holies.
  • Ehiyeh sh'Ehiyeh – 'I Am That I Am': a modern Hebrew version of "Ehyeh asher Ehyeh"
  • Eibishter/Aybishter – 'The One Above' (Yiddish: אײבערשטער)
  • Ein Sof – 'Endless, Infinite', Kabbalistic name of God
  • El ha-Gibbor – 'God the Hero', 'God the Strong' and 'God the Warrior'
  • Emet – 'Truth' (the "Seal of God".[78][79][80] [Cf.[81]] The word is composed of the first, middle, and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet. See also Alpha and Omega#Judaism)
  • HaKadosh, Barukh Hu (Hebrew); Kudsha, Brikh Hu (Aramaic) – 'The Holy One, Blessed Be He'
  • Hayah, Hoveh, v'Yihye – 'Was, Is, and Will be'
  • Kadosh Israel – 'Holy One of Israel'
  • Magen Avraham – 'Shield of Abraham'
  • Makom or HaMakom – literally 'The Place', perhaps meaning 'The Omnipresent' (see Tzimtzum)
  • Malbish Arumim – 'Clother of the Naked'
  • Matir Asurim – 'Freer of the Captives'
  • Mechayeh HaKol – 'Life giver to All' (Reform version of Mechayeh Metim)
  • Mechayeh Metim – 'Life giver to the Dead'
  • Melech HaMelachim – 'The King of Kings' or Melech Malchei HaMelachim 'The King, King of Kings', to express superiority to the earthly ruler's title
  • Melech HaOlam – 'The King of the World'
  • Memra d'Adonai – 'The Word of the LORD' (plus variations such as 'My Word') – restricted to the Aramaic Targums (the written Tetragrammaton is represented in various ways such as YYY, YWY, YY, but pronounced as the Hebrew Adonai)
  • Mi She'amar V'haya Ha`olam – 'He who spoke, and the world came into being'.
  • Netzakh Yisrael – 'The Glory of Israel' (1 Samuel 15:29)
  • Oseh Shalom – 'Maker of Peace'
  • Pokeach Ivrim – 'Opener of Blind Eyes'
  • HaRachaman – 'The Merciful One'
  • Rachmana – 'The Merciful One' (Aramaic)
  • Ribon Kol HaOlamim – 'Master of all Worlds'
  • Ribono shel'Olam – 'Master of the World'
  • Ro'eh Yisra'el – 'Shepherd of Israel'
  • Rofeh Cholim – 'Healer of the Sick'
  • Shomer Yisrael – 'Guardian of Israel'[82]
  • Somech Noflim – 'Supporter of the Fallen'
  • Tzur Israel – 'Rock of Israel'
  • YHWH-Yireh (Adonai-jireh) – 'The LORD Will Provide'[83]
  • YHWH-Rapha – 'The LORD that Healeth'[84]
  • YHWH-Niss'i (Adonai-Nissi) – 'The LORD Our Banner'[85]
  • YHWH-Shalom – 'The LORD Our Peace'[86]
  • YHWH-Tzevaot – 'The LORD of Hosts'[87]
  • YHWH-Ro'i – 'The LORD My Shepherd'[88]
  • YHWH-Tsidkenu – 'The LORD Our Righteousness'[89][90]
  • YHWH-Shammah (Adonai-shammah) – 'The LORD Is Present'[91]
  • Yotsehr 'Or – 'Fashioner of Light'
  • Zokef kefufim – 'Straightener of the Bent'

Writing divine names

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The Psalms in Hebrew and Latin. Manuscript on parchment, 12th century.

In Jewish tradition the sacredness of the divine name or titles must be recognized by the professional sofer (scribe) who writes Torah scrolls, or tefillin and mezuzah. Before transcribing any of the divine titles or name, they prepare mentally to sanctify them. Once they begin a name, they do not stop until it is finished, and they must not be interrupted while writing it, even to greet a king. If an error is made in writing it may not be erased, but a line must be drawn round it to show that it is canceled, and the whole page must be put in a genizah (burial place for scripture) and a new page begun.

Kabbalistic use

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One of the most important names is that of the Ein Sof (אין סוף 'Endless'), which first came into use after 1300 CE.[92] Another name is derived from the names אהיה יהוה אדוני הויה. By spelling these four names out with the names of the Hebrew letters (אלף, הא, וו, יוד, דלת and נון)[clarification needed] this new forty-five letter long name is produced. Spelling the letters in יהוה (YHWH) by itself gives יוד הא ואו הא. Each letter in Hebrew is given a value, according to gematria, and the value of יוד הא ואו הא is also 45.[citation needed]

The 72-fold name is derived from three verses in Exodus 14:19–21. Each of the verses contains 72 letters. When the verses are read boustrophedonically 72 names, three letters each, are produced (the niqqud of the source verses is disregarded in respect to pronunciation). Some regard this name as the Shem HaMephorash.[93]

Erasing the name of God

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See also: Tetragrammaton § Written prohibitions

3 And ye shall break down their altars, and dash in pieces their pillars, and burn their Asherim with fire; and ye shall hew down the graven images of their gods; and ye shall destroy their name out of that place. 4 Ye shall not do so unto the LORD your God.

— Deuteronomy 12:3–4[94]

From this it is understood by the rabbis that one should not erase or blot out the name of God. The general halachic opinion is that this only applies to the sacred Hebrew names of God, not to other euphemistic references; there is a dispute as to whether the word "God" in English or other languages may be erased or whether Jewish law and/or Jewish custom forbids doing so, directly or as a precautionary "fence" about the law.[95]

The words God and Lord are written by some Jews as G-d and L-rd as a way of avoiding writing any name of God out in full. The hyphenated version of the English name (G-d) can be destroyed, so by writing that form, religious Jews prevent documents in their possession with the unhyphenated form from being destroyed later. Alternatively, a euphemistic reference such as Hashem (literally, 'the Name') may be substituted, or an abbreviation thereof, such as in B''H (בְּעֶזרַת הַשֵׁם B'ezrat Hashem 'with the help of the Name').[96]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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References

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Further reading

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Names of God in Judaism

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In Judaism, the names of God encompass a rich array of titles and descriptors found primarily in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and elaborated in rabbinic literature, reflecting diverse attributes such as mercy, power, justice, and transcendence. The most sacred and central name is the Tetragrammaton, represented by the four Hebrew letters YHVH (יהוה), which signifies God's eternal existence and is derived from the verb "to be," as revealed to Moses in Exodus 3:14 ("I am who I am"). Due to its profound holiness, Jews ceased to pronounce YHVH aloud starting around the 3rd century BCE, with substitutes like Adonai ("Lord") or HaShem ("the Name") used instead during prayer and reading. Other prominent names include (אלהים), a form meaning "" or "powers," which emphasizes divine might, creativity, and judgment, appearing over 2,500 times in the and often denoting 's role as universal creator. (אל שדי), translated as " Almighty," highlights 's sufficiency and protective power, particularly in patriarchal narratives like Genesis 17:1, where it underscores promises of fertility and blessing. Compound names such as YHVH Tzva'ot ("Lord of Hosts") portray as sovereign over heavenly and earthly armies, common in like and the to evoke divine authority in times of conflict. These names are not mere labels but theological tools that reveal different facets of the divine essence, with YHVH associated with mercy and covenantal intimacy, while Elohim stresses justice and transcendence. In Jewish practice, writing God's names is treated with utmost reverence to avoid desecration, as commanded in Deuteronomy 12:3–4, leading to customs like omitting vowels (e.g., G-d) in non-sacred texts. The tradition of multiple names underscores Judaism's monotheistic view of a multifaceted yet singular God, influencing liturgy, mysticism (such as Kabbalah's exploration of divine names), and ethical teachings across millennia.

Introduction and Significance

Historical Development

The names of God in Judaism trace their roots to the religious traditions of the , particularly the Canaanite and pantheons discovered in texts from the Late (c. 1500–1200 BCE). In mythology, El served as the high god and head of the , a concept paralleled in early Hebrew depictions where El appears as a patriarchal associated with creation and authority. Scholars identify these influences through linguistic and thematic similarities, such as the shared epithets and motifs in epics like the , which reflect a polytheistic framework that early Israelite adapted. The (YHWH), recognized as the most ancient for the Israelite , may have origins in southern contexts, possibly Midianite or Edomite regions, based on references in biblical narratives to YHWH's association with southern locales like Sinai and Seir. Archaeological evidence confirms the early use of these names outside the Bible. The Mesha Stele, erected around 840 BCE by the Moabite king , contains the first extra-biblical reference to YHWH, describing victories over Israelite forces and invoking the deity in a Moabite context. Inscriptions from , dating to the BCE in the northern , mention YHWH alongside a consort figure, indicating regional variations in worship during the monarchic period (c. 1000–586 BCE). Within the , divine names evolve from a henotheistic framework—where Elohim's plural form suggests an assembly of gods, with YHWH as Israel's primary patron—to a stricter following the Babylonian Exile (586–539 BCE). This shift is evident in post-exilic texts like Second Isaiah (Isaiah 40–55), which emphasize YHWH's uniqueness and sovereignty over other nations' deities, reflecting theological consolidation amid Persian rule. In the post-biblical era, linguistic and cultural influences shaped the transmission of divine names. During the Second Temple period (516 BCE–70 CE), became prevalent, introducing terms like Elah (אֱלָה), the Aramaic equivalent of El or , as seen in biblical books like Daniel and , where it denotes the God of Israel in imperial contexts. The , the Greek translation of the begun in the BCE in , rendered YHWH consistently as (), a practice that avoided direct pronunciation and aligned with emerging reverential customs. Rabbinic traditions, developing from the 2nd century BCE onward, further promoted avoidance of uttering YHWH aloud, substituting Adonai or other epithets during readings to preserve sanctity, a reticence that intensified after the Temple's destruction in 70 CE. This codification culminated in the , standardized by Jewish scribes () between the 7th and 10th centuries CE, which added vowel points and accents to the consonantal Hebrew, ensuring precise vocalization of names like YHWH (pointed as Adonai) while maintaining orthographic integrity.

Theological Importance

In Jewish theology, the names of God serve as profound manifestations of divine essence, each revealing distinct attributes while collectively underscoring God's transcendent unity. For instance, conveys God's power and role as creator and judge, emphasizing sovereignty over the natural order, as seen in Genesis 1 where it describes the act of creation. , the , signifies God's covenantal faithfulness and eternal presence, particularly in relation to , as revealed to in Exodus 3:14-15. , meaning "" or "Master," highlights God's and relational intimacy, often invoked to express dependence and compassion in human-divine encounters. These names are not arbitrary labels but descriptors that illuminate aspects of the divine character without delimiting the infinite God. The multiplicity of names symbolizes the inadequacy of human language to fully capture God's essence, a concept articulated by medieval philosopher , who viewed most names as attributes or actions rather than the core identity, with YHWH alone as the proper name denoting pure existence beyond attributes. This plurality fosters a dynamic theological understanding, allowing to approach the divine through varied lenses—such as justice (), peace (), or nurturing ()—reflecting the belief that God engages humanity in multifaceted ways. The biblical commandment against taking God's name in vain (Exodus 20:7) underscores this, prohibiting casual or manipulative use while affirming the names' sacred potency. In and , divine names play a central role in invoking God's presence and fostering spiritual connection, with substitutions like Adonai for YHWH ensuring reverence during recitation, a practice rooted in to avoid profanation. The prayer, for example, combines Adonai and Eloheinu to affirm and relational devotion. Contemporary debates, particularly in feminist critiques, challenge the predominantly masculine imagery in traditional names, arguing it reinforces patriarchal structures and limits inclusive understandings of the divine. Progressive and respond with gender-neutral alternatives like "Eternal One" or "Source of Life," promoting a more egalitarian while preserving the names' invocatory power in worship.

Primary Biblical Names

Tetragrammaton (YHWH)

The , denoted by the four Hebrew consonants יהוה (YHWH), represents the most sacred personal name of God in Judaism, appearing 6,828 times in the of the . Its is traditionally derived from the Hebrew root ה.י.ה (h-y-h), meaning "to be," interpreted as "He Who Is" or "He Causes to Be," emphasizing God's eternal and self-existent nature. This understanding stems from the divine self-revelation in Exodus 3:14, where God declares "Ehyeh asher ehyeh" ("I am who I am"), linking the name to the verb of being, though scholars note this may be a as the precise form would grammatically differ. In biblical contexts, the name functions as the covenantal identifier of God, first explicitly revealed to Moses in Exodus 3:15 as an everlasting memorial for the Israelites: "YHWH, the God of your fathers... this is My name forever." It appears throughout the patriarchal narratives in Genesis, such as in Genesis 2:4, where it is combined with Elohim to denote the Creator, and recurs extensively in the Torah and Prophets to signify God's relational and redemptive role with Israel. The name briefly relates to "Ehyeh" as a first-person form of self-revelation in Exodus, and it forms the basis for compound names like YHWH Tseva'ot ("Lord of Hosts"). Due to its profound holiness, the pronunciation of YHWH became taboo among Jews during the Second Temple period (c. 516 BCE–70 CE), with the name no longer vocalized aloud to avoid misuse, as reflected in contemporary texts prohibiting its utterance. Scholars reconstruct the likely ancient pronunciation as "" based on Greek transcriptions (e.g., iaō in magical papyri) and theophoric elements in personal names like (Eliyahu). In Jewish reading traditions, it is substituted with Adonai ("Lord") during or ("The Name") in everyday speech to honor the prohibition. The name's value—yod (10) + he (5) + vav (6) + he (5) = 26—holds symbolic significance in Jewish numerology, representing divine unity and mercy. Archaeological evidence attests to the name's antiquity and usage in ancient . The Samaria ostraca, administrative potsherds from the BCE discovered at the northern kingdom's capital, include theophoric names incorporating YHWH elements, such as Shemaryau ("YHWH has guarded"), indicating widespread invocation of the deity in daily life. Similarly, inscriptions from , a site in the Sinai dated to the late 9th–early BCE, feature blessings like "I bless you by YHWH of and his ," confirming the name's prominence in Israelite religious practice and regional cultic contexts.

Elohim

Elohim (אֱלֹהִים) is the plural form of the Hebrew root el or eloah, denoting "power," "might," or "deity," and serves as a title emphasizing God's supreme authority and strength. When referring to the God of Israel, Elohim is grammatically plural but paired with singular verbs and adjectives, such as in Genesis 1:1 ("In the beginning Elohim created"), underscoring monotheistic unity rather than multiplicity. This form appears approximately 2,600 times in the Hebrew Bible, making it one of the most frequent designations for the divine. In the Torah, Elohim predominates in the early chapters, particularly the creation narrative of Genesis 1, where it appears over 30 times to depict God as the transcendent architect of the cosmos, speaking order into existence through divine command. This usage shifts in Genesis 2–3 to the combined form YHWH Elohim, appearing around 20 times in that section alone, to bridge the universal creator with the personal deity involved in human formation and narrative events. The combination YHWH Elohim occurs about 38 times overall in the Bible, highlighting the integration of God's might with His covenantal identity, as seen in contexts like Exodus 9:30. Theologically, Elohim conveys God's transcendence over creation and His role in judgment, as in the midrashic tradition where it represents the divine attribute of strict (din), distinct from the mercy associated with YHWH. It can also denote foreign deities, as in references to Philistine gods like (Judges 16:23–24), or human authorities exercising judicial power, such as in Psalm 82, where "elohim" describes corrupt human judges in the divine assembly whom God condemns for failing to uphold . This multifaceted application underscores Elohim's emphasis on divine sovereignty and accountability, without implying . Rabbinic interpreters, such as Rashi, view the plural form as an expression of majesty or intensity, reflecting God's encompassing power over all natural forces and attributes, rather than multiple entities—a concept equated numerically with "ha-teva" (nature) in the commentary of Baal HaTurim. This interpretation aligns with the singular eloah used interchangeably (e.g., Isaiah 44:6), affirming God's oneness while highlighting His humility in adopting a form that accommodates human perceptions of might. In contrast to the personal, immanent YHWH, Elohim stresses generic divine authority rooted in the singular el.

El

El (אֵל), derived from a Northwest meaning "" or "," serves as an ancient generic term for the divine in the . This root connotes power or might, reflecting the deity's strength and authority. The term appears approximately 238 times, predominantly in poetic contexts such as the and the , where it functions as a standalone for . In the biblical narrative, El originally draws from Canaanite traditions where it denoted the high god, later adapted to identify as the singular Israelite deity. This adaptation is evident in epithets like El Olam ("Everlasting God"), used in Genesis 21:33 to describe God's eternal nature. Such usages portray El as the supreme, compassionate ruler, merging Canaanite motifs with Israelite theology while emphasizing 's uniqueness. The singular form of El also forms the basis for the plural majestic , though El retains its archaic, poetic resonance. Extrabiblical parallels appear in from ancient , where El is depicted as the creator god and benevolent father of the divine assembly, ruling over other deities with wisdom and procreative power. These texts, dating to the second millennium BCE, illustrate El's role as patriarch of the pantheon, a concept echoed but transformed in the to affirm . The theological evolution of El reflects a shift from potential polytheistic associations in early Israelite religion to a strictly monotheistic singular usage following the Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE). Post-exilic fully equated El with , purging any remnants of divine plurality to underscore God's exclusive sovereignty.

Adonai

Adonai, meaning "my Lord" or "my Master," derives from the Hebrew root adon, signifying lordship or mastery, and is formed as a plural of majesty with the first-person possessive suffix "-i." The term appears approximately 439 times in the , as represented in the (the basis for the St. Petersburg Codex), with about 305 of these occurrences in the compound phrase Adonai YHWH, underscoring its frequent association with the . In biblical contexts, Adonai emphasizes God's sovereignty and authority over creation and humanity. For instance, Psalm 110:1 depicts a divine declaration where YHWH addresses the psalmist's "Adonai," portraying as the exalted ruler enthroned at the divine right hand, a motif of supreme dominion. The name also features prominently in prophetic literature, such as Isaiah 6:8, where the prophet hears the "voice of Adonai" issuing a call to mission, highlighting God's directive power in commissioning human agents. A key variation is Adonai Tseva'ot ("Lord of Hosts"), which appears multiple times in the , combining Adonai's lordship with the imagery of God commanding heavenly armies, as in Isaiah 6:3 during the prophet's visionary temple encounter. Due to the longstanding taboo against pronouncing the YHWH, Adonai serves as the standard vocal substitute in Jewish , a practice dating back to at least the Second Temple period following the time of (circa 3rd century BCE). In Torah readings and prayers, whenever the written YHWH appears, it is vocalized as Adonai to maintain reverence. This liturgical role extends to post-biblical compositions, such as the medieval hymn , which invokes Adonai to affirm God's eternal sovereignty.

El Shaddai

El Shaddai, often translated as "God Almighty," is a prominent name for God in the , particularly within the patriarchal narratives of Genesis. The term "Shaddai" appears 48 times in the , with the compound "El Shaddai" occurring seven times, six of which are in Genesis and one in Exodus 6:3. This name underscores God's role as the powerful provider of blessings and protection, especially in contexts of covenant-making and fertility promises to the patriarchs. The etymology of "Shaddai" remains uncertain and debated among scholars. One prevalent interpretation derives it from the Hebrew root shadad, meaning "to overpower" or "destroy," rendering as "God the Almighty" or "God the All-Sufficient One" who wields absolute power. Alternative theories propose a connection to the Akkadian šadû, meaning "mountain," suggesting "God of the Mountain" and evoking imagery of divine majesty and stability. Another view links it to the Hebrew shad (""), implying a nurturing associated with and provision, though this interpretation is phonetically plausible but contextually less dominant in scholarly consensus. In biblical contexts, El Shaddai is closely tied to divine appearances and blessings for Abraham, , and . For instance, in Genesis 17:1, reveals himself to Abram (later Abraham) at age ninety-nine, declaring, "I am ; walk before me, and be blameless," before establishing the covenant of and promising innumerable descendants despite Sarah's barrenness. Similarly, Isaac invokes in blessing (Genesis 28:3), praying for fruitfulness and nations, while reaffirms the name to in Genesis 35:11, commanding multiplication and granting the land. These instances associate with themes of fertility, protection from harm, and the fulfillment of promises, portraying as the enabler of life and legacy in a nomadic, vulnerable setting. Theologically, functions as the primary name by which was known to the patriarchs in early Israelite traditions, prior to the fuller revelation of YHWH at Sinai, emphasizing divine power and initiative in establishing covenants without yet disclosing the personal name. This prefigures later names while highlighting in patriarchal history. Rabbinic interpreters, such as in 46:3, further elucidate Shaddai as derived from mi sh-dai ("who is sufficient"), portraying as the self-sufficient provider whose resources are ample for all creation's needs, linking the name to themes of divine adequacy and care. thus builds on the foundational term El for , adding an attribute of overwhelming might, in contrast to subsequent covenant names that stress relational presence.

YHWH Tseva'ot

YHWH Tseva'ot, often translated as "YHWH of Hosts" or "Lord of Armies," derives its etymology from the Hebrew term tzva'ot, which signifies "hosts" or "armies," referring to vast multitudes, including military forces or celestial assemblies. This compound name appears over two hundred times in the , with its first occurrence in and a notable concentration in the , such as , where it underscores divine authority in contexts of and . In biblical usage, YHWH Tseva'ot denotes God's command over both the heavenly of angels and the earthly armies of , often appearing in prophetic oracles to assure victory against adversaries. For instance, it evokes assurances of divine intervention in battles, as seen in prophetic formulas linking God's sovereignty to Israel's protection. This epithet extends the by emphasizing YHWH's martial and cosmic dominion, paralleling the liturgical form Adonai Tseva'ot. Theologically, YHWH Tseva'ot highlights God's universal sovereignty, extending over the created order—including stars, angels, and human nations—portraying the deity as the supreme commander who marshals all forces for justice and redemption. This name affirms YHWH's active rule amid chaos, distinguishing it from other epithets by focusing on dominion rather than inherent power alone. In Jewish liturgy, YHWH Tseva'ot persists through its integration into Psalms recited in daily and festival services, such as Psalm 24:10 and Psalm 46:11, which invoke divine protection. It also echoes in the Kedusha section of the Amidah, where the phrase from Isaiah 6:3—"Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts"—is proclaimed, reinforcing communal awe of God's heavenly entourage during prayer.

Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh

Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh (אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה), meaning "I Am Who I Am" or "I Will Be What I Will Be," derives from the first-person singular imperfect form of the Hebrew verb hayah (הָיָה), "to be," emphasizing God's self-existence and eternality. This phrase appears in Exodus 3:14, where God responds to Moses' inquiry about His name during the burning bush encounter, revealing a personal, revelatory identity distinct from other divine titles. The expression links etymologically to the Tetragrammaton (YHWH) as its third-person equivalent, both rooted in the concept of being. In the biblical narrative, God instructs Moses to inform the Israelites of this name, assuring divine presence and intervention in their liberation from Egypt, as stated in Exodus 3:14–16: "Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh has sent me to you." This self-revelation underscores God's active role in history and covenantal relationship, contrasting with the impersonal power implied in names like Elohim. Theologically, Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh signifies God's eternal existence independent of creation, portraying Him as the necessary being whose essence is pure actuality without potentiality or change. Medieval philosopher , in his Guide for the Perplexed, interprets it as denoting God's necessary existence, the ultimate cause underlying all contingent beings, aligning with Aristotelian metaphysics while affirming monotheistic transcendence. The name's usage is rare in the Hebrew Bible, appearing explicitly only in Exodus 3:14 and alluded to in verses 15–16, where God ties it to remembrance across generations. It echoes inversely in Hosea 1:9, where God declares "Lo ehyeh lachem le'lohim" ("I will not be your God") to signify broken covenant amid Israel's infidelity, highlighting the relational implications of divine being.

Additional Biblical and Compound Names

El Roi

El Roi, meaning "God who sees me" or "God of seeing," is a compound name derived from the Hebrew root r-'-h (to see) combined with El, the generic term for God. This name appears uniquely in Genesis 16:13, where Hagar, an Egyptian slave fleeing mistreatment by Sarah in the wilderness, encounters a divine messenger who assures her of protection and future prosperity for her son Ishmael. According to classical commentators like Rashi, the name reflects Hagar's acknowledgment of God's attentive gaze upon her affliction, while Ramban interprets it as "God of my vision," emphasizing the personal revelation she experiences. Ibn Ezra similarly views it as denoting divine sight that Hagar perceives in return. In its biblical context, El Roi underscores God's compassion for the marginalized, as Hagar—a foreign woman, a slave, and an outcast—receives direct divine intervention and a promise of blessing. The rarity of the name, used only once and outside patriarchal lineages, highlights its role in illustrating divine attentiveness to individual suffering rather than collective covenantal themes. Theologically, El Roi signifies personal oversight and the pursuit of justice, revealing God as intimately aware of human distress and responsive to it, particularly for those on society's fringes. This non-patriarchal usage distinguishes it within the biblical corpus, building on the foundational El while paralleling other names that evoke divine mercy.

El Elyon

El Elyon, meaning "God Most High," is a compound name derived from the Hebrew terms ʾēl (God) and ʿelyôn (most high), where ʿelyôn functions as a superlative adjective stemming from the root ʿālâ, signifying "to ascend" or "height." This name first appears prominently in Genesis 14:18–22, where Melchizedek, king of Salem and priest of El Elyon, blesses Abram after his victory in battle, attributing the triumph to the "possessor of heaven and earth." In this context, Abram identifies El Elyon with YHWH, swearing by "the LORD, God Most High," which underscores the name's integration into early Israelite worship. The biblical usage of El Elyon emphasizes a universal kingship, portraying as sovereign over all creation and nations, transcending local or tribal deities. Scholars note that this name likely incorporates elements from Canaanite traditions, where El Elyon represented a high god, which were merged into the worship of YHWH as Israelite developed, equating the two as aspects of the same divine entity. This merger highlights YHWH's ascendancy as the supreme deity, absorbing broader Levantine connotations of supremacy without diluting monotheistic identity. Theologically, El Elyon signifies God's absolute sovereignty and role as redeemer for Israel amid distress, as seen in Psalm 78:35, where the people "remembered that God (ʾēl) was their Rock, and the Most High God (ʾēl ʿelyôn) their Redeemer." This usage reinforces the name's emphasis on divine elevation and protective authority over all peoples, positioning God as the ultimate arbiter of history and nations in Jewish tradition. El Elyon relates to the broader name El by amplifying its connotation of power to denote unparalleled supremacy.

Other Compound Names (e.g., YHWH-Jireh, YHWH-Rapha)

In Judaism, compound names incorporating the (YHWH) serve as situational revelations of divine attributes, often proclaimed in moments of crisis or divine intervention to highlight specific aspects of God's interaction with . These names, drawn from the (Tanakh), combine YHWH with descriptive Hebrew terms, emphasizing God's active role in provision, , , and . Unlike standalone names, these compounds function as theophanies—manifestations of God's presence—revealing His multifaceted nature progressively through biblical narratives. There are approximately seven major such names, each tied to a pivotal event that underscores God's faithfulness and relational character. The following table summarizes key examples, including their meanings, biblical references, and narrative contexts:
NameMeaningBiblical ReferenceNarrative Context
YHWH-JirehThe Lord Will ProvideGenesis 22:14During the binding of Isaac, Abraham names the site after God provides a ram as a substitute sacrifice, affirming divine foresight and mercy in a test of faith.
YHWH-RaphaThe Lord Who HealsExodus 15:26At the waters of Marah, after Israel complains of bitterness, God reveals His healing power by sweetening the water and promising health for obedience.
YHWH-NissiThe Lord Is My BannerExodus 17:15Following victory over the Amalekites through Moses' raised hands, he builds an altar to commemorate God as the rallying standard in battle.
YHWH-ShalomThe Lord Is PeaceJudges 6:24Gideon, fearing death after an angelic visitation, erects an altar upon realizing God's assurance of peace despite his doubts.
YHWH-TsidkenuThe Lord Our RighteousnessJeremiah 23:6In a prophetic oracle, this name describes a future Davidic king (the "righteous Branch") who will execute justice, pointing to God's ultimate vindication of Israel.
YHWH-RohiThe Lord My ShepherdPsalm 23:1David poetically declares God's pastoral guidance, evoking protection and restoration amid life's valleys.
YHWH-SabaotThe Lord of Hosts1 Samuel 1:3Hannah uses this in prayer at Shiloh, invoking God's command over celestial armies during personal distress and national turmoil.
These names typically arise during crises—such as near-sacrifice, hardships, warfare, or prophetic visions—where God's intervention prompts a declarative response, often involving the erection of an or . This pattern illustrates a progressive unfolding of divine attributes, from immediate provision and healing in the patriarchal and exodus narratives to broader themes of and in later prophetic and poetic texts. Theologically, in Jewish , these compounds underscore YHWH's relational essence, portraying not as abstract but as actively engaged with His people, revealing attributes tailored to their needs while maintaining monotheistic unity. They function as memorials of theophanies, inviting ongoing reflection on God's covenantal promises and encouraging trust in His multifaceted character.

Baal and Contested Terms

The term baal (בַּעַל), derived from a Northwest Semitic root meaning "lord," "master," "owner," or "husband," originally functioned as a common title denoting authority or possession in ancient Near Eastern contexts, including early Hebrew usage. In the Hebrew Bible, it frequently appears polemically to critique the worship of the Canaanite storm and fertility deity Baal (often identified with Hadad), portraying such veneration as idolatrous infidelity against Yahweh. A key example is Hosea 2:16-17, where the prophet declares that Israel will no longer call Yahweh "my Baal" (baʿali) but "my husband" (ishi), rejecting the term to sever associations with Canaanite cults and emphasizing exclusive covenantal fidelity. This rhetoric underscores baal's dual role: as a generic epithet for foreign gods and a specific name for the rival deity blamed for Israel's agricultural and moral lapses. Despite its predominantly negative connotations, baal occasionally echoes positively as a title for Yahweh in biblical place names, suggesting residual or transitional applications before stricter monotheistic prohibitions. In 2 Samuel 5:20, David names the site of his victory over the Philistines "Baal-Perazim" (בַּעַל פְּרָצִים), meaning "lord of the breakthrough" or "possessor of breaches," attributing the divine intervention to Yahweh's overwhelming power like a flooding river. Such instances, rare and localized, highlight baal's etymological neutrality as "lord"—paralleling the uncontroversial Hebrew adonai—but also its vulnerability to syncretic misuse amid Canaanite influences. Theologically, biblical texts warn against baal worship as a form of syncretism, where Israelites blended Yahweh's cult with Canaanite practices, attributing fertility and storms to Baal while nominally honoring Yahweh. Prophetic critiques, such as those in Hosea and 1 Kings 18, decry this as spiritual adultery, leading to divine judgment through drought and exile, and advocate purging foreign elements to restore pure Yahwism. Over time, this evolved into Judaism's emphatic monotheism, with baal becoming taboo as a divine title to avoid any implication of polytheistic compromise. Scholars note possible early uses of as a neutral or even positive for in pre-exilic Israelite , particularly in northern traditions where it may have denoted 's storm-god attributes before prophetic reforms stigmatized it. 2:16 itself implies prior acceptance of "Baali" for , reflecting a shift from syncretistic tolerance to rejection as Yahwistic exclusivity solidified. These contested applications illustrate the Bible's portrayal of baal not merely as a foreign intruder but as a term fraught with risks of diluting 's unique sovereignty.

Liturgical and Substitute Names

HaShem

, meaning "The Name" in Hebrew, functions as a reverential substitute for the (YHWH) in casual Jewish conversation and informal references to . Derived from the Hebrew term הַשֵּׁם (haShem), it avoids direct pronunciation of the sacred name, aligning with the Third Commandment's prohibition against taking God's name in vain. The term's adoption emerged prominently after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, when the exact pronunciation of YHWH was restricted to Temple rituals and eventually lost in everyday use during the Talmudic era. Talmudic texts reflect this shift; for example, the in Berakhot 9:5 discusses how the divine name was once casually invoked in greetings but later avoided to prevent misuse. This practice gained traction across Ashkenazi and Sephardi communities, becoming a standard way to refer to God in non-sacred settings. In usage, HaShem appears in spoken discourse and is abbreviated in writing as ה' to safeguard against erasure or desecration, as per Deuteronomy 12:3. It is not employed in formal , where Adonai serves as the spoken substitute for YHWH during or . Culturally, enables practical expression of faith in daily life while upholding deep respect for the divine, as emphasized by , who forbade casual mention of any names designated for .

Adon Olam

Adon Olam is a medieval , or liturgical poem, traditionally attributed to the 11th-century Spanish-Jewish poet and philosopher , though its exact authorship remains uncertain and some scholars propose it may originate from earlier Babylonian Jewish communities. Composed around the , the poem follows a strict form across its twelve lines, emphasizing rhythmic flow suitable for communal recitation or song. In Jewish , —translating to "Master of the Universe" or ""—is most commonly sung at the conclusion of morning services, festival Musaf prayers, or the end of evening services to mark the transition from sacred time. It also appears in daily morning blessings, the bedtime , and eve services, serving as a of affirmation and closure in various rites. The poem's theological themes center on God's eternal lordship, depicting Him as sovereign before the universe's creation ("When all was formed by His will, then was His name proclaimed ") and enduring after its dissolution ("He was, He is, and He shall be in glory"). It underscores divine unity, omnipotence, and protective presence, culminating in the entrustment of the soul to ("Into His hand I commit my spirit when I sleep and awake"), evoking personal and comfort. This builds on the foundational concept of Adonai as eternal master. Melodic variations distinguish Sephardi and Ashkenazi traditions, with Sephardi renditions often employing more elaborate, Middle Eastern-influenced tunes, while Ashkenazi versions typically use a shortened 10-line text set to simpler, European folk-like melodies. Modern adaptations have incorporated diverse styles, from choral arrangements to contemporary hymns.

Other Liturgical Titles (e.g., Avinu Malkeinu, Ribono shel Olam)

In Jewish , additional titles for beyond the primary substitutes emphasize relational intimacy and sovereign authority, often appearing in prayers that blend Hebrew and Aramaic to foster emotional connection during worship. These titles, rooted in rabbinic traditions, serve as poignant addresses in penitential and supplicatory contexts, evoking God's dual role as a compassionate parent and an all-encompassing ruler. They function as respectful alternatives to more sacred names, echoing biblical motifs of divine lordship while avoiding direct pronunciation of the . A prominent example is ("Our Father, Our King"), a litany central to the liturgy, particularly during services. Its origins trace to a Talmudic account of Rabbi Akiva's during a communal fast for drought relief, as recorded in the Babylonian ( 25b), where it begins as a simple plea highlighting God's paternal mercy and regal power—drawing from biblical imagery in 63:16 and 33:22. Composed in rabbinic times and expanded in medieval siddurim, the evolved into a series of 25 to 53 verses across rites (e.g., 38 in the Ashkenazi tradition), petitioning for inscription in the and forgiveness of sins. Recited congregationally after the with the ark open, it plays a key emotional role in penitential prayers, balancing awe of divine judgment with pleas for familial compassion, and is chanted melodically to heighten introspection during the Ten Days of Repentance. Another key title is Ribono shel Olam ("Master of the Universe"), an phrase invoking God's universal dominion and used frequently in daily and personal prayers. Emerging in Tannaitic literature as a vocative address in supplications, it appears throughout rabbinic texts like the , where it underscores God's over creation without implying . In liturgical practice, it introduces prayers such as the one recited after the or during the bedtime , and in some siddurim after the , blending into everyday devotion to express humility and dependence. This title's emotional resonance lies in its accessibility for spontaneous pleas, reinforcing themes of divine oversight in both joyous and challenging moments, while maintaining reverence through its indirect reference to the divine.

Esoteric and Mystical Names

Kabbalistic Names (e.g., , )

In , the esoteric tradition of that flourished from the 12th century onward, divine names extend beyond biblical terminology to encompass metaphysical concepts of the infinite and immanent aspects of . These names, often derived from meditative interpretations of scripture, are associated with the —the ten emanations through which the divine manifests—and serve theurgic purposes, influencing spiritual realms through contemplation and ritual. Central to this framework is the notion that names are not mere labels but dynamic forces embodying divine energies. Ein Sof, translating to "without end" or "infinite," denotes the transcendent, unknowable essence of God prior to creation, a concept pivotal to theosophical as articulated in the , the foundational 13th-century text attributed to . Unlike biblical names, represents the absolute infinity beyond all attributes, limitations, or comprehension, from which the emanate as structured manifestations of divine will. This idea, absent in earlier , underscores Kabbalah's emphasis on negative theology, where God is described by what cannot be said about the divine. Scholars trace its full development to 13th-century Provençal and Castilian Kabbalists, who used it to reconcile divine unity with multiplicity in creation. Shekhinah, meaning "presence" or "indwelling," personifies the feminine, immanent dimension of the divine, emerging in post-biblical Talmudic sources but fully elaborated in as the tenth Sefirah, Malkhut. Depicted as God's nurturing yet exiled consort, she symbolizes the in the world, particularly in and redemption, often linked to the Jewish people's historical . In the , Shekhinah is the "lower mother" or queen, separated from the masculine aspects of God and requiring unification through human actions like prayer and mitzvot to restore cosmic harmony. Her gendered portrayal highlights Kabbalah's anthropomorphic theology, where divine interactions mirror relational dynamics. Another key Kabbalistic construct is the 72-letter name of , known as , formed by permuting letters from three verses in Exodus 14:19–21, each containing 72 letters, to yield 72 tri-letter combinations. Referenced in the (II:51b), these permutations are meditated upon for spiritual elevation and protection, embodying angelic forces or divine attributes corresponding to the . In , developed by in the 16th century, these names play a central theurgic role in cosmic repair (tikkun). Through yichudim meditations—unifications of divine names—practitioners aim to mend the "shattering of the vessels" (shevirat ha-kelim) from creation's primordial chaos, channeling light from into the and elevating divine sparks trapped in materiality. Luria's system integrates names like permutations of the with ethical and ritual acts, viewing them as tools for redemptive theology. The gendered dimensions of Kabbalistic names, particularly Shekhinah's feminine valence, have inspired modern feminist reinterpretations within movements since the late . Scholars like Rachel Adler reframe her as an autonomous, empowering , countering patriarchal readings by emphasizing her role in mutual divine-human partnership and ecological sustenance, thus revitalizing for contemporary gender equity. These views, while rooted in traditional texts, challenge historical subjugation motifs, portraying Shekhinah as a goddess-like figure of relational .

Uncommon or Aramaic Names (e.g., Elah, Memra)

In Jewish tradition, uncommon names for God often emerge from Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Jews following the Babylonian Exile in the 6th century BCE, when Aramaic replaced Hebrew as the everyday language among the exiles and their descendants. This linguistic shift influenced religious terminology, leading to Aramaic equivalents and interpretive terms used in texts like the Book of Daniel and the Targums, though these names remained peripheral to core Hebrew liturgy and were not central to worship. The adoption of Aramaic reflected the cultural adaptation during and after the Exile, where it facilitated communication in diaspora communities without supplanting sacred Hebrew expressions. One such name is Elah, the Aramaic term for "God," appearing in the Aramaic portions of the Hebrew Bible, particularly in the Book of Daniel. In Daniel 2:47, King Nebuchadnezzar acknowledges the Jewish God as "Elah Elahin" (God of gods), emphasizing divine sovereignty over other deities during the Babylonian period. This usage underscores Elah's role as a direct Aramaic counterpart to the Hebrew Elohim, employed in contexts of exile to affirm monotheism amid foreign rule, and it later appears in Targumic translations as a standard rendering for God. Elah is not a compound or mystical name but a straightforward linguistic adaptation, reflecting the bilingual environment of post-exilic Judaism. Another notable Aramaic term is Memra, meaning "Word," which functions as a divine intermediary in Targum Onkelos, the primary Aramaic translation of the Torah from the early centuries CE. In this targum, Memra personifies God's speech and actions to avoid anthropomorphic depictions, such as in Genesis 1:3 where creation occurs through the Memra rather than God directly speaking. Medieval Jewish philosophers, including Saadia Gaon, interpreted Memra as a philosophical buffer preserving God's transcendence while enabling interaction with the world, though it was not viewed as a separate hypostasis but as an aspect of divine will. This concept arose in the Targums to interpret Hebrew scriptures for Aramaic-speaking audiences, bridging exilic linguistic legacies with rabbinic exegesis. Diaspora traditions introduced further variations, such as Eibishter (or Aibishter), a Yiddish term meaning "the Most High" or "uppermost one," commonly used in Ashkenazi communities to reverently refer to God without pronouncing sacred names. Similarly, Rachmana, Aramaic for "the Merciful One," appears frequently in the Talmud and prayers like the Kaddish, evoking God's compassion in legal and ethical discussions, as in Babylonian Talmudic passages where it denotes in halakhic contexts. These terms, influenced by Aramaic's persistence in Babylonian and Persian-era , highlight regional adaptations but were rarely incorporated into formal , serving instead in everyday discourse and interpretive literature.

Practices Involving Divine Names

Writing and Pronunciation Conventions

In Jewish tradition, the (YHWH) is inscribed in scrolls using precise scribal conventions to uphold its sanctity. Scribes traditionally leave blank spaces where the name appears, completing the inscription in a secondary stage of writing after the rest of the text. This two-step process, observed in medieval manuscripts and continuing in Orthodox practice today, ensures meticulous accuracy and reverence during production. Outside of sacred scrolls, the full form of YHWH is generally avoided in writing to prevent accidental erasure or disrespect, a derived from Deuteronomy 12:3. In scholarly and non-liturgical contexts, it is commonly transliterated as YHVH, using V for the waw consonant to reflect traditional Jewish phonetic conventions, or represented with dashes (e.g., Y-H-V-H) or umlauts (e.g., YḤVH) in some academic editions to denote its ineffable nature without implying pronunciation. Regarding pronunciation, the Tetragrammaton has not been vocalized aloud in Jewish practice since the late Second Temple period (circa 3rd century BCE onward), a custom that emerged during the Hellenistic era and solidified to avoid profanation, as evidenced in Septuagint translations and Qumran texts like 1QS 6:27–7:2. Instead, substitutes such as Adonai are used, with Masoretic scholars from the 7th–10th centuries CE adding vowel points from Adonai (sheva-cholem-qamets: ֱהֹוָה) or Elohim (sheva-cholem-chiriq: ֱהֹוִה) to the consonantal YHWH in biblical manuscripts, guiding readers via the ketiv-qere system to read the replacement word. This avoidance tradition traces to , with Pharisaic groups innovating stricter oral and liturgical rules around substitutes during the 1st century BCE–1st century CE, influencing later rabbinic codifications in the (e.g., 10:1) that treat uttering the name as a grave offense. Pronunciation of these substitutes varies by community: vocalize Adonai as "Adonoy" (with an oy for the cholam), while Yemenite traditions align more closely with Sephardic norms, rendering it as "Adonai" with a clear and distinct het-kaf sounds. In the digital age, Orthodox rulings permit typing divine names like YHWH or Adonai on computers or online, as the medium is considered non-permanent and deletable without erasure in a halakhic sense, unlike ink on ; however, such text risks violation, so many avoid full forms in digital documents to err on the side of caution.

Reverence and Taboos (Including Erasing Names)

In Jewish tradition, the reverence for the divine names stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20:7, which prohibits taking the name of in vain, interpreted broadly to include any misuse, profanation, or disrespectful treatment that diminishes its sanctity. This biblical injunction, "You shall not take the name of the your in vain, for the will not hold him guiltless who takes His name in vain," forms the foundation for extending protections to written forms of the names, ensuring they are not treated casually or destructively. , such as the Yadayim 4:5, reinforces this by discussing the sacred status of texts containing divine names, which defile the hands upon touch—a marker of holiness that implies careful handling to avoid erasure or desecration. The rules governing the erasure of divine names are stringent, derived from Deuteronomy 12:4, which contrasts the command to destroy idols' names (12:3) with the against doing so to . Only the seven primary names—YHWH, El, Eloah, , Elohai, Shaddai, and Tzevaot—are absolutely protected from erasure, with even a single letter's removal incurring biblical lashes as punishment. Partial or abbreviated forms, such as Alef-Lamed for , share this sanctity and cannot be erased, while less explicit combinations like Shin-Dalet for Shaddai may be. Erasure is permitted solely for sacred utility, such as correcting a scroll, but the scraped material must then be buried respectfully. Worn-out sacred objects containing these names, like scrolls, are placed in a —a repository for holy texts—and eventually buried to prevent , a practice that underscores the names' enduring holiness even in decay. Beyond erasure, broader taboos reflect this reverence. Jewish law forbids naming children directly after sacred divine names like YHWH or Adonai, as it risks profane or casual use of what is holy, though compound names incorporating elements (e.g., Eliyahu, meaning "my God is YHWH") are common and permissible. Similarly, the names must be avoided in oaths unless absolutely necessary and truthful, as false or vain swearing profanes them, violating the Third Commandment's core intent against any empty invocation. Medieval scholars like balanced rational halakhic limits with the names' sanctity in his (Yesodei HaTorah 6), codifying precise rules for the seven uneraseable names while emphasizing intent: names written without sanctity (e.g., casually or in foreign languages) lack full protection and may be erased. This rational approach contrasted with emerging mystical views in , which elevated the names as vessels of divine power, amplifying taboos against any manipulation to prevent spiritual harm. In contemporary contexts, these taboos extend to ethical concerns with AI-generated texts containing divine names, raising questions about digital sanctity and disposal. Halakhic authorities debate whether algorithmically produced sacred content on screens or in qualifies as "written" and thus uneraseable; for instance, persistent e-ink displays may require genizah-like treatment upon obsolescence, while volatile screen refreshes might not, to avoid inadvertent . Printed AI outputs with names would demand traditional , prompting discussions on technology's impact on reverence.

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