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The Harrowing of Hell, Petites Heures, 14th-century illuminated manuscript commissioned by John, Duke of Berry
Christ leading Adam by the hand, depicted in the Vaux Passional, c. 1504
Before his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ grants salvation to souls by the Harrowing of Hell. Fresco, by Fra Angelico, c. 1430s.
Events in the
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In Christian theology, the Harrowing of Hell (Latin: Descensus Christi ad Inferos; Greek: Ἡ εἰς ᾍδου κάθοδος τοῦ Χριστοῦ – "the descent of Christ into Hell" or "Hades")[a] is the period of time between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his resurrection. In triumphant descent, Christ brought salvation to the souls held captive there since the beginning of the world.[1]

Christ's descent into the world of the dead is referred to in the Apostles' Creed and the Athanasian Creed (Quicumque vult), which state that he "descended into the underworld" (descendit ad inferos), although neither mention that he liberated the dead. His descent to the underworld is alluded to in the New Testament in 1 Peter 4:6, which states that the "good tidings were proclaimed to the dead".[2] The Catechism of the Catholic Church notes Ephesians 4:9, which states that "[Christ] descended into the lower parts of the earth", as also supporting this interpretation.[3] These passages in the New Testament have given rise to differing interpretations.[4] The Harrowing of Hell is commemorated in the liturgical calendar on Holy Saturday.[5]

According to The Catholic Encyclopedia, the story first appears clearly in the Gospel of Nicodemus in the section called the Acts of Pilate, which also appears separately at earlier dates within the Acts of Peter and Paul.[6] The descent into Hell had been related in Old English poems (e.g. Christ and Satan) connected with the names of Cædmon and Cynewulf. It is subsequently repeated in Ælfric of Eynsham's homilies c. 1000 AD, which is the first known inclusion of the word harrowing. Middle English dramatic literature contains the fullest and most dramatic development of the subject.[1]

As a subject in Christian art, it is also known as the Anastasis (Greek for "resurrection"), considered a creation of Byzantine culture and first appearing in the West in the early 8th century.[7]

Background

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Main article: Afterlife § Abrahamic religions

The Old Testament view of the afterlife was that all people when they died, whether righteous or unrighteous, went to Sheol, a dark, still place.[8] Several works from the Second Temple period elaborate the concept of Sheol, dividing it into sections based on the righteousness or unrighteousness of those who have died.[9]

The New Testament maintains a distinction between Sheol, the common "place of the dead", and the eternal destiny of those condemned at the Final Judgment, variously described as Gehenna, "the outer darkness", or a lake of eternal fire.[10]

Terminology

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The Greek wording in the Apostles' Creed is κατελθόντα εἰς τὰ κατώτατα (katelthonta eis ta katōtata), and in Latin is descendit ad inferos. The Greek τὰ κατώτατα (ta katōtata, 'the lowest') and the Latin inferos ('those below') may also be translated as "underworld", "netherworld", or "abode of the dead".

The realm into which Jesus descended is called Hell, in long-established English usage, but is also called Sheol or Limbo by some Christian theologians to distinguish it from the Hell of the damned.[11] In Classical mythology, Hades is the underworld inhabited by departed souls, and the god Pluto is its ruler. Some New Testament translations use the term "Hades" to refer to the abode or state of the dead to represent a neutral place where the dead awaited the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus.

The word harrow originally comes from the Old English hergian 'to harry or despoil', and is seen in the homilies of Ælfric of Eynsham, c. 1000.[b] The term Harrowing of Hell refers not merely to the idea that Jesus descended into Hell, as in the Creed, but to the rich tradition that developed later, asserting that he triumphed over inferos, releasing Hell's captives, particularly Adam and Eve, and the righteous men and women of the Old Testament period.

Scripture

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Christ's Descent into Limbo by Andrea Mantegna and studio, c. 1470

The Harrowing of Hell is mentioned or suggested by several verses in the New Testament:[13][c]

  • Matthew 12:40: "For just as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the sea monster, so for three days and three nights the Son of Man will be in the heart of the earth."
  • Matthew 27:50–54: "And Jesus cried out again with a loud voice, and yielded up His spirit. Then, behold, the veil of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom; and the earth quaked, and the rocks were split, and the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised; and coming out of the graves after His resurrection, they went into the holy city and appeared to many. So when the centurion and those with him, who were guarding Jesus, saw the earthquake and the things that had happened, they feared greatly, saying, 'Truly this was the Son of God!'"
  • Acts 2:24: "But God raised him up, having freed him from death, because it was impossible for him to be held in its power."
  • Acts 2:31: "Foreseeing this, David spoke of the resurrection of the Messiah, saying, 'He was not abandoned to Hades, nor did his flesh experience corruption'."
  • Ephesians 4:8-9: " When he ascended on high, he took many captives and gave gifts to his people. In saying, 'he ascended', what does it mean but that he had also descended into the lower regions, the earth?"
  • Colossians 1:18: "He is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, so that he might come to have first place in everything."
  • 1 Peter 3:18–19: "For Christ also suffered for sins once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, in order to bring you to God. He was put to death in the flesh, but made alive in the spirit, in which also he went and made a proclamation to the spirits in prison, ..."
  • 1 Peter 4:6: "For this is the reason the gospel was proclaimed even to the dead, so that, though they had been judged in the flesh as everyone is judged, they might live in the spirit as God does."

Theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar sees parallels with Mark 3:24: "If a kingdom is divided against itself, that kingdom cannot stand. And if a house is divided against itself, that house will not be able to stand. And if Satan has risen up against himself and is divided, he cannot stand, but his end has come. But no one can enter a strong man’s house and plunder his property without first tying up the strong man; then indeed the house can be plundered."

Early Christian teaching

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Descent into Hell, with Hellmouth, engraving by Michael Burghers (1647/48–1727)

The Harrowing of Hell was taught by theologians of the early church: St Melito of Sardis (died c. 180) in his Homily on the Passover and more explicitly in his Homily for Holy Saturday, Tertullian (A Treatise on the Soul, 55, though he himself disagrees with the idea), Hippolytus (Treatise on Christ and Anti-Christ), Origen (Against Celsus, 2:43), and, later, Ambrose (died 397) all wrote of the Harrowing of Hell. The early heretic Marcion and his followers also discussed the Harrowing of Hell, as mentioned by Tertullian, Irenaeus, and Epiphanius. The 6th-century sect called the Christolytes, as recorded by John of Damascus, believed that Jesus left his soul and body in Hell, and only rose with his divinity to Heaven.[14]

The Gospel of Matthew relates that immediately after Christ died, the earth shook, there was darkness, the veil in the Second Temple was torn in two, and many people rose from the dead, and after the resurrection (Matthew 27:53) walked about in Jerusalem and were seen by many people there. Balthasar says this is a "visionary and imaginistic" description of Jesus vanquishing death itself.[15]

According to the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, the Harrowing of Hell was foreshadowed by Christ's raising of Lazarus from the dead prior to his own crucifixion.

Christ's Descent into Limbo, woodcut by Albrecht Dürer, c. 1510
Russian icon of John the Baptist foretelling the descent of Christ to the righteous in Hades (17th century, Solovetsky Monastery)

In the Acts of Pilate – usually incorporated with the widely-read medieval Gospel of Nicodemus – texts built around an original that might have been as old as the 3rd century AD with many improvements and embroidered interpolations, chapters 17 to 27 are called the Decensus Christi ad Inferos. They contain a dramatic dialogue between Hades and Prince Satan, and the entry of the King of Glory, imagined as from within Tartarus.

Interpretations of the doctrine

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Orthodoxy

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In Harrowing of Hades, fresco in the parecclesion of the Chora Church, Istanbul, c. 1315, raising Adam and Eve is depicted as part of the Resurrection icon, as it always is in the East.

John Chrysostom's Paschal Homily also addresses the Harrowing of Hades, and is typically read during the Paschal Vigil, the climactic service of the Orthodox celebration of Pascha (Easter).

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Harrowing of Hades is celebrated annually on Holy and Great Saturday during the Vesperal Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil, as is normative for the Byzantine Rite. At the beginning of the service, the hangings in the church and the vestments worn by the clergy are all somber Lenten colours (usually purple or black). Then, just before the Gospel reading, the liturgical colors are changed to white and the deacon performs a censing, and the priest strews laurel leaves around the church, symbolizing the broken gates of Hell; this is done in celebration of the harrowing of Hades then taking place, and in anticipation of Christ's imminent resurrection.

Icon

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Harrowing of Hell by Markos Bathas 16th Century

The Harrowing of Hades is generally more common and prominent in Orthodox iconography compared to the Western tradition. It is the traditional icon for Holy Saturday, and is used during the Paschal season and on Sundays throughout the year.

The traditional Orthodox icon of the Resurrection of Jesus, partially inspired by the apocryphal Acts of Pilate (4th c.), does not depict simply the physical act of Christ coming out of the Tomb, but rather it reveals what Orthodox Christians believe to be the spiritual reality of what his Death and Resurrection accomplished. The icon depicts Jesus, vested in white and gold to symbolize his divine majesty, standing on the brazen gates of Hades (also called the "Doors of Death"), which are broken and have fallen in the form of a cross, illustrating the belief that by his death on the cross, Jesus "trampled down death by death" (see Paschal troparion). He is holding Adam and Eve and pulling them up out of Hades. Traditionally, he is not shown holding them by the hands but by their wrists, to illustrate the theological teaching that mankind could not pull himself out of his Original sin, but that it could come about only by the work (energia) of God. Jesus is surrounded by various righteous figures from the Old Testament (Abraham, David, etc.); the bottom of the icon depicts Hades as a chasm of darkness, often with various pieces of broken locks and chains strewn about. Quite frequently, one or two figures are shown in the darkness, bound in chains, who are generally identified as personifications of Death or the devil.

Catholicism

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Christ leads the patriarchs from Hell to Paradise, by Bartolomeo Bertejo, Spanish, c. 1480: Methuselah, Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, and Adam and Eve lead the procession of the righteous behind Christ.

There is an ancient homily on the subject, of unknown authorship, usually entitled The Lord's Descent into Hell that is the second reading at the Office of Readings on Holy Saturday in the Roman Catholic Church.[16][17]

The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "By the expression 'He descended into Hell', the Apostles' Creed confesses that Jesus did really die and through his death for us conquered death and the devil 'who has the power of death' (Hebrews 2:14). In his human soul united to his divine person, the dead Christ went down to the realm of the dead. He opened Heaven's gates for the just who had gone before him."[18]

As the Catechism says, the word "Hell"—from the Norse, Hel; in Latin, infernus, infernum, inferni; in Greek, ᾍδης (Hades); in Hebrew, שאול (Sheol)—is used in Scripture and the Apostles' Creed to refer to the abode of all the dead, whether righteous or evil, unless or until they are admitted to Heaven (CCC 633). This abode of the dead is the "Hell" into which the Creed says Christ descended. His death freed from exclusion from Heaven the just who had gone before him: "It is precisely these holy souls who awaited their Savior in Abraham's bosom whom Christ the Lord delivered when he descended into Hell", the Catechism states (CCC 633), echoing the words of the Roman Catechism, 1, 6, 3.

Conceptualization of the abode of the dead as a place, though possible and customary, is not obligatory (Church documents, such as catechisms, speak of a "state or place"). Some maintain that Christ did not go to the place of the damned, which is what is generally understood today by the word "Hell". For instance, Thomas Aquinas taught that Christ did not descend into the "Hell of the lost" in his essence, but only by the effect of his death, through which "he put them to shame for their unbelief and wickedness: but to them who were detained in Purgatory he gave hope of attaining to glory: while upon the holy Fathers detained in Hell solely on account of original sin, he shed the light of glory everlasting."[19]

While some maintain that Christ merely descended into the "limbo of the fathers", others, notably theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar (inspired by the visions of Adrienne von Speyr), maintain that it was more than this and that the descent involved suffering by Jesus.[20] Some maintain that this is a matter on which differences and theological speculation are permissible without transgressing the limits of orthodoxy.[20]

Lutheranism

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Martin Luther, in a sermon delivered in Torgau in 1533, stated that Christ descended into Hell.

The Formula of Concord (a Lutheran confession) states, "we believe simply that the entire person, God and human being, descended to Hell after his burial, conquered the devil, destroyed the power of Hell, and took from the devil all his power" (Solid Declaration, Art. IX).

Many attempts were made following Luther's death to systematize his theology of the descensus, whether Christ descended in victory or humiliation. For Luther, however, the defeat or "humiliation" of Christ is never fully separable from His victorious glorification. Luther himself, when pressed to elaborate on the question of whether Christ descended to Hell in humiliation or victory responded, "It is enough to preach the article to the laypeople as they have learned to know it in the past from the stained glass and other sources."[21]

Anglicanism

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"Anglican orthodoxy, without protest, has allowed high authorities to teach that there is an intermediate state, Hades, including both Gehenna and Paradise, but with an impassable gulf between the two."[10] The traditional language of the Apostles' Creed affirms that Jesus "descended into hell"; the contemporary Book of Common Prayer says that Jesus "descended to the dead" (BCP, pp. 53, 96).[13]

Calvinism

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John Calvin expressed his concern that many Christians "have never earnestly considered what it is or means that we have been redeemed from God's judgment. Yet this is our wisdom: duly to feel how much our salvation cost the Son of God."

Calvin's conclusion is that "If any persons have scruples about admitting this article into the Creed, it will soon be made plain how important it is to the sum of our redemption: if it is left out, much of the benefit of Christ’s death will be lost."[22] Calvin strongly opposed the notion that Christ freed prisoners, as opposed to traveling to Hell as part of completing his sufferings.[23]

The Reformed interpret the phrase "he descended into Hell" as referring to Christ's pain and humiliation prior to his death, and that this humiliation had a spiritual dimension as part of God's judgement upon the sin which he bore on behalf of Christians. The doctrine of Christ's humiliation is also meant to assure believers that Christ has redeemed them from the pain and suffering of God's judgment on sin.[24]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

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Main articles: Spirit world (Latter Day Saints) and Plan of salvation (Latter Day Saints)

The Harrowing of Hell has been a unique and important doctrine among members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints since its founding in 1830 by Joseph Smith, although members of the church usually call it by other terms, such as "Christ's visit to the spirit world". Like Christian exegetes distinguishing between Sheol and Gehenna, Latter-day Saints distinguish between the realm of departed spirits (the "spirit world") and the portion (or state) of the wicked ("spirit prison"). The portion or state of the righteous is often referred to as "paradise".

Perhaps the most notable aspect of Latter-day Saint beliefs regarding the Harrowing of Hell is their view on the purpose of it, both for the just and the wicked. Joseph F. Smith, the sixth president of the Church, explained in what is now a canonized revelation, that when Christ died, "there were gathered together in one place an innumerable company of the spirits of the just, ... rejoicing together because the day of their deliverance was at hand. They were assembled awaiting the advent of the Son of God into the spirit world, to declare their redemption from the bands of death".[25]

In the Latter-day Saint view, while Christ announced freedom from physical death to the just, he had another purpose in descending to Hell regarding the wicked. "The Lord went not in person among the wicked and the disobedient who had rejected the truth, to teach them; but behold, from among the righteous, he organized his forces ... and commissioned them to go forth and carry the light of the gospel to them that were in darkness, even to all the spirits of men; and thus was the gospel preached to the dead, ... to those who had died in their sins, without a knowledge of the truth, or in transgression, having rejected the prophets".[26] From the Latter-day Saint viewpoint, the rescue of spirits was not a one-time event but an ongoing process that still continues.[27] This concept goes hand-in-hand with the doctrine of baptism for the dead, which is based on the Latter-day Saint belief that those who choose to accept the gospel in the spirit world must still receive the saving ordinances in order to dwell in the kingdom of God.[28] These baptisms and other ordinances are performed in Latter-day Saint temples, wherein a church member is baptized vicariously, or in behalf of, those who died without being baptized by proper authority. The recipients in the spirit world then have the opportunity to accept or reject this baptism.[29]

Rejection of the doctrine

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Although the Harrowing of Hell is taught by the Lutheran, Catholic, Reformed, and Orthodox traditions, a number of Christians reject the doctrine of the "harrowing of hell", claiming that "there is scant scriptural evidence for [it], and that Jesus's own words contradict it."[30] John Piper, for example, says "there is no textual [i.e. Biblical] basis for believing that Christ descended into hell", and, therefore, Piper does not recite the "he descended into hell" phrase when saying the Apostles' Creed.[31] Wayne Grudem also skips the phrase when reciting the Creed; he says that the "single argument in ... favor [of the "harrowing of hell" clause in the Creed] seems to be that it has been around so long. ... But an old mistake is still a mistake."[30] In his book Raised with Christ, Pentecostal Adrian Warnock agrees with Grudem, commenting, "Despite some translations of an ancient creed [i.e. the Apostles' Creed], which suggest that Jesus ... 'descended into hell', there is no biblical evidence to suggest that he actually did so."[32]

Augustine, in his 99th epistle, confesses that this text is replete with difficulties. This he declares is clear, beyond all doubt, that Jesus Christ descended in soul after his death into the regions below, and concludes with these words: Quis ergo nisi infidelis negaverit fuisse apud inferos Christum? ("Who, then, but an unbeliever, has denied that Christ was in hell?") In this prison souls would not be detained unless they were indebted to divine justice, nor would salvation be preached to them unless they were in a state that was capable of receiving salvation.

Christian mortalism

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The above views share the traditional Christian belief in the immortality of the soul. The mortalist view of the intermediate state requires an alternative view of the Acts 2:27 and Acts 2:31, taking a view of the New Testament use of Hell as equivalent to use of Hades in the Septuagint and therefore to Sheol in the Old Testament.[33] William Tyndale and Martin Bucer of Strassburg argued that Hades in Acts 2 was merely a metaphor for the grave. Other reformers Christopher Carlisle and Walter Deloenus in London, argued for the article to be dropped from the creed.[34] The Harrowing of Hell was a major scene in traditional depictions of Christ's life avoided by John Milton due to his mortalist views.[35] Mortalist interpretations of the Acts 2 statements of Christ being in Hades are also found among later Anglicans such as E. W. Bullinger.[36]

While those holding mortalist views on the soul would agree on the "harrowing of hell" concerning souls, that there were no conscious dead for Christ to literally visit, the question of whether Christ himself was also dead, unconscious, brings different answers:

Of the three days, Christ says "I was dead" (Greek egenomen nekros ἐγενόμην νεκρὸς, Latin fui mortuus).[39]

In culture

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Harrowing of Hades, an icon by Dionisius, from the Ferapontov Monastery

Drama

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The richest, most circumstantial accounts of the Harrowing of Hell are found in medieval dramatic literature, such as the four great cycles of English Mystery plays which each devote a separate scene to depict it.[1] Christ was portrayed as conquering Satan, and then victoriously leading out Adam and Eve, the prophets, and the patriarchs. The earliest surviving Christian drama probably intended to be performed is the Harrowing of Hell found in the 8th-century Book of Cerne.

The subject is found also in the Cornish Mystery plays and the York and Wakefield cycles. These medieval versions of the story derive from scripture, but the details come from the Gospel of Nicodemus.

Literature

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Middle Ages

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In Dante's Inferno the Harrowing of Hell is mentioned in Canto IV by the pilgrim's guide Virgil. Virgil was in Limbo (the first circle of Hell) in the first place because he was not exposed to Christianity in his lifetime, and therefore he describes Christ in generic terms as a "mighty one" who rescued the Hebrew forefathers of Christianity, but left him and other virtuous pagans behind in the very same circle. It is clear that Virgil does not fully understand the significance of the event as Dante does.

An incomplete Middle English telling of the Harrowing of Hell is found in the Auchinleck manuscript.[40]

A scene of the Harrowing of Hell is included by William Langland (Willielmus de Langland; circa 1330 – circa 1386) in Piers Plowman (circa 1377). This is a Middle English allegorical narrative poem, written in un-rhymed, alliterative verse divided into sections called passus (Latin for "step").

Although the Orfeo legend has its origin in pagan antiquity, the medieval romance of Sir Orfeo has often been interpreted as drawing parallels between the Greek hero and Jesus freeing souls from Hell,[41][42] with the explication of Orpheus' descent and return from the Underworld as an allegory for Christ's as early as the Ovide Moralisé (1340).[43]

Modern

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The Catholic philologist and fantasy author J. R. R. Tolkien echoes the Harrowing of Hell theme in multiple places in The Silmarillion (1977) and The Lord of the Rings (1954–55). Identified instances include the tale "Of Beren and Lúthien" in which Beren is rescued from Sauron's dark dungeons, and Gandalf's freeing of King Théoden of Rohan from the dark insinuations of the traitorous Wormtongue.[44]

In Stephen Lawhead's novel Byzantium (1997), a young Irish monk is asked to explain Jesus Christ's life to a group of Vikings, who were particularly impressed with his "descent to the underworld" (Helreið).[citation needed]

In 2021, Jonathan Jackson wrote “The Harrowing of Hell: An epic poem” about the descent of Jesus to Hell after the crucifixion. It was published by Hilasterion Publishing of Tennessee and illustrated by Anastasia Chybireva-Fender.

Christ in Limbo, by a follower of Hieronymus Bosch

Parallels in Jewish literature refer to legends of Enoch and Abraham's harrowings of the Underworld, unrelated to Christian themes. These have been updated in Isaac Leib Peretz's short story "Neilah in Gehenna", in which a Jewish hazzan descends to Hell and uses his unique voice to bring about the repentance and liberation of the souls imprisoned there.[citation needed]

Music

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Art

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  • A follower of Hieronymus Bosch depicts Christ in Limbo in a vivid composition, now owned by the Indianapolis Museum of Art.[46]

Television

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See also

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Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Harrowing of Hell

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The Harrowing of Hell is a central in referring to the descent of Christ into the or realm of the dead—often termed or —between his crucifixion on and his resurrection on Easter Sunday, during which he is believed to have proclaimed , triumphed over the powers of death and , and liberated the souls of the righteous who had died before his coming. This belief finds its primary biblical foundation in passages such as 1 Peter 3:18–20, which describes Christ, after being put to death in the body but made alive in the Spirit, going and proclaiming to the spirits in prison—interpreted by early Christians as the disobedient souls from the time of held in —and 1 Peter 4:6, indicating that was preached even to the dead so they might live according to in the spirit. Additional scriptural support includes Ephesians 4:8–10, where Christ "descended into the lower parts of the earth" before ascending and leading captives in his train, and 1:18, affirming that Christ holds "the keys of and ." These texts were understood in the early church as depicting a victorious intervention, resolving the theological question of salvation for those who lived before Christ's and lacked opportunity to hear . The doctrine's historical development is closely tied to the , an early baptismal confession dating back to the second century in its rudimentary form as the Old Roman Creed, which initially lacked an explicit descent clause but implied Christ's full experience of death through the phrase "He was buried." The literal descent was affirmed by early Church Fathers such as of Lyons and , and the phrase "descendit ad inferna" first appeared in Rufinus of Aquileia's Commentary on the Apostles' Creed (ca. 390 AD) on a local creed, though he interpreted it as burial; it was added to the standard around the , reflecting the doctrine's acceptance as a literal event of proclamation and release. Church fathers such as of Lyons in Against Heresies (ca. 180 CE) and in Stromata (ca. 200 CE) affirmed this interpretation, portraying Christ as breaking the gates of and freeing patriarchs like , a motif vividly elaborated in apocryphal works like the Gospel of Nicodemus (fourth–fifth century). Theologically, the Harrowing underscores Christ's complete victory over , , and , extending the scope of redemption to the unevangelized dead and emphasizing themes of universal divine justice and mercy. It remains a living tradition in Eastern Orthodox , particularly in the Paschal of the Anastasis (Resurrection), where Christ is depicted pulling from their tombs, and in Western art and literature, such as medieval mystery plays and Dante's Inferno. However, during the , figures like reinterpreted the descent metaphorically as Christ's suffering on the rather than a post-mortem journey, leading to varied Protestant views that sometimes omit or downplay the clause in creedal recitations today.

Historical and Theological Foundations

Origins in Early Christianity

The doctrine of the Harrowing of Hell emerged in second-century Christian thought as an extension of Christ's victory over death and sin, providing a framework for the redemption of the righteous who had died prior to the incarnation. This development was heavily influenced by Jewish apocalyptic traditions, particularly concepts from intertestamental literature such as 1 Enoch and 4 Ezra, which depicted Sheol as a realm where the souls of the faithful awaited divine deliverance. In this context, early Christians adapted these ideas to affirm that Christ's salvific work extended beyond the living, addressing the soteriological question of salvation for pre-Christian figures. Central to the doctrine were prerequisite concepts of the , where "Hell" referred not to a place of eternal punishment but to or —a neutral holding place for all the dead, distinct from later notions of as a site of torment. In Jewish tradition, was a shadowy for both righteous and wicked souls, without differentiation until Second Temple developments introduced compartments for reward and preliminary punishment, influencing early Christian views of a temporary abode awaiting redemption. This understanding positioned / within salvation history as a domain under death's dominion, from which Christ would liberate the faithful to complete the economy of redemption. A key early reference appears in the non-canonical , also known as the Acts of Pilate, a narrative compiled around the fourth to fifth centuries that elaborates on Christ's descent in vivid detail. Although the text postdates the doctrine's initial formulation, it draws on second-century traditions to describe the event occurring between the and , with Christ breaking the gates of , proclaiming victory, and freeing prominent figures. Specifically, the narrative depicts Christ leading out , along with patriarchs like Abraham, , and , symbolizing the fulfillment of promises to the ancient righteous. This liberation underscored the doctrine's role in bridging Jewish expectations of with .

Terminology and Etymology

The term "Harrowing of Hell" originates from the verb hergian, which means to raid, plunder, or despoil, evoking the imagery of Christ as a victorious conqueror who storms the gates of the underworld to liberate the righteous souls held captive there. This English phrasing first emerged in Anglo-Saxon religious literature during the late , particularly in that dramatized the event as a triumphant on hell's domain rather than a mere journey. A prominent early example appears in the works of (c. 955–1010), whose vividly describes Christ's descent as a plundering of hell, drawing on biblical motifs to emphasize divine and redemption. In Latin patristic writings, the concept is most commonly expressed as Descensus Christi ad Inferos, translating to "the descent of Christ to the lower regions" or "into ," a phrase that underscores a purposeful journey to the realm of the dead without the explicit connotation of conquest found in the English term. This terminology appears frequently in early ' discussions, such as those by of Lyons and , where it frames the event within broader soteriological narratives of Christ's salvific work extending beyond the cross. The neutral phrasing "descensus" (descent) reflects a focus on Christ's solidarity with the deceased, aligning with creedal formulations like the . Early Eastern Christian texts, influenced by Hellenistic traditions, employ Greek terms such as (κατάβασις, "descent") to denote Christ's entry into , the abode of the dead, often portraying it as a heroic voyage akin to mythic descents but transformed into an act of divine liberation. This linguistic choice highlights the spatial and narrative aspects of the underworld journey, as seen in apocryphal works like the Gospel of Nicodemus, where the descent breaks the bonds of death. Etymologically, these terms across languages—hergian's aggressive plundering in , descensus's methodical lowering in Latin, and katabasis's exploratory plunge in Greek—collectively emphasize conquest and release over passive visitation, mirroring the theological motif of hell's defeat. Modern usages retain these roots with variations tied to linguistic and confessional traditions. In contemporary English, "Harrowing of Hell" persists in theological discourse, preserving its vivid, militaristic tone. French equivalents include Descente du Christ aux enfers ("Descent of Christ to Hell"), which echoes the Latin neutrality while adapting to Romance etymology. In Slavic languages within Eastern Orthodox contexts, such as Russian Soshchenie Khrista v ad ("Descent of Christ into Hell"), the phrasing integrates into liturgical hymns and icons, stressing the event's role in the Paschal mystery and linking back to Greek katabasis influences in Byzantine liturgy. These evolutions illustrate how nomenclature continues to convey the core theme of triumphant intervention in the realm of death.

Scriptural and Liturgical Basis

Biblical References

The concept of the Harrowing of Hell finds its primary foundation in several passages that describe Christ's activity following his and prior to his , interpreted by scholars as allusions to his descent into the realm of the dead. Central to this doctrine is 1 Peter 3:18-20, which states that Christ, "being put to death in the flesh but made alive in the spirit, in which he went and proclaimed to the spirits in prison, because they formerly did not obey, when God's patience waited in the days of " (ESV). This text has been understood by many early and modern interpreters as depicting Christ's proclamation—often seen as a triumphant announcement of victory—to imprisoned spirits during the time between his death and . Scholarly exegesis highlights interpretive challenges here, including the identity of the "spirits in prison": some view them as confined since the time of , drawing on Jewish traditions in texts like 1 Enoch, while others interpret them as the souls of disobedient humans from Noah's generation who now face judgment. A broader reading posits that these spirits encompass all the righteous dead awaiting liberation, aligning with the Harrowing motif of releasing captives from or . Complementing this is 1 Peter 4:6, which notes that "the was preached even to those who are dead, that though judged in the flesh the way people are, they might live in the spirit the way does" (ESV). This verse is frequently linked to 1 Peter 3:18-20, suggesting that the proclamation extended the offer of to the deceased, particularly those who heard the gospel in life but died before Christ's victory, enabling their spiritual life despite physical judgment. Interpretations debate whether this refers to a post-mortem preaching event or to the historical preaching to people now dead, but in the context of Harrowing , it underscores the retroactive efficacy of Christ's work for the pre-resurrection faithful. Another key passage is Ephesians 4:8-10, where Paul writes, "When he ascended on high he led a host of ... (In saying, 'He ascended,' what does it mean but that he had also descended into the lower regions, the earth?)" (ESV), quoting and adapting :18. The "lower parts of the earth" has been exegeted in two main ways: as Christ's and earthly ministry, or as his descent into to conquer death and lead the righteous from —a direct support for the Harrowing idea of liberation. This descent is portrayed as the necessary counterpart to the ascension, emphasizing Christ's comprehensive victory over all realms. In Acts 2:24-31, Peter's Pentecost sermon interprets Psalm 16:10—"For you will not abandon my soul to , or let your Holy One see corruption" (ESV)—as fulfilled in Christ's , implying that his soul did not remain in but was raised. This passage affirms that God did not leave in the abode of the dead, providing a scriptural basis for his temporary presence there without abandonment, which undergirds the Harrowing as a transitional triumph over death's hold. Old Testament prophetic parallels further illuminate these New Testament texts. 13:14 declares, "I shall ransom them from the power of ; I shall redeem them from Death. O Death, where are your plagues? O , where is your sting?" (ESV), which early Christians saw as anticipating God's—ultimately Christ's—liberation of the faithful from the grave. Similarly, :18, with its imagery of ascension and captives, is applied in to Christ's descent and leading of captives, symbolizing the release from Sheol's bonds as a fulfillment of divine promise. These biblical references provide the foundational scriptural support for the Harrowing doctrine.

Apocryphal and Liturgical Texts

The Gospel of , also known as the Acts of Pilate, is a key apocryphal text from the 4th to 5th century that elaborates on Christ's descent into . In its second part, titled the Descent into Hell, the narrative depicts Christ arriving in the underworld, where his divine light illuminates the darkness and shatters the unbreakable gates of . and react with terror as Christ confronts them, binding and delivering him to the powers of Hell as punishment for his role in the . Christ then liberates the righteous souls, including , , the patriarchs, and prophets, leading them triumphantly out of captivity to paradise, symbolizing victory over death. Other apocryphal works contribute motifs related to the that influenced later Harrowing narratives. The , a 2nd-century text, features a visionary tour of hell's punishments suffered by the wicked, drawing on Jewish apocalyptic traditions to depict divine judgment in the . Similarly, Book 8 of the (circa 2nd-4th century) describes Christ descending into to proclaim hope and liberation, drawing on Jewish apocalyptic traditions to affirm his dominion over death. Liturgical practices integrated these motifs into Easter observances, particularly on Holy Saturday. In Eastern Orthodox rites, the Holy Saturday matins include hymns such as "When Thou didst descend to death, O Life Immortal, Thou didst slay hell with the splendor of Thy Godhead," portraying Christ's harrowing as a cosmic triumph that destroys death's hold. These services, beginning Friday night, feature the reading of Psalm 119 interspersed with troparia celebrating the resurrection's power over Hades, culminating in vespers where the epitaphios (shroud) is processed to evoke the burial and descent. In Western traditions, the paschal vigil on Holy Saturday incorporates elements of the harrowing through readings and the Exsultet, which alludes to Christ's descent breaking the prison-bars of death and rising victorious from the underworld, opening paradise to the just. The integration of the Harrowing into evolved from early Christian rites in the , where scriptural allusions were dramatized in monastic settings, to fuller expressions in medieval mystery plays by the 12th-15th centuries. These plays, such as those in the and cycles, staged the descent with Christ shattering hell's gates and rescuing , transforming liturgical tropes into vernacular theater performed by guilds during Corpus Christi festivals.

Patristic Teachings and Doctrinal Evolution

Views of Church Fathers

One of the earliest references to Christ's descent into the realm of the dead appears in the writings of around 107 AD. In his to the Magnesians, Ignatius describes how the prophets, inspired by the Spirit, awaited Jesus Christ as their teacher and were raised from the dead when he came, linking this event to the new hope brought by Christ's death and resurrection. This portrays the descent as an integral aspect of Christ's saving mission, fulfilling the expectations of the righteous. Irenaeus of Lyons, in the second century, developed this idea through his doctrine of recapitulation, emphasizing that Christ, as the second , descended to the lowest parts of the earth to redeem humanity comprehensively. In Against Heresies (Book IV, Chapter 22), explains that Christ "descended into the lower parts of the earth, to behold with His eyes the state of those who were resting from their labours," thereby arousing the sleeping righteous—such as prophets and patriarchs—and offering them salvation, as supported by scriptural references like Ephesians 4:9 and allusions to . He became incarnate "for our sakes... that He might bring those who live according to His word into the light," extending redemption to all pious souls across generations, including Gentiles who feared before Christ's advent. In the third century, of advanced a more expansive interpretation, influenced by his universalist inclinations, viewing as Christ preaching to all souls detained in , including the wicked and those who disobeyed in Noah's time. Drawing on 1 Peter 3:19–20 and Luke 23:43, Origen argued that the proclamation addressed the contradiction of the thief's immediate paradise by suggesting a post-mortem opportunity for response, potentially allowing purification and restoration for even the most hardened spirits through . This preaching underscored Christ's triumph over death's hold on every human, aligning with Origen's broader theology of eventual apokatastasis, or restoration of all things. Clement of Alexandria, also in the late second century, focused on the descent as a liberating act for the patriarchs and righteous of the first covenant, preaching the gospel in Hades to enable their salvation. In Stromata (Book VI, Chapter 6), he affirms that "the Lord preached the Gospel to those in Hades," referencing 1 Peter 3:19–20 to indicate this message reached both Jews and Gentiles who had lived righteously but died before Christ's incarnation, offering them repentance and entry into eternal life. Unlike views limited to announcement alone, Clement emphasized active evangelization as an expression of God's justice, ensuring no faithful soul was excluded due to historical timing. Tertullian, writing in the early third century, offered a more restricted perspective, asserting that Christ descended to the "lower parts of the earth"—Hades—to liberate the patriarchs, prophets, and other holy figures held there since Adam, but without extending preaching or redemption to the damned. In On the Soul (Chapter 55), he describes this as a triumphant extraction of the righteous, fulfilling promises like Psalm 16:10 and Ephesians 4:8–9, where Christ leads captivity captive, while the wicked remain confined, highlighting the descent's role in vindicating the just rather than universal outreach. This contrasted with broader interpretations by underscoring boundaries between the saved and the lost even in the afterlife.

Development in Creeds and Councils

The doctrine of the Harrowing of Hell, referring to Christ's into the realm of the dead between his and , gradually gained formal expression in early Christian creeds, reflecting its integration into orthodox belief. The , originating in the 2nd century but evolving over time, incorporated the phrase "descendit ad inferna" (he descended into ) as a Western addition by the late , with the earliest creedal evidence appearing in the version used in Aquileia around 390–404 AD, as documented by Rufinus of Aquileia in his Commentary on the Apostles' Creed. This clause expanded on the earlier "buried" article, emphasizing Christ's liberating presence among the dead, drawing from scriptural motifs like Psalm 16:10 to affirm his role as proclaimer and redeemer in . In contrast, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381 AD provided implicit support for the descent without explicit mention, through its affirmation that Christ "was crucified for us under , and suffered, and was buried; and the third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures." This temporal framework between death and resurrection allowed for interpretations of Christ's activity in the , aligning with patristic teachings on his triumph over death, though the omission of a direct clause distinguished it from the Apostles' Creed's later elaboration. Early councils further enshrined the doctrine in canonical and liturgical contexts. The Quinisext Council (also known as the Council in Trullo) of 692 AD affirmed the Harrowing of Hell through its regulation of iconography, permitting depictions of biblical scenes such as the Anastasis (Christ's harrowing of Hades) in Eastern liturgical art and underscoring its doctrinal legitimacy as a triumphant descent. Later, the Council of Florence in 1439 addressed Eastern-Western differences during union negotiations, including variances in creedal interpretations of hell and the descent, where Western emphasis on the Apostles' Creed's explicit clause contrasted with Eastern liturgical traditions, though no new conciliar definition emerged on the Harrowing itself. Medieval theological synthesis culminated in ' Summa Theologica (Question 52, Tertia Pars), where he detailed the descent's purpose as the full endurance of death's penalty to liberate humanity, arguing it was fitting for Christ to descend into the limbo of the fathers to deliver the holy patriarchs while not redeeming the damned or those in alone. Aquinas outlined effects such as Christ's soul's local presence in hell without suffering further pain, proclaiming victory and leading the just to heaven, thus framing the Harrowing as essential to redemption's completion.

Denominational Perspectives

Eastern Orthodox Interpretation

In , the Harrowing of Hell represents Christ's complete triumph over death, wherein He descends into to trample its gates, liberate the righteous souls held captive since the Fall, and restore humanity's deified nature through His . This event underscores the total victory of life over death, as articulated by St. in his Paschal Homily, where he proclaims that Christ has made captive, embittered it by tasting His divine flesh, and overthrown it, ensuring that "not one dead remains in the tomb" as death is annihilated. The descent is seen not merely as a liberation of the patriarchs but as the inauguration of cosmic renewal, binding humanity to Christ's risen body and conquering the powers of sin and mortality. Central to this interpretation is the Anastasis icon, the primary visual representation of the Harrowing in Eastern Orthodox tradition, which depicts the resurrection not as an isolated event but as Christ's descent into Hades on Holy Saturday. In the icon, Christ stands triumphant in a radiant mandorla of uncreated light, dressed in white to signify His divinity, grasping the wrists of Adam and Eve—symbolizing the divine initiative in pulling all humanity from the tombs of death—while surrounded by righteous figures such as Abel, Moses, David, Solomon, and John the Baptist. Below Christ lie the shattered brass gates of Hades in the form of a cross, with scattered locks, keys, and chains representing the broken bonds of captivity, and often a chained skeletal figure of Death or Satan trampled underfoot, emphasizing the utter defeat of demonic powers and the promise of universal resurrection for the faithful. This imagery conveys the theological truth that Christ's action restores the "second Adam" to undo the primordial curse, offering eternal life to those who partake in His victory through the Church. The Harrowing holds a prominent place in Eastern Orthodox , particularly during , where the service anticipates Christ's descent through the reading of and the singing of hymns that proclaim ' defeat. A key from this service, "Today cried out groaning: 'My authority has been trampled down; the gates of death I receive as one dead, and receiving the King of Glory, I cannot detain Him,'" vividly dramatizes the event as the conquest of death and the resurrection of , marking as the "First ." This liturgical observance extends to Paschal and the entire Bright Week, where the faithful celebrate the ongoing reality of Christ's trampling of , integrating the Harrowing into the annual cycle of feasts as a of . Contemporary continues to affirm the Harrowing's soteriological depth, viewing it as an expression of God's inexhaustible love that extends redemption to all humanity, though ultimate participation depends on free response. Metropolitan , in his writings, describes the Anastasis as illustrating Christ's descent to share fully in human death, thereby shattering ' dominion and initiating a process of healing that hints at the mystery of universal salvation without compelling acceptance. emphasizes that this event reveals not as a place but as a state of self-imposed separation, which Christ's victory transforms into an opportunity for deification, maintaining the doctrine's vitality in modern Orthodox thought.

Roman Catholic Doctrine

In Roman Catholic doctrine, the Harrowing of Hell refers to Christ's descent into the realm of the dead following his , as an integral aspect of his redemptive mission to liberate the righteous souls who awaited . The (CCC 631–635) explicates this event, drawing from scriptural foundations such as and 1 Peter 3:19, where Jesus "descended into the lower parts of the " to proclaim to the spirits in prison. Specifically, CCC 633 states that Christ entered the "" (ad inferos) to free the just who had preceded him, fulfilling the promise of extended across all time. The doctrine distinguishes the "hell" of Christ's descent—known as the limbus patrum or ""—from the hell of the damned (), where eternal punishment is inflicted on the reprobate. CCC 633 clarifies that this was the abode of the dead ( in Hebrew, in Greek), a place of waiting without the or suffering for the righteous figures, such as the patriarchs and prophets. Christ's presence there announced liberation, not further atonement through pain, as his passion had already achieved full satisfaction (CCC 634–635); he shattered death's power, holding "the keys of Death and " (Rev 1:18), and led the captives to . This event underscores that no suffering occurred for Christ in the descent, distinguishing it from (a purifying state for the imperfectly sanctified living) and the hypothetical of infants (unbaptized but innocent souls). Papal teachings reinforce this understanding, with Pope Pius XII's apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus (1950) indirectly connecting the Harrowing to the Assumption of Mary by portraying Christ's descent and resurrection as the definitive conquest of death and corruption, in which Mary participates uniquely as the immaculate one spared bodily decay. The document emphasizes how Christ's total victory over sin enables the glorification of the faithful, including the ancient just freed from the dead (par. 20–22, 39). Medieval scholastic development further refined the doctrine, with John Duns Scotus viewing as a meritorious act performed by Christ's human soul, distinct from his divine nature, whereby it contributed to the overall work of redemption by willingly entering the realm of the dead to manifest divine mercy and justice toward the patriarchs. This perspective, articulated in Scotus's Ordinatio, contrasts with Thomas Aquinas's emphasis on as primarily declarative and glorifying, without additional merit, highlighting ongoing theological nuance on the hypostatic union's role.

Protestant Variations

Protestant interpretations of the Harrowing of Hell, or Christ's descent into hell, exhibit significant diversity, reflecting the Reformation's emphasis on scriptural authority over medieval scholastic elaborations. While some traditions retained the literal affirmation from the Apostles' Creed, others reinterpreted it to focus on Christ's suffering or victory, often rejecting narratives of liberating Old Testament saints as unbiblical additions. In Lutheran theology, the descent was affirmed in the of 1530, which states in Article III that Christ "descended into hell" as part of his redemptive work, emphasizing his reign over all creatures and sanctification of believers through the . , in sermons such as his 1533 discourse at , portrayed the descent not merely as a triumphant but as Christ enduring the full agony of hellish on behalf of sinners, thereby exhausting divine wrath and securing victory over sin, death, and the devil. This view integrated the descent into the , where Christ's passion culminated in bearing hell's terrors to redeem humanity. Anglican perspectives similarly upheld the creed's language, with the Book of Common Prayer (1662 edition) including the phrase "he descended into hell" in the during daily offices and . , in his Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, defended the creed's integrity against Puritan challenges, emphasizing the descent as Christ's conquest of death and hell, underscoring divine sovereignty and the soul's ultimate victory through union with the risen Lord. This interpretation aligned with broader Elizabethan , viewing the event as a manifestation of Christ's lordship over all realms, including the grave. Reformed and Calvinist traditions, however, often eschewed literal descents or liberations, interpreting the phrase through scriptural lenses like 1 Peter 3:18–19. John Calvin, in his Institutes of the Christian Religion (Book 2, Chapter 16), argued that the descent refers not to a post-mortem journey but to Christ's profound suffering under God's wrath on the cross—the true "hell" of abandonment and torment for human sins—thus completing his atoning obedience without implying a spatial visit to the underworld. Calvin rejected apocryphal tales of preaching to or freeing spirits, insisting the event symbolizes the fullness of Christ's humiliation and the defeat of death's power, not a harrowing narrative. By the , liberal Protestant theology increasingly treated the descent symbolically, moving away from metaphysical locales toward ethical and existential emphases. Thinkers like viewed it as an expression of Christ's complete solidarity with human suffering and the dead, representing divine empathy in the face of mortality rather than a literal incursion, thereby aligning with modern historical-critical methods and a focus on universal redemption. This trend reflected broader shifts in , prioritizing Christ's identification with humanity's plight over speculative cosmology.

Latter-day Saint Beliefs

In the theology of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Harrowing of Hell is understood through modern revelation, particularly the vision received by church president on October 3, 1918, recorded in 138. This revelation expands on biblical allusions to Christ's descent into the spirit world (such as 1 Peter 3:18–20 and 4:6) by detailing how, between His and , Christ visited the righteous spirits in paradise rather than directly entering the for the wicked. There, He organized ancient prophets and faithful individuals under priesthood authority to carry the gospel message to those in spirit , initiating a structured ministry among the dead. This doctrinal expansion portrays the Harrowing not merely as a liberation of the righteous but as an active phase of redemption enabling postmortal progression for all spirits. Christ commissioned messengers from paradise to preach , , and the principles of to the unrepentant in spirit prison, allowing them to accept salvation vicariously through ordinances performed by the living. Central to this is the practice of , where Church members act as proxies in temples to provide essential ordinances for deceased individuals who did not receive them in life, thereby facilitating their acceptance in the spirit world and potential inheritance of glory. The Harrowing integrates into broader Latter-day Saint teachings on the plan of , where the spirit world serves as an intermediate state between death and , divided into paradise for the righteous and for those awaiting the gospel. This event underscores the doctrine of the three degrees of glory—celestial, terrestrial, and telestial—revealed in 76, as spirits who repent and receive ordinances may advance toward these kingdoms based on their choices and faithfulness, rather than being confined eternally without opportunity. Unlike a singular act of conquest, it emphasizes ongoing missionary work among spirits, paralleling earthly efforts and ensuring the plan's equity for all God's children. Historically, this has profoundly shaped temple worship and family history work in the Church, with 138 providing the foundational justification for vicarious ordinances since its canonization in 1918. Members are encouraged to perform baptisms, confirmations, and other sealings for ancestors, directly linking the ancient Harrowing to contemporary practices that redeem the dead and fulfill Christ's organized ministry. This integration reinforces the belief in a merciful who extends beyond mortality, aligning temple service with the eternal plan.

Alternative Views and Rejections

Christian Mortalism

, also known as the doctrine of soul sleep or thnetopsychism, asserts that human beings do not possess an inherently immortal that consciously survives physical ; instead, the entire person enters an unconscious state akin to sleep until the at Christ's . This belief eliminates the need for an intermediate conscious realm such as or , thereby rejecting the traditional Harrowing of Hell as a post-crucifixion event where Christ descends to liberate souls. Proponents draw on biblical imagery of as sleep, particularly in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-17, which states that the dead "sleep" and will rise first at the Lord's return, emphasizing rest without awareness or activity. Historically, exhibited mortalist leanings, frequently portraying death as a "sweet " devoid of sensation or for the righteous until , as evidenced in his 1522 letter to Nicholas von Amsdorf where he inclined toward the view that souls "" without feeling. In the , English Baptist and Leveller Richard Overton advanced a robust thnetopsychist argument in Man's Mortality (1644), contending that the rational soul dies with the body and remains in a sleep-like state of until the general , supported by passages like 1 Corinthians 15:18, which describes the dead in Christ as "fallen asleep." Overton outlined a scriptural "threefold gradation in death," including ordinary in for the unsaved and a transformative change for believers at , rejecting any ongoing soul activity post-mortem. Mortalists challenge the Harrowing by dismissing the "descended into hell" clause in the as a late Western interpolation, absent from the creed's earliest forms and potentially influenced by apocryphal texts rather than . They reinterpret key supporting verses like 1 Peter 3:19, viewing Christ's "proclamation to the spirits in prison" not as a descent to preach to the dead but as pre-incarnate preaching—likely through to disobedient humans or in Noah's era—who now face judgment without a post-death opportunity for salvation. In modern times, groups like Seventh-day Adventists uphold soul sleep, teaching that the dead remain unconscious without an intermediate state, thus rendering any conscious harrowing unnecessary as Christ remained in the tomb until . Similarly, embrace a form of mortalism aligned with conditional and , where the soul ceases existence at (soul sleep) and the unrighteous face permanent destruction rather than eternal torment; they interpret "hell" (/) as the common grave, so Christ's "descent" simply refers to his , with no preaching to conscious spirits.

Modern Theological Critiques

In the 20th and 21st centuries, ecumenical dialogues have increasingly questioned the interpretation and universality of the "descended into hell" clause in the , viewing it as a point of contention across denominational lines rather than a universally binding affirmation of a literal harrowing. Feminist theologians have critiqued traditional depictions of the Harrowing of Hell for reinforcing patriarchal motifs in imagery, where the realm of the dead often symbolizes control and subjugation of the marginalized, including women and the vulnerable. Similarly, scholars like Meghan R. Henning examine early Christian texts on to reveal how gendered portrayals of uphold patriarchal gazes, even in narratives of Christ's intervention, calling for theological reframings that center women's agency and resistance. Within , the Harrowing of Hell is often interpreted symbolically as Christ's profound with the oppressed dead, extending divine into the realm of ultimate suffering and exclusion. This perspective draws on influences like , who portrays the descent as Christ's empathetic entry into forsakenness, mirroring liberationists' call for active with victims of systemic and . Scholarship continues to debate whether the doctrine supports —envisioning Christ's descent as potentially redeeming all—or aligns more closely with , limiting to the . N.T. Wright's influences these conversations by reorienting the descent toward the intermediate state of the dead rather than punitive suffering, emphasizing Christ's triumph over mortality as a precursor to universal renewal without endorsing full .

Cultural and Artistic Depictions

Iconography and Visual Arts

The Harrowing of Hell, often depicted as the Anastasis in Eastern , features Christ triumphantly descending into the , breaking its gates, and raising the righteous dead, particularly , by grasping their hands. This motif, rooted in apocryphal texts like the Gospel of Nicodemus, became a central element of Byzantine from the 8th century onward, symbolizing victory over death. In Byzantine frescoes and mosaics, such as the 11th-century Anastasis in the narthex of the at Monastery in , Christ is shown with a radiant halo, clad in white robes, standing on shattered bronze gates while pulling from their tombs; angels bind below, emphasizing themes of liberation and cosmic renewal. This composition, executed in gold-ground , exemplifies Middle Byzantine style with its elongated figures and symbolic rather than narrative focus. Western adapted this into more dramatic narratives, as seen in di Buoninsegna's Maestà (1308–1311) for , where a small panel illustrates Christ in radiant attire entering the dark maw of hell, extending his hand to and other patriarchs amid broken chains and fleeing demons. The scene's intimate scale and gold background highlight salvation's immediacy, blending Sienese elegance with theological depth. di Bondone's in the (c. 1305) evokes related motifs through its portrayal of hell's shattered portals and the elect's emergence from tombs, influencing later depictions of divine intervention in the . During the , artists integrated the Harrowing into larger eschatological cycles, as in Fra Angelico's panels (c. 1431–1443), now in the Strozzi Chapel of , , where Christ leads the just from hell's fortress-like gates, with and prophets following; the serene, luminous figures contrast hell's shadowy demons, underscoring Dominican emphases on mercy and . This work on panel refines Byzantine prototypes with perspectival depth and humanistic emotion. In , the theme persists in interpretive forms, such as Peter Howson's series The Harrowing of Hell (2007), a suite of oil paintings that reimagines Christ's descent amid modern existential torment, with distorted figures and apocalyptic landscapes on the artist's experiences of personal and societal "hells" to evoke redemption's ongoing relevance. These works shift from traditional to psychological , maintaining the core motif of triumphant liberation.

Literature and Drama

The Harrowing of Hell has been a recurring motif in medieval , particularly in the English mystery plays, where it served as a vivid enactment of Christ's triumph over death and . In the , a 14th-century cycle, the scene titled "The Harrowing of Hell" (Play 37) dramatizes Christ's descent to liberate the righteous souls, beginning with angels approaching and quoting : "Lift up your gates, princes, and be lifted up, eternal gates, and the King of Glory will enter in." responds defiantly, questioning the identity of this King, leading to a tense where Christ commands the lords of darkness to open the gates, declaring their resistance fruitless. The exchange culminates in Christ's victory, as he breaks open Hell, redeems first—Adam exclaiming, "Joy to me today... I see him who created me"—and leads the souls to salvation, while dispatches to seek new captives among the living. This theatrical confrontation underscores themes of divine authority and Satan's defeat, performed by guilds like the Chandler's to engage audiences in the salvific narrative. In epic literature, Dante Alighieri's Inferno (c. 1320), part of The Divine Comedy, portrays the Harrowing through the lens of Limbo, the first circle of Hell, where virtuous pagans and unbaptized souls reside in a state of "sorrow without torment," illuminated by a noble castle housing figures like Homer and Aristotle. Dante, guided by Virgil, learns that Old Testament saints such as Adam, Moses, and Abraham awaited liberation in this realm until Christ's descent in 34 CE, when he "harrowed Hell" and freed them, as no souls had been saved prior (Inferno 4.52–63). This depiction emphasizes anticipation and partial justice, with the saints' release symbolizing the fulfillment of prophecy, contrasting the eternal sighing of those remaining in Limbo due to their lack of baptism or knowledge of Christ. Modern literature often alludes to the Harrowing more subtly, reflecting Protestant reinterpretations that downplay a literal descent. John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667) evokes the theme through prophecies of Christ's redemptive work, particularly in Books 10 and 12, where the archangel Michael reveals to visions of the and that implicitly encompass the conquest of , without depicting a direct harrowing to avoid endorsing Catholic traditions of descensus ad inferos. These allusions frame the descent as part of Christ's overall victory over sin and death, aligning with Milton's emphasis on spiritual triumph rather than physical invasion of the . Similarly, C.S. Lewis's (1945) employs symbolic visits to the , imagining as a vast, gray, twilight city from which ghostly inhabitants take buses to a heavenly frontier, echoing medieval notions of refrigerium—temporary respites from —as a for the opportunity for redemption offered by Christ's harrowing. Lewis uses these journeys to explore and the choice between isolation in and union with divine joy, portraying the as a state shaped by human decisions rather than a fixed domain. In 20th-century drama, T.S. Eliot's (1935) indirectly references the redemptive descent through the martyrdom of , who embraces death as a Christ-like act of , mirroring the Harrowing's theme of sacrificial triumph over spiritual darkness. Becket's tempters invoke worldly power and , but his acceptance of martyrdom enacts a descent into suffering that redeems the church, evoking Christ's harrowing as a pattern of divine inversion where apparent defeat yields eternal victory. This subtle parallelism highlights Eliot's interest in Christian typology, using to affirm redemptive patterns without explicit biblical reenactment.

Music and Performing Arts

The Harrowing of Hell has inspired a range of musical works within Christian liturgical traditions, particularly during services. In the [Eastern Orthodox Church](/page/Eastern_Orthodox Church), the and Lamentations service features hymns that vividly depict Christ's descent into to liberate the righteous souls, emphasizing themes of victory over death. A key example is the Exaposteilarion "The Angelic Powers were in the tomb," which portrays the harrowing as a divine raid shattering , sung in the tone of solemn lamentation to evoke the cosmic triumph. These texts draw from ancient apocryphal sources like the , integrated into the Paschal to bridge the sorrow of and the joy of . In the Western tradition, Gregorian chants for similarly reflect the , often through responsories and sequences that meditate on Christ's liberation of the patriarchs from . The sequence , attributed to Wipo of in the 11th century, includes lines questioning the risen Christ about his harrowing ("Credendum est magis soli Marie veraci / Quam Judaeorum turbæ fallaci"), underscoring Mary's witness to the as tied to the infernal victory. Performed in the Office of , these monophonic chants use modal structures to convey descent and ascent, with the Benedictus highlighting the breaking of hell's bonds. Classical composers have drawn on these themes in oratorios and cantatas, portraying the harrowing as a dramatic confrontation between divine light and infernal darkness. George Frideric Handel's La Resurrezione (HWV 47, 1708), an premiered in , explicitly dramatizes the event through a supernatural dialogue between the and , culminating in the angel's triumphant "Fatto inferno un bel sembiante" as Christ shatters hell's gates to free the souls. The , by Carlo Sigismondo Capece, interweaves the harrowing with earthly scenes at the , using Handel's vivid —trumpets for angelic victory and dissonant strings for demonic turmoil—to evoke the theological motif of redemption. Similarly, Anthony Milner's Harrowing of Hell (1956), a for double chorus, , and bass soloists, sets biblical and apocryphal texts to modern , focusing on the apocalyptic liberation with intense choral clashes symbolizing the overthrow of death. In modern performing arts, 20th-century works extend these motifs into choral and dance forms, blending sacred narrative with contemporary expression. Benjamin Britten's A Ceremony of Carols (1942), scored for treble voices and harp, incorporates the medieval carol "Adam lay ybounden," which allegorically links Adam's bondage in limbo to the harrowing's release through Christ's incarnation and descent, portraying sin's unraveling as a joyful inversion of the Fall. Performed often during Advent and Easter seasons, the piece uses Britten's luminous harmonies to highlight redemptive motifs. In ballet, Martha Graham's El Penitente (1940), a dance drama on themes of sin, judgment, and salvation inspired by Christian penitential rites, evokes harrowing-like redemption through angular modern movements symbolizing descent into spiritual depths and triumphant emergence, though not explicitly titled after the doctrine. Folk traditions in medieval Europe integrated musical elements into passion plays and carols, making the harrowing accessible through vernacular song and drama. The ' "Harrowing of Hell" pageant (c. 14th-15th century) features rhythmic chants and dialogue-songs where Christ commands the gates to open ("Attolite portas, principes vestras"), accompanied by simple polyphonic refrains to dramatize the souls' exodus, performed by guilds during Corpus Christi cycles. Surviving manuscripts show these plays used carols like "When Christ was crowned" to intersperse narrative with melodic praise of the infernal conquest. Similarly, English carols such as "Out of Your Sleep Arise and Wake" (15th century) employ the harrowing motif to urge awakening from sin, with lilting tunes that blend devotional and festive elements for communal singing during processions.

Film and Television

The concept of the Harrowing of Hell has appeared sporadically in early 20th-century silent films depicting the life of Christ, often implied through symbolic visuals or narrative gaps rather than explicit scenes. In the 1912 silent film From the Manger to the Cross; or, Jesus of Nazareth, directed by Sidney Olcott, the story traces Jesus' life from birth to resurrection, with the period between crucifixion and resurrection left ambiguous, allowing for implied descent motifs drawn from traditional passion narratives. Similarly, Cecil B. DeMille's 1927 epic The King of Kings includes resurrection sequences that evoke the triumph over death, subtly nodding to descent lore through triumphant angelic imagery without direct portrayal. In modern cinema, adaptations have drawn on Harrowing themes more directly, influencing narratives of descent and redemption. The 2005 film Constantine, directed by and based on DC Comics' , features protagonist John Constantine's brief journey into a hellish realm to rescue a soul, echoing the Harrowing's motif of a savior breaching infernal gates amid demonic opposition. Mel Gibson's anticipated sequel to , titled The Resurrection of the Christ: Part One (slated for 2027), plans to explicitly depict the Harrowing, portraying confronting and liberating righteous souls in hell, expanding on Catholic traditions of the event. This follows Gibson's 2004 original, which focused on the but hinted at post-death spiritual conflict through visions of . Television series have referenced the Harrowing in episodic contexts, blending it with supernatural lore. In the CW's (2005–2020), season 4 episode "On the Head of a Pin" (2009) has the angel Castiel describe the angels' torture of the demon Alastair as a "harrowing" of hell, invoking the term to signify a punitive angelic incursion into the demonic realm. The 2013 , produced by and for the , covers ' passion and across episodes 9 and 10, implying the descent through narrative transitions but without visualized hell scenes, aligning with its scriptural focus. Animated works have occasionally incorporated tangential or satirical elements tied to precursors or apocalyptic themes. DreamWorks' The Prince of Egypt (1998), directed by , Steve Hickner, and , explores ' exodus with motifs of divine liberation from bondage, loosely paralleling Harrowing themes of breaking chains in a pre-Christian context. In the series Good Omens (2019–present), adapted from and Terry Pratchett's novel, season 1 satirizes end-times events with angel-demon dynamics that playfully allude to infernal rescues, including a humorous take on heavenly interventions in hellish domains during the buildup.

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