Hubbry Logo
NeurologyNeurologyMain
Open search
Neurology
Community hub
Neurology
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Neurology
Neurology
Neurology
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Neurology
A network of dendrites from neurons in a hippocampus
SystemNervous system
Significant diseasesNeuropathy, dementia, stroke, encephalopathy, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, meningitis, muscular dystrophy, migraine, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, narcolepsy
Significant testsComputed axial tomography, MRI scan, lumbar puncture, electroencephalography
SpecialistNeurologist
GlossaryGlossary of medicine

Neurology (from Greek: νεῦρον (neûron), "string, nerve" and the suffix -logia, "study of") is the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the nervous system, which comprises the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves.[1] Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, the scientific study of the nervous system, using various techniques of neurotherapy.[2][3][4]

A neurologist is a physician specializing in neurology and trained to investigate, diagnose and treat neurological disorders.[5] Neurologists diagnose and treat myriad neurologic conditions, including stroke, epilepsy, movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, brain infections, autoimmune neurologic disorders such as multiple sclerosis, sleep disorders, brain injury, headache disorders like migraine, tumors of the brain and dementias such as Alzheimer's disease.[6] Neurologists may also have roles in clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research. Neurology is a nonsurgical specialty, its corresponding surgical specialty is neurosurgery.[5]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of neurology

The academic discipline began between the 15th and 16th centuries with the work and research of many neurologists such as Thomas Willis, Robert Whytt, Matthew Baillie, Charles Bell, Moritz Heinrich Romberg, Duchenne de Boulogne, William A. Hammond, Jean-Martin Charcot, C. Miller Fisher and John Hughlings Jackson. Neo-Latin neurologia appeared in various texts from 1610 denoting an anatomical focus on the nerves (variably understood as vessels), and was most notably used by Willis, who preferred Greek νευρολογία.[7][8]

Training

[edit]
Neurologist
Occupation
NamesPhysician, Medical Practitioner
Occupation type
Profession
Activity sectors
Medicine
Description
Education required
M.D. or D.O. (US), M.B.B.S. (UK), D.M. (Doctorate of Medicine) (India), M.B. B.Ch. B.A.O. (Republic of Ireland)[9][10]
Fields of
employment
Hospitals, Clinics
Polish neurologist Edward Flatau greatly influenced the developing field of neurology. He published a human brain atlas in 1894 and wrote a fundamental book on migraines in 1912.
Jean-Martin Charcot is considered one of the fathers of neurology.[11]

In the United States and Canada, neurologists are physicians who have completed a postgraduate training period known as residency specializing in neurology after graduation from medical school. This additional training period typically lasts four years, with the first year devoted to training in internal medicine.[12] On average, neurologists complete a total of eight to ten years of training. This includes four years of medical school, four years of residency and an optional one to two years of fellowship.[13]

While neurologists may treat general neurologic conditions, some neurologists go on to receive additional training focusing on a particular subspecialty in the field of neurology. These training programs are called fellowships, and are one to three years in duration. Subspecialties in the United States include brain injury medicine, clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, neurodevelopmental disabilities, neuromuscular medicine, pain medicine, sleep medicine, neurocritical care, vascular neurology (stroke),[14] behavioral neurology, headache, neuroimmunology[15] and infectious disease, movement disorders, neuroimaging, neurooncology, and neurorehabilitation.[16]

In Germany, a compulsory year of psychiatry must be done to complete a residency of neurology.[17]

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, neurology is a subspecialty of general (internal) medicine. After five years of medical school and two years as a Foundation Trainee, an aspiring neurologist must pass the examination for Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (or the Irish equivalent) and complete two years of core medical training before entering specialist training in neurology.[18] Up to the 1960s, some intending to become neurologists would also spend two years working in psychiatric units before obtaining a diploma in psychological medicine. However, that was uncommon and, now that the MRCPsych takes three years to obtain, would no longer be practical. A period of research is essential, and obtaining a higher degree aids career progression. Many found it was eased after an attachment to the Institute of Neurology at Queen Square, London. Some neurologists enter the field of rehabilitation medicine (known as physiatry in the US) to specialise in neurological rehabilitation, which may include stroke medicine, as well as traumatic brain injuries.[19]

Physical examination

[edit]
Main article: Neurological examination

During a neurological examination, the neurologist reviews the patient's health history with special attention to the patient's neurologic complaints. The patient then takes a neurological exam. Typically, the exam tests mental status, function of the cranial nerves (including vision), strength, coordination, reflexes, sensation and gait. This information helps the neurologist determine whether the problem exists in the nervous system and the clinical localization. Localization of the pathology is the key process by which neurologists develop their differential diagnosis. Further tests may be needed to confirm a diagnosis and ultimately guide therapy and appropriate management. Useful adjunct imaging studies in neurology include CT scanning and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Other tests used to assess muscle and nerve function include nerve conduction studies and electromyography.[20]

Clinical tasks

[edit]

Neurologists examine patients who are referred to them by other physicians in both the inpatient and outpatient settings. Neurologists begin their interactions with patients by taking a comprehensive medical history, and then performing a physical examination focusing on evaluating the nervous system. Components of the neurological examination include assessment of the patient's cognitive function, cranial nerves, motor strength, sensation, reflexes, coordination, and gait.[21]

In some instances, neurologists may order additional diagnostic tests as part of the evaluation. Commonly employed tests in neurology include imaging studies such as computed axial tomography (CAT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound of major blood vessels of the head and neck. Neurophysiologic studies, including electroencephalography (EEG), needle electromyography (EMG), nerve conduction studies (NCSs) and evoked potentials are also commonly ordered.[22] Neurologists frequently perform lumbar punctures to assess characteristics of a patient's cerebrospinal fluid.[23] Advances in genetic testing have made genetic testing an important tool in the classification of inherited neuromuscular disease and diagnosis of many other neurogenetic diseases. The role of genetic influences on the development of acquired neurologic diseases is an active area of research.[24]

Conditions and treatments

[edit]

Some of the commonly encountered conditions treated by neurologists include headaches, radiculopathy, neuropathy, stroke, dementia, seizures and epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Parkinson's disease, Tourette's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, head trauma, sleep disorders, neuromuscular diseases, and various infections and tumors of the nervous system.[25] Neurologists are also asked to evaluate unresponsive patients on life support to confirm brain death.[26]

Treatment options vary depending on the neurological problem. They can include referring the patient to a physiotherapist, prescribing medications, or recommending a surgical procedure.

Some neurologists specialize in certain parts of the nervous system or in specific procedures. For example, clinical neurophysiologists specialize in the use of EEG and intraoperative monitoring to diagnose certain neurological disorders.[27] Other neurologists specialize in the use of electrodiagnostic medicine studies – needle EMG and NCSs. In the US, physicians do not typically specialize in all the aspects of clinical neurophysiology – i.e. sleep, EEG, EMG, and NCSs. The American Board of Clinical Neurophysiology certifies US physicians in general clinical neurophysiology, epilepsy, and intraoperative monitoring.[28] The American Board of Electrodiagnostic Medicine certifies US physicians in electrodiagnostic medicine and certifies technologists in nerve-conduction studies. Sleep medicine is a subspecialty field in the US under several medical specialties including anesthesiology, internal medicine, family medicine, and neurology.[29] Neurosurgery is a distinct specialty that involves a different training path and emphasizes the surgical treatment of neurological disorders.

Also, many nonmedical doctors, those with doctoral degrees (usually PhDs) in subjects such as biology and chemistry, study and research the nervous system. Working in laboratories in universities, hospitals, and private companies, these neuroscientists perform clinical and laboratory experiments and tests to learn more about the nervous system and find cures or new treatments for diseases and disorders.

A great deal of overlap occurs between neuroscience and neurology. Many neurologists work in academic training hospitals, where they conduct research as neuroscientists in addition to treating patients and teaching neurology to medical students.

Neurotherapy involves systemic targeted delivery of an energy stimulus to a specific neurological zone or methods that retrain how the brain functions.[2][3][4]

General responsibilities

[edit]

Neurologists are responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of all the conditions mentioned above. When surgical or endovascular intervention is required, the neurologist may refer the patient to a neurosurgeon or an interventional neuroradiologist. Neurologists frequently care for people with hereditary (genetic) diseases when the major manifestations are neurological, as is frequently the case. Lumbar punctures are frequently performed by neurologists. Some neurologists may develop an interest in particular subfields, such as stroke, dementia, movement disorders, neurointensive care, headaches, epilepsy, sleep disorders, chronic pain management, multiple sclerosis, or neuromuscular diseases.

Overlapping areas

[edit]

Some overlap also occurs with other specialties, varying from country to country and even within a local geographic area. Acute head trauma is most often treated by neurosurgeons, whereas sequelae of head trauma may be treated by neurologists or specialists in rehabilitation medicine. Although stroke cases have been traditionally managed by internal medicine or hospitalists, the emergence of vascular neurology and interventional neuroradiology has created a demand for stroke specialists. The establishment of Joint Commission-certified stroke centres has increased the role of neurologists in stroke care in many primary, as well as tertiary, hospitals. Some cases of nervous system infectious diseases are treated by infectious disease specialists. Most cases of headache are diagnosed and treated primarily by general practitioners, at least the less severe cases. Likewise, most cases of sciatica are treated by general practitioners, though they may be referred to neurologists or surgeons (neurosurgeons or orthopedic surgeons). Sleep disorders are also treated by pulmonologists and psychiatrists. Cerebral palsy is initially treated by pediatricians, but care may be transferred to an adult neurologist after the patient reaches a certain age. Physical medicine and rehabilitation physicians may treat patients with neuromuscular diseases with electrodiagnostic studies (needle EMG and nerve-conduction studies) and other diagnostic tools. In the United Kingdom and other countries, many of the conditions encountered by older patients such as movement disorders, including Parkinson's disease, stroke, dementia, or gait disorders, are managed predominantly by specialists in geriatric medicine.

Clinical neuropsychologists are often called upon to evaluate brain-behavior relationships for the purpose of assisting with differential diagnosis, planning rehabilitation strategies, documenting cognitive strengths and weaknesses, and measuring change over time (e.g., for identifying abnormal aging or tracking the progression of a dementia).

Relationship to clinical neurophysiology

[edit]

In some countries such as the United States and Germany, neurologists may subspecialize in clinical neurophysiology, the field responsible for EEG and intraoperative monitoring, or in electrodiagnostic medicine nerve conduction studies, EMG, and evoked potentials. In other countries, this is an autonomous specialty (e.g., United Kingdom, Sweden, Spain).

Overlap with psychiatry

[edit]
Further information: Psychoneuroimmunology and Neuropsychiatry

In the past, prior to the advent of more advanced diagnostic techniques such as MRI some neurologists have considered psychiatry and neurology to overlap. Although modern physicians accept that brain chemistry plays a role in mental illness, traditionally they are classified separately from neurological disorders, and treated by psychiatrists. In a 2002 review article in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Professor Joseph B. Martin, Dean of Harvard Medical School and a neurologist by training, wrote, "the separation of the two categories is arbitrary, often influenced by beliefs rather than proven scientific observations. And the fact that the brain and mind are one makes the separation artificial anyway".[30]

Neurological disorders often have psychiatric manifestations, such as post-stroke depression, depression and dementia associated with Parkinson's disease, mood and cognitive dysfunctions in Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington disease, to name a few. Hence, the sharp distinction between neurology and psychiatry is not always on a biological basis. The dominance of psychoanalytic theory in the first three-quarters of the 20th century has since then been largely replaced by a focus on pharmacology.[31] Despite the shift to a medical model, brain science has not advanced to a point where scientists or clinicians can point to readily discernible pathological lesions or genetic abnormalities that in and of themselves serve as reliable or predictive biomarkers of a given mental disorder.

Neurological enhancement

[edit]

The emerging field of neurological enhancement highlights the potential of therapies to improve such things as workplace efficacy, attention in school, and overall happiness in personal lives.[32] However, this field has also given rise to questions about neuroethics.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Neurology

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Neurology is the focused on the , treatment, and of disorders affecting the , which includes the , , and nerves that control thoughts, movements, sensations, and bodily functions. This field encompasses the study of both the (CNS), consisting of the and , and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which connects the CNS to the rest of the body. Neurologists, the physicians who specialize in this area, are trained to identify neurological issues through detailed patient histories, physical examinations assessing reflexes, coordination, and mental status, and advanced diagnostic tests such as MRI, EEG, and (EMG). The scope of neurology is broad, addressing over 600 known neurological disorders affecting more than 3 billion people worldwide (over 40% of the global population as of 2021 data updated in 2025), making neurological conditions the leading cause of ill health and disability globally. These include common conditions like , , migraines, and , as well as rarer ones such as , , and neuropathy. These disorders can manifest in symptoms ranging from seizures and to memory loss, , and movement impairments, often requiring a multidisciplinary approach involving collaboration with neurosurgeons, therapists, and other specialists for comprehensive care. Early and intervention in neurology are critical, as many conditions, such as , benefit from time-sensitive treatments that can prevent permanent damage and improve . Neurologists undergo extensive training, typically completing four years of followed by a one-year and three years of neurology residency, with optional fellowships for subspecialization that can extend training up to three additional years. Subspecialties within neurology include child neurology, which focuses on developmental and genetic disorders in infants and children; , addressing cognitive and memory issues like ; and areas such as , , and . While neurologists primarily manage non-surgical treatments using medications, lifestyle modifications, and procedures like injections or lumbar punctures, they often refer patients to neurosurgeons for operative interventions when needed. Advancements in neurology continue to evolve through research in , , and regenerative therapies, enhancing the understanding and treatment of complex and underscoring the specialty's vital role in modern .

Overview

Definition and Scope

Neurology is a branch of focused on the , treatment, and of disorders affecting the . This specialty encompasses the study of the structures, functions, and diseases of the , which includes the , , peripheral nerves, neuromuscular junctions, and associated muscles. Neurology is distinct from , which specializes in surgical interventions for conditions of the brain, spine, and , whereas neurologists primarily employ non-surgical approaches such as medications and therapies. It also differs from , which primarily deals with disorders that may lack identifiable structural changes in the , in contrast to neurology's emphasis on disorders with demonstrable neurological . The core scope of neurology involves the prevention, accurate , effective treatment, and rehabilitation of neurological diseases to improve outcomes and . Within this field, subspecialties allow for focused expertise in areas such as , vascular neurology (including ), and , enabling tailored care for specific conditions.

Importance in Medicine

Neurological disorders represent a profound challenge, affecting over 40% of the global population—more than 3 billion people, as of 2025—and serving as the primary cause of and ill globally. According to a 2025 WHO report, these disorders cause over 11 million deaths annually worldwide, with significant disparities in care access; for instance, low-income countries have more than 80 times fewer neurologists per 100,000 people than high-income countries, and only 32% of WHO Member States have dedicated national policies. Among these, stands out as a leading cause of long-term , with an estimated one in four adults over age 25 at risk of experiencing it in their lifetime, disproportionately impacting lower- and middle-income countries where nearly 90% of stroke-related deaths and disabilities occur. Similarly, and other s contribute significantly, affecting approximately 57 million people as of 2021, with over 60% residing in low- and middle-income nations and cases projected to rise sharply due to population aging. The economic implications of these conditions are staggering, underscoring neurology's critical role in resource allocation and healthcare policy. In the United States alone, the annual economic burden of exceeds $85 billion, encompassing direct medical expenses like hospitalizations and medications alongside such as lost . For , the yearly cost reaches nearly $52 billion, split evenly between medical care and non-medical impacts like caregiving and , with global figures expected to escalate as aging populations grow. These burdens highlight the need for neurology to inform cost-effective strategies that mitigate financial strain on individuals, families, and economies. Neurology plays a pivotal role in initiatives, particularly in addressing vulnerabilities in aging societies and preventing injuries. As populations age, neurological conditions become more prevalent, with disorders like accounting for a growing share of disability-adjusted life years among those over 70, necessitating integrated approaches to support and . Efforts in , such as promoting helmet use and seatbelt adherence, have proven effective in reducing traumatic injuries—a major contributor to neurological —potentially averting thousands of cases annually through targeted public campaigns. Furthermore, neurology intersects with fields like , where managing cardiovascular risks prevents strokes, and , aiding in the neurological complications of cancer therapies to enhance overall patient outcomes. Advances in neurology have substantially elevated for those with chronic conditions by emphasizing early intervention, which slows progression and preserves function. For instance, timely identification and management in neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's enable sustained mobility and cognitive , reducing dependency and improving daily living for millions. Such interventions not only extend productive years but also alleviate the emotional and social toll, fostering a framework where individuals with neurological challenges can maintain meaningful engagement in society.

Historical Development

Early Foundations

The origins of neurology can be traced to ancient civilizations, where initial observations of the began to challenge supernatural explanations for neurological phenomena. In , around 3000 BCE, embalmers developed rudimentary knowledge of during mummification, extracting the through the via the , though they viewed it as insignificant compared to the heart. In , of Kos (c. 460–370 BCE) advanced these ideas by describing as a natural disorder caused by accumulation and rejecting divine or sacred attributions, while also noting its hereditary aspects. Building on this, Alexandrian anatomists (c. 335–280 BCE) and (c. 304–250 BCE) conducted pioneering human dissections in the early BCE, distinguishing nerves from tendons and blood vessels, identifying sensory and motor nerve functions, and providing the first detailed descriptions of structures like the ventricles and . The Renaissance marked a revival of anatomical inquiry, shifting toward empirical human-based studies that corrected ancient misconceptions. Roman physician (129–c. 216 CE) had dominated medieval thought with his humoral theory, attributing neurological disorders to imbalances in bodily fluids like black bile, while emphasizing the 's role in sensation through animal dissections that described and spinal pathways. However, these were limited by prohibitions on human dissection. In 1543, published De Humani Corporis Fabrica, featuring meticulously illustrated plates of the derived from direct human dissections, which accurately depicted the cerebral hemispheres, , and , thereby challenging Galen's errors and establishing a foundation for precise . By the 18th and 19th centuries, foundational theories evolved from holistic humoral explanations toward cerebral localization of function, driven by clinical-pathological correlations. Galen's influence persisted in viewing the as a pneumatic conduit for animal spirits, but Enlightenment thinkers like differentiated and in neural tissues, laying groundwork for functional specificity. This culminated in Paul Broca's 1861 observation of a patient with whose postmortem examination revealed a in the left (now known as ), providing the first concrete evidence of localized language production in the brain and solidifying the shift to modular neurophysiology. Neurology coalesced as a distinct specialty in the late 19th century, with the establishment of dedicated societies that institutionalized research and clinical practice. The American Neurological Association was founded in 1875 by figures like William A. Hammond to promote scientific study of nervous diseases, amid influences from European clinics. Similarly, the Neurological Society of London, established in 1886 with John Hughlings Jackson as its first president, focused on pathological and physiological investigations, marking neurology's professional emergence separate from general .

Key Milestones and Figures

In the early 20th century, advanced the understanding of neural communication by introducing the concept of the as the junction between neurons, detailed in his seminal 1906 work The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, which described reflexes as integrated actions across these contact points. This framework laid the groundwork for modern by emphasizing discrete transmission rather than continuous conduction. Concurrently, solidified the neuron doctrine through his histological studies, earning the 1906 in Physiology or Medicine (shared with ) for demonstrating that the comprises independent neurons communicating via specialized junctions, a principle confirmed by his detailed silver staining techniques. A pivotal advancement came in 1924 when recorded the first human electroencephalogram (EEG), capturing rhythmic brain electrical activity using non-invasive scalp electrodes on patients, which revolutionized the study of brain function and . In the mid-20th century, Wilder Penfield's intraoperative electrical stimulation of awake patients during surgeries in the 1930s and 1940s produced detailed cortical maps, including the iconic somatosensory and motor homunculi, revealing the topographic organization of sensory and motor functions in the . George Cotzias further transformed management in the 1960s by pioneering high-dose therapy, with his 1967 studies showing sustained symptom relief in patients through gradual dose escalation, marking the first effective pharmacological intervention for the disorder. The late 20th century brought imaging revolutions: computed tomography (CT) scans, first applied clinically in 1971 by , enabled non-invasive visualization of brain structures like tumors and hemorrhages, drastically reducing reliance on invasive procedures. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), developed in the 1970s by and and clinically viable by the early 1980s, provided superior soft-tissue contrast for diagnosing conditions such as plaques without . In the 1990s, recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (tPA, or alteplase) gained FDA approval in 1996 for acute ischemic , based on the NINDS trial demonstrating improved outcomes when administered within 3 hours of symptom onset by dissolving clots and restoring cerebral blood flow. Jean-Martin Charcot, often called the father of neurology, provided the first systematic clinical descriptions of in the 1860s, identifying its characteristic , , and (Charcot's triad) through meticulous patient examinations and autopsies revealing disseminated sclerotic plaques. Entering the 21st century, CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, adapted for neurological research since the 2010s, has enabled precise modeling and potential therapies for disorders like Huntington's and by targeting mutant genes in neuronal models, as reviewed in applications for dissecting synaptic function and disease mechanisms.

Neurological Foundations

Anatomy of the Nervous System

The is anatomically divided into the (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which together form the structural framework for neurological processes. The CNS consists of the and , enclosed within protective bony structures and membranes, while the PNS comprises and ganglia that extend from the CNS to innervate the body's periphery. This organization enables the integration of sensory input and motor output, with the CNS serving as the primary processing center. The brain, the largest component of the CNS, is subdivided into the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The cerebrum, comprising the bulk of the brain's mass, is divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum and features an outer layer of gray matter known as the cerebral cortex, which is organized into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. The frontal lobe lies anterior to the central sulcus, the parietal lobe posterior to it and separated from the occipital lobe by the parieto-occipital sulcus, the temporal lobe inferiorly along the lateral fissure, and the occipital lobe at the posterior extreme. Beneath the cerebrum, the cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa and consists of two hemispheres connected by the vermis, further subdivided into anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular lobes, with superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles linking it to the brainstem. The brainstem, positioned at the base of the brain, includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata; the pons bridges the medulla to the midbrain and thalamus, while the medulla oblongata lies adjacent to the foramen magnum. The , extending from the at the to approximately the L1-L2 vertebral level, forms the inferior continuation of the CNS and is cylindrical in shape with two enlargements: the cervical enlargement (C3-T1) for innervation and the lumbar enlargement (L1-S2) for lower limb innervation. It comprises 31 segments—8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal—each giving rise to paired spinal nerves, and internally features an outer region surrounding a central gray matter H-shaped core, with a narrow containing . The tapers at its inferior end, anchored by the to the . Both the and are enveloped by the , a three-layered membranous complex providing structural support and containment of . The outermost is a thick, fibrous sheet composed of periosteal and meningeal layers, adhering to the inner surface and forming dural reflections such as the (separating cerebral hemispheres) and tentorium cerebelli (separating from ). Beneath it lies the , a delicate web-like layer with superficial mesothelial cells, a central collagenous zone, and deep loose cellular regions, spanning the without closely following brain contours. The innermost clings directly to the neural tissue, comprising epipial collagenous layers and intima pia with elastic and reticular fibers, extending into perivascular spaces around blood vessels and conforming to gyri and sulci. Between the arachnoid and pia lies the subarachnoid space, filled with and traversed by . The PNS connects the CNS to the body's tissues and is structurally divided into the , which handles voluntary control, and the , which manages involuntary functions. The somatic division includes 12 pairs of emerging primarily from the (with olfactory and optic nerves from the ) and 31 pairs of spinal nerves originating from segments, forming plexuses such as cervical, brachial, , and sacral before branching into peripheral nerves. are numbered I through XII, with examples including the oculomotor (III) from the and vagus (X) from the medulla, while spinal nerves exit via dorsal (sensory) and ventral (motor) roots, combining into mixed nerves shortly after. The autonomic division encompasses sympathetic and parasympathetic components; the sympathetic arises from thoracic and spinal segments (T1-L2), with preganglionic fibers synapsing in paravertebral chain ganglia (approximately 24 total, including three cervical, 12 thoracic, four , and five sacral) or prevertebral ganglia (e.g., celiac, superior mesenteric), connected via white and gray rami communicantes and . The parasympathetic originates from III, VII, IX, and X, as well as sacral segments S2-S4, with ganglia located near target organs, such as the for the or intramural ganglia in visceral walls. At the cellular level, the nervous system's fundamental units are neurons and glial cells, which provide structural and supportive architecture. Neurons consist of a central cell body (soma) containing the nucleus, branching dendrites that extend from the soma to receive inputs, and a single elongated projecting from the opposite side to transmit outputs, often covered by —a lipid-rich, multilayered sheath formed by glial processes that insulates the axon and creates nodes of Ranvier along its length. Glial cells outnumber neurons and include , which exhibit a star-shaped morphology with numerous processes: protoplasmic astrocytes in gray matter interdigitate with synapses and dendrites, while fibrous astrocytes in white matter feature straight processes rich in (GFAP). Oligodendrocytes, smaller cells with rounded nuclei and extended projections, reside in both gray and white matter, where interfascicular types wrap multiple axons to form myelin sheaths in the CNS. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) and neurovascular unit (NVU) represent specialized anatomical interfaces regulating CNS access. The BBB arises from brain capillary endothelial cells forming a continuous with minimal fenestrations, sealed by complex tight junctions involving transmembrane proteins like occludins and claudins (e.g., claudin-1, -3, -5) linked to cytoplasmic zonula occludens proteins. These endothelial cells are enveloped by at a ratio of approximately 1:3, which share a and regulate vessel stability, while endfeet cover nearly all capillary surfaces, contributing to the . The NVU integrates these elements with neurons and , forming a multicellular complex where and processes interact closely with endothelial tight junctions to maintain selective permeability.

Basic Neurophysiology

Basic neurophysiology encompasses the core mechanisms by which neurons generate and propagate electrical signals, communicate across synapses, form functional circuits, and adapt through plasticity. These processes rely on the precise control of concentrations across neuronal membranes and the orchestrated release of chemical messengers, enabling the nervous system's rapid and adaptable information processing. The resting of neurons, typically around -70 mV, is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase), which actively transports three sodium s out of the cell and two potassium s in, using energy from . This pump, first identified in crab nerve membranes, counters the passive of s through leak channels, establishing concentration gradients essential for excitability. The equilibrium potential for each is described by the : E=RTzFln⁡([ionout][ionin])E = \frac{RT}{zF} \ln \left( \frac{[\text{ion}_{\text{out}}]}{[\text{ion}_{\text{in}}]} \right) where RR is the gas constant, TT is temperature in Kelvin, zz is the ion's valence, and FF is Faraday's constant; for potassium, this yields approximately -90 mV, dominating the resting potential due to higher membrane permeability. Action potentials arise when a stimulus depolarizes the membrane beyond threshold (around -55 mV), triggering voltage-gated sodium channels to open, allowing Na⁺ influx that rapidly shifts the potential to +40 mV. This regenerative process, modeled quantitatively in the squid giant axon, involves sequential activation of sodium and potassium conductances, with repolarization driven by potassium efflux and sodium channel inactivation. The all-or-none nature of action potentials ensures reliable propagation along axons without decrement. Synaptic transmission occurs at junctions where presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, binding to postsynaptic receptors to modulate . Common neurotransmitters include , which acts at neuromuscular junctions and autonomic synapses, and , involved in reward and pathways. Excitatory transmission, such as via glutamate (though not listed here, analogous to acetylcholine in excitatory contexts), produces excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) by depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane through ligand-gated cation channels. In contrast, inhibitory transmission, often mediated by GABA or , generates inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) via or channels, hyperpolarizing the membrane and reducing excitability. These potentials summate spatially and temporally to determine whether the postsynaptic fires an , with transmission confirmed as chemical in central synapses through intracellular recordings showing delayed, ion-dependent responses. Neural circuits integrate these signaling mechanisms into coordinated functions, exemplified by reflex arcs, which provide rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli via simple sensory-to-motor connections in the . Charles Sherrington's work on decerebrate preparations demonstrated how afferent sensory inputs converge on and motoneurons, enabling for smooth movements like the . Broader sensory-motor pathways extend this principle, linking peripheral receptors through ascending tracts to cortical areas and descending commands back to effectors, forming loops that underpin voluntary actions and without requiring higher involvement for basic reflexes. Neural plasticity, the capacity for circuits to modify strength in response to activity, underlies learning and ; a key example is (LTP), where high-frequency stimulation of afferent fibers strengthens synaptic efficacy for hours or longer. First observed in the hippocampus, LTP exemplifies Hebbian learning—"cells that fire together wire together"—as correlated pre- and postsynaptic activity drives insertion and calcium-dependent signaling cascades, enhancing transmission without altering presynaptic release. This mechanism, distinct from short-term facilitation, provides a cellular basis for formation while maintaining circuit stability through homeostatic counterbalances.

Neurological Disorders

Classification Systems

Classification systems in neurology provide structured frameworks for categorizing disorders based on anatomical location, underlying causes, symptom patterns, and standardized international criteria, facilitating , , and treatment planning. These systems help distinguish between diverse conditions affecting the , ensuring consistent communication among clinicians and researchers. Anatomical classification divides neurological disorders into those affecting the (CNS), which includes the and , and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), encompassing nerves and ganglia outside the CNS. CNS disorders, such as or , typically involve processing centers and lead to widespread sensory, motor, or cognitive impairments, while PNS disorders, like peripheral neuropathies, often manifest as localized sensory loss or muscle weakness. Within anatomical categories, further distinctions include vascular disorders, which involve blood supply disruptions primarily in the CNS (e.g., ischemic ), and degenerative disorders, characterized by progressive neuronal loss in the CNS (e.g., ). Etiological classification focuses on the underlying causes of neurological disorders, grouping them by origin such as genetic, infectious, or traumatic. Genetic etiologies involve inherited mutations leading to disorders like , which causes progressive neurodegeneration due to expanded CAG repeats in the HTT gene. Infectious causes include conditions like , resulting from bacterial or viral invasion of the and CNS. Traumatic etiologies encompass injuries such as , where mechanical forces damage neural tissue. Other etiological groups include vascular (e.g., hemorrhages) and degenerative processes, often overlapping with anatomical classifications. International standards, such as the , 11th Revision (), provide a global framework through Chapter 8: Diseases of the , which organizes disorders into categories like neoplasms of the , injuries, (e.g., 8A00-8A0Z), and disorders with neurocognitive features. This chapter includes over 200 entities with short definitions, emphasizing etiological and anatomical groupings for coding and epidemiological purposes. For neurocognitive disorders, the (), integrates neurological perspectives by classifying impairments as major or mild neurocognitive disorders, often due to underlying conditions like or vascular insults, bridging psychiatric and neurological diagnostics. Syndromic classification categorizes neurological disorders based on clinical symptom patterns, distinguishing focal syndromes, which involve localized deficits (e.g., from a specific ), from diffuse syndromes, characterized by widespread impairments (e.g., global cognitive decline in ). This approach aids in localizing and is particularly useful in conditions like , where focal onset seizures contrast with generalized diffuse activity. Diagnostic tools such as imaging can support syndromic differentiation by identifying lesion extent.

Major Categories and Examples

Neurological disorders are broadly classified into categories such as vascular, neurodegenerative, inflammatory and autoimmune, and epileptic and disorders, based on etiological and pathophysiological frameworks like those outlined by the and major medical bodies. These categories encompass conditions that significantly contribute to global disability, affecting millions and imposing substantial socioeconomic burdens.

Vascular Disorders

Vascular neurological disorders arise from disruptions in cerebral blood flow or vessel integrity, leading to ischemia or hemorrhage in tissue. Ischemic stroke occurs when a blood clot or plaque blocks an , depriving cells of oxygen and nutrients, resulting in rapid cell death if not restored promptly. Hemorrhagic stroke, in contrast, involves the rupture of a weakened , causing bleeding into or around the , which increases and damages surrounding tissue. Transient ischemic attack (TIA), often termed a "mini-stroke," presents with stroke-like symptoms that resolve within 24 hours due to temporary vessel occlusion, but it signals a high risk for subsequent full strokes.

Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders involve progressive loss of structure or function, often due to protein misfolding and aggregation, leading to irreversible brain damage. is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-beta plaques extracellularly and tangles intracellularly, which disrupt neuronal communication and trigger widespread atrophy, particularly in memory-related regions like the hippocampus. features the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the , with hallmark Lewy bodies formed by protein aggregates, resulting in motor symptoms such as tremors and rigidity. (ALS) entails the selective degeneration of upper and lower motor neurons in the and , driven by mechanisms including , , and like TDP-43 inclusions, leading to and .

Inflammatory and Autoimmune Disorders

Inflammatory and autoimmune disorders of the stem from aberrant immune responses that target neural components, causing and tissue damage. (MS) is an autoimmune condition where T-cells and other immune cells infiltrate the , leading to demyelination of axons and formation of plaques that impair , often resulting in relapsing-remitting symptoms. Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) involves an acute immune-mediated attack on peripheral nerves, typically triggered by infections, causing demyelination or axonal damage that manifests as ascending weakness and potential respiratory failure.

Epileptic and Headache Disorders

Epileptic disorders are marked by recurrent seizures due to excessive, synchronized neuronal activity in the . Epilepsy syndromes, such as Lennox-Gastaut or , arise from imbalances in excitatory and inhibitory , often involving genetic mutations or structural abnormalities that lower the and cause varied seizure types. Headache disorders, particularly migraine variants, involve neurovascular mechanisms; classic migraine features —a wave of neuronal depolarization followed by suppression—that activates trigeminovascular pathways, leading to throbbing unilateral pain, while variants like include aura symptoms from genetic dysfunctions.

Diagnostic Approaches

Patient History and Symptoms

In neurology, obtaining a detailed history is a foundational step in identifying potential neurological issues, focusing on the subjective reporting of symptoms to guide further evaluation. The process begins with the , where the patient describes the primary symptom, such as , , or sensory disturbance, including its location, quality, and severity. Key components include the onset of symptoms, which can be sudden (e.g., within seconds to minutes, often vascular in origin), subacute (hours to days, possibly infectious), or insidious (weeks to months, suggestive of degenerative processes). Progression is then explored, assessing whether symptoms are static, steadily worsening, relapsing-remitting (as in demyelinating conditions), or episodic, which helps differentiate between acute emergencies and chronic disorders. Associated symptoms are systematically queried, such as , , or visual changes accompanying headaches, or auras (e.g., or sensory marching in migraines or seizures) that precede the main event. For headaches, localization (e.g., unilateral throbbing versus diffuse pressure) and precipitating factors like stress or triggers are noted to characterize the . Symptom characterization involves a detailed breakdown by domain to localize potential lesions. Sensory symptoms, such as (tingling or "pins and needles") or numbness, are described in terms of distribution (e.g., dermatomal for or glove-and-stocking for ), quality (burning, electric shock-like), and aggravating factors like position or temperature. Motor symptoms focus on weakness patterns, including unilateral (suggesting hemispheric involvement), bilateral lower limb predominance (indicating spinal or systemic issues), or fluctuating fatigue (as in myasthenia), with inquiries into onset timing, diurnal variation, and impact on function like gait or fine motor tasks. Cognitive symptoms, such as memory loss, are probed for acuity (recent versus remote events), domains affected (e.g., in hippocampal dysfunction), and associated features like or language difficulties, often using open-ended questions to capture the patient's perspective without leading. Risk factor assessment integrates past medical, family, and social histories to contextualize symptoms. Family history is crucial for hereditary conditions, such as inquiries about relatives with , migraines, or , which may indicate genetic predispositions like channelopathies. Exposures to potential neurotoxins, including occupational hazards (e.g., solvents or ), recreational substances (e.g., alcohol leading to neuropathy), or medications (e.g., chemotherapy-induced cognitive changes), are evaluated for temporal links to symptom onset. Comorbidities, such as , , or autoimmune diseases, are reviewed as they heighten susceptibility to vascular or inflammatory neurological events. Red flags in the history prompt urgent attention to avert serious outcomes. Sudden onset of focal deficits, like speech arrest or hemiplegia, raises concern for ischemic stroke, necessitating immediate intervention. Progressive neurological deficits over days to weeks, such as worsening headaches with vomiting or unsteady gait, may signal space-occupying lesions like tumors, warranting expedited diagnostic pursuit. Other indicators include intractable headaches in older adults or new seizures in those over 50, which correlate with underlying structural pathology. This history informs the subsequent and testing, emphasizing a structured approach to avoid overlooking critical details.

Physical and Neurological Examination

The physical and is a fundamental bedside assessment in neurology that systematically evaluates the function of the central and peripheral nervous systems through targeted clinical tests. Performed by trained clinicians, it involves observing the patient's appearance, testing cognitive and sensory-motor functions, and eliciting reflexes to identify abnormalities suggestive of . This helps localize lesions and guide further diagnostic workup, such as , by distinguishing between upper and involvement. The forms the initial component, assessing cognitive function to detect impairments in awareness, , and communication. Orientation is evaluated by asking the patient about the current date, time, location, and personal identity; disorientation may signal , , or focal lesions. and concentration are tested through tasks like serial subtraction (e.g., subtracting 7 from 100 repeatedly) or spelling "world" backward, revealing deficits in function or diffuse cortical involvement. Language assessment includes evaluating fluency, comprehension, naming objects, and repetition of phrases, which can uncover from left hemisphere damage. A standardized tool often employed is the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), a 30-point developed in 1975 that scores orientation (10 points), registration and recall of three words (6 points), and calculation (5 points), language (8 points), and visuospatial abilities (1 point); scores below 24 typically indicate , though cutoffs vary by age and education. Cranial nerve testing follows to appraise the integrity of the 12 pairs of nerves emerging from the brainstem and forebrain, which control sensory and motor functions of the head and neck. Visual fields are assessed using confrontation testing, where the examiner compares the patient's peripheral vision to their own by wiggling fingers in quadrants; defects like hemianopia suggest optic tract or occipital lobe lesions. Pupillary response is examined with a penlight to check direct and consensual constriction to light, evaluating the optic (II) and oculomotor (III) nerves; unequal pupils or absent response may indicate compressive neuropathy or midbrain pathology. Facial symmetry is tested by observing movements such as raising eyebrows, closing eyes tightly, smiling, and puffing cheeks, targeting the facial (VII) nerve; asymmetry points to Bell's palsy or brainstem stroke. Additional tests cover eye movements (III, IV, VI), hearing and balance (VIII), and swallowing (IX, X), providing clues to localized cranial neuropathies. Motor and sensory examinations evaluate strength, tone, coordination, and sensation in the limbs and trunk to detect peripheral or dysfunction. Motor assessment includes inspecting muscle bulk and tone, then grading strength on a 0-5 scale (0 for no contraction, 5 for normal power against resistance) in major muscle groups; weakness patterns help differentiate focal from generalized processes. Reflexes are elicited using a hammer on , , patellar, and Achilles tendons, graded 0-4 (0 absent, 2 normal, 4 hyperactive with ); the Babinski sign, tested by stroking the lateral foot sole, yields an upgoing big toe in adults as a pathological indicator of pyramidal tract disruption. Sensory testing involves light touch, pinprick, vibration, and across dermatomes to map deficits, such as glove-stocking loss in . Coordination is gauged by the finger-to-nose test, where the patient alternately touches their nose and the examiner's finger with eyes open then closed, and the heel-to-shin test for legs; dysmetria or implicates cerebellar involvement. observes walking for base width, arm swing, and stability, identifying ataxic, spastic, or hemiparetic patterns from vestibular, pyramidal, or extrapyramidal lesions. Localization principles in the exam rely on distinguishing from signs to pinpoint lesion sites along the . UMN lesions, affecting corticospinal tracts from cortex to , produce , (velocity-dependent resistance to passive movement), and a positive Babinski sign, often with preserved reflexes initially but later ; examples include or . In contrast, LMN lesions in anterior horn cells, roots, or peripheral nerves cause or areflexia, flaccid weakness, , and fasciculations without Babinski sign; common in or . These patterns, combined with distribution (e.g., unilateral vs. bilateral), enable clinicians to infer whether pathology is supraspinal, spinal, or peripheral.

Imaging and Laboratory Tests

Imaging and laboratory tests play a crucial role in confirming neurological diagnoses by providing objective evidence of structural, functional, and biochemical abnormalities in the , often prompted by suspicious findings from patient history and . These modalities complement clinical assessment by visualizing lesions, assessing neural activity, and identifying molecular markers of disease. Neuroimaging techniques are essential for evaluating acute and chronic neurological conditions. Computed tomography (CT) scans are particularly valuable for detecting acute intracranial hemorrhages, as non-contrast CT is the initial imaging modality of choice due to its speed and sensitivity in identifying hyperdense blood collections. excels in assessing soft tissue pathology, with T2-weighted sequences highlighting areas of demyelination, such as hyperintense plaques in (MS), by depicting increased water content in affected . measures cerebral metabolism, often using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) to reveal hypometabolic patterns in neurodegenerative disorders like , aiding in . Electrophysiological studies provide insights into electrical activity along neural pathways. (EEG) is a cornerstone for diagnosing s, as routine EEG detects epileptiform abnormalities in approximately 23-55% of adults after an unprovoked first , supporting the evaluation of . (EMG) combined with nerve conduction studies (NCS) evaluates peripheral neuropathies by assessing muscle and nerve function; for instance, NCS measures conduction velocity to distinguish demyelinating from axonal damage, while EMG identifies patterns. Laboratory tests, including (CSF) analysis and , offer biochemical and genetic confirmation. In MS, CSF analysis reveals in over 95% of cases, serving as a key diagnostic criterion in the 2024 by indicating intrathecal IgG production restricted to the ; the kappa free light chain index in CSF serves as an alternative biomarker, offering similar diagnostic utility without requiring . Genetic testing for quantifies CAG trinucleotide repeats in the HTT gene, where expansions of 40 or more repeats confirm the diagnosis in symptomatic individuals, with reduced for 36-39 repeats. Functional imaging advances precise localization of brain functions. maps eloquent cortical areas, such as and motor regions, during presurgical planning for or tumors, with guidelines recommending its use to guide intraoperative and reduce risks of postoperative deficits.
TechniquePrimary ApplicationKey Feature
Acute bleedsRapid detection of hyperdense hemorrhage
MRI (T2-weighted)Demyelination (e.g., MS)Hyperintense visualization
PET (FDG)Metabolic assessmentHypometabolism patterns in
EEG evaluationEpileptiform discharges
EMG/NCSNeuropathiesConduction velocity and
CSF AnalysisMS diagnosis
Huntington'sCAG repeat expansion (>40)
fMRIFunctional activation localization

Therapeutic Interventions

Pharmacological Treatments

Pharmacological treatments form a cornerstone of neurology, targeting the underlying and symptoms of various neurological disorders through targeted modulation of neural signaling and . These therapies are selected based on the specific condition, with mechanisms designed to restore neurotransmitter balance, suppress aberrant electrical activity, or alter immune responses. For instance, antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are primarily used for , while agents address (PD), and disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) aim to slow progression in (MS). Antiepileptics exert their effects mainly by stabilizing neuronal membranes and preventing propagation. , a prototypical AED, acts through voltage-gated blockade, preferentially binding to inactivated channels to inhibit repetitive firing and reduce synaptic transmission. This mechanism underlies its efficacy in focal seizures, where it decreases the frequency of epileptic events by limiting hyperexcitability. In Parkinson's disease, dopaminergic therapies replenish depleted striatal to alleviate motor symptoms like bradykinesia and rigidity. The levodopa-carbidopa combination is the gold standard, with levodopa serving as a precursor that crosses the blood- barrier and converts to in the , while carbidopa inhibits peripheral to enhance central availability and minimize side effects such as . Clinical studies demonstrate that this regimen significantly improves motor function, though long-term use can lead to fluctuations requiring dose adjustments. Disease-modifying therapies for MS target the autoimmune-mediated demyelination and axonal damage. Interferon beta (IFN-β), introduced as the first DMT in , modulates immune responses by reducing pro-inflammatory production and inhibiting T-cell activation, thereby decreasing relapse rates by about 30% and delaying disability progression in relapsing-remitting MS. Monoclonal antibodies like ocrelizumab represent advanced DMTs, functioning as a humanized anti-CD20 agent that depletes B cells via and complement activation, leading to reduced inflammatory lesions and sustained efficacy in both relapsing and primary progressive forms. Symptomatic relief focuses on alleviating specific manifestations without altering disease course. For , often seen in or post-herpetic neuralgia, analgesics such as antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline) or gabapentinoids provide relief by modulating sodium channels and enhancing inhibitory , with response rates around 30-50% in clinical trials. In , anticholinergics like restore striatal cholinergic-dopaminergic imbalance by blocking muscarinic receptors, improving symptoms in up to 50% of focal cases, particularly in younger patients. Pharmacokinetic considerations are critical in neurology due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a selective endothelial barrier that restricts drug entry to protect the . Effective neurological agents typically exhibit high or mechanisms to achieve therapeutic brain concentrations; for example, levodopa's polar nature necessitates its conversion from a neutral , while poor BBB penetration limits the utility of hydrophilic drugs like certain antibiotics in CNS infections. Monitoring plasma levels and adjusting for factors like protein binding ensures optimal efficacy while minimizing systemic toxicity.

Surgical and Interventional Procedures

Surgical and interventional procedures in neurology encompass minimally invasive and targeted techniques performed by neurologists or in collaboration with interventional specialists to treat neurological disorders, often focusing on vascular, functional, and structural issues without extensive open . These interventions aim to restore blood flow, alleviate symptoms, or manage , typically under guidance like or MRI. While many are endovascular or device-based, they carry inherent risks such as (occurring in 1-5% of cases depending on the procedure) and hemorrhage (with rates around 2-10% for vascular interventions). Endovascular interventions represent a cornerstone of acute stroke management, particularly mechanical thrombectomy, which involves catheter-based removal of clots from cerebral arteries to restore perfusion. In large vessel occlusion strokes, thrombectomy performed within 6-24 hours of symptom onset significantly improves outcomes, with trials showing a number needed to treat of 2.6 for improved functional outcome (at least one-point reduction in mRS) and approximately 5 for achieving functional independence at 90 days compared to medical therapy alone. This procedure, often complemented by thrombolytic drugs as an adjunct, has become standard care based on guidelines from the American Heart Association. Similarly, endovascular coiling treats intracranial aneurysms by deploying platinum coils through a catheter to promote thrombosis and prevent rupture; the International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial demonstrated a 23% relative risk reduction in death or dependency at 1 year compared to clipping, with procedural success rates exceeding 90% in experienced centers. Although rebleeding risk is low overall, it is slightly higher with coiling than with clipping in the long term. Risks include coil migration or thromboembolism, affecting about 4-8% of patients. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a neuromodulatory procedure involving the surgical implantation of electrodes in brain targets like the subthalamic nucleus to deliver electrical impulses via a pulse generator, primarily for movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease. In advanced Parkinson's, DBS reduces tremor and dyskinesia by up to 70% in responsive patients, as evidenced by long-term follow-up studies showing sustained motor score improvements on the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale. The procedure requires stereotactic neuronavigation for precise placement, with bilateral targeting common; complications like lead misplacement occur in less than 3% of cases, while infection rates hover around 2%. DBS has also shown efficacy for essential tremor and dystonia, expanding its role beyond pharmacology. Nerve blocks and (Botox) injections provide targeted relief for and , often as office-based interventions. Peripheral nerve blocks, using local anesthetics like lidocaine under guidance, interrupt pain signals in conditions such as , offering temporary relief lasting hours to weeks with success rates of 60-80% in refractory cases. For in or post-stroke patients, Botox injections into overactive muscles reduce tone by inhibiting release at neuromuscular junctions, with meta-analyses reporting a 30-50% improvement in Ashworth spasticity scores and low adverse event rates (under 5%, mostly mild injection-site reactions).30340-0/fulltext) In chronic migraines, Botox administered every 12 weeks prophylactically decreases days by 8-9 per month, per phase III trials, outperforming . These minimally invasive options bridge gaps between medications and more complex surgeries. Biopsies and shunt placements address diagnostic and pressure-related needs, such as stereotactic for tumor or inflammatory lesions, which yields diagnostic accuracy over 90% with a complication rate of 1-4%, including hemorrhage. Ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts manage by diverting from the ventricles to the via a programmable , preventing complications like herniation; studies indicate shunt survival rates of 70-80% at , though obstruction or necessitates revisions in 40% of cases over five years. These procedures, often neurology-initiated, highlight the field's shift toward precision interventions.

Rehabilitation and Supportive Care

Rehabilitation in neurology focuses on restoring function and independence for patients recovering from neurological impairments, emphasizing non-pharmacological strategies to address motor, cognitive, and daily living challenges. plays a central role, particularly in improving mobility after events like , where training enhances walking ability through techniques such as walking with body-weight support and high-intensity repetitive practice. These interventions promote by increasing step count and cardiovascular intensity, leading to better overground walking speed and endurance compared to conventional therapy. Constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT) is a key approach for recovery post-, involving intensive use of the affected arm while restraining the unaffected one to overcome learned non-use. Meta-analyses confirm CIMT's efficacy in improving motor function, arm-hand activities, and self-reported daily functioning, with stronger effects when initiated within six months of onset. For patients with , targets cognitive-motor deficits by training , such as dressing or , to maintain independence and slow functional decline. Evidence from randomized trials shows small but positive effects on cognitive performance and instrumental through tailored, task-oriented exercises. Speech therapy addresses communication and swallowing difficulties in neurological conditions, including common in and neurodegenerative diseases. Therapeutic exercises, such as swallow postures and bolus modifications, improve oropharyngeal function and reduce aspiration risk, as supported by systematic reviews of speech-language pathologist interventions. Supportive measures complement therapy, with assistive devices like powered wheelchairs enabling mobility for those with severe motor impairments, allowing safe navigation in home and community settings. Nutritional support for involves texture-modified diets and enteral feeding when needed, guided by evidence-based protocols to prevent and in neurology patients. Multidisciplinary teams integrate these efforts, with neurologists overseeing medical management, physical and occupational therapists providing targeted interventions, speech therapists handling and communication, and social workers addressing needs. This collaborative model, often transdisciplinary in neurorehabilitation, enhances integrated care and outcomes by aligning goals across professions. Outcome measures like the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) assess progress in , mobility, and , scoring 18 items from 1 (total assistance) to 7 (complete ) to quantify rehabilitation gains. Higher initial FIM scores predict better long-term survival and functional recovery in , validating its use in neurology.

Clinical Practice

Training Pathways

Aspiring neurologists begin their training with , typically earning a in a science-related field such as or chemistry, which serves as a prerequisite for admission in most countries. In the United States, medical school prerequisites generally include coursework in , general and , physics, , and English, along with the (MCAT). During the four-year curriculum, students receive foundational instruction in basic sciences, including , , and related disciplines, which are essential for understanding neurological disorders. Following graduation and obtaining a ( or DO in the ), trainees pursue postgraduate residency training in neurology. In the United States, adult neurology residency programs are accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) and last four years, encompassing a preliminary year (PGY-1) focused on followed by three years of specialized neurology training (PGY-2 through PGY-4). These programs emphasize progressive clinical responsibility through rotations in core areas such as stroke care, epilepsy management, headache medicine, neuromuscular disorders, and , ensuring comprehensive exposure to inpatient, outpatient, and consultative neurology practice. Child neurology residencies extend to five years, incorporating additional pediatric training. For those seeking expertise in subspecialties, optional fellowships provide advanced training lasting one to two years. Subspecialties recognized by organizations like the United Council for Neurologic Subspecialties (UCNS) include neuroimmunology and multiple sclerosis, , , and vascular neurology, with programs tailored to deepen clinical, research, or procedural skills in these domains. Fellowships are typically pursued after residency completion and are essential for academic or specialized clinical careers, with durations varying by focus— for instance, one-year programs for and two-year options for advanced training. Certification is a critical step for independent practice, involving rigorous examination and evaluation processes. In the US, the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN) oversees initial certification in neurology, requiring completion of an ACGME-accredited residency, five clinical skills evaluations during training, and passing a secure computer-based examination that assesses knowledge across adult and child neurology topics. Board-certified neurologists must then engage in continuing medical education (CME) to maintain certification through the ABPN's Maintenance of Certification (MOC) program, which mandates an average of 30 CME credits per year over a three-year cycle, including at least eight credits in self-assessment activities focused on neurology-specific topics. Training pathways exhibit significant global variations influenced by healthcare systems and regulatory bodies. In the , for example, neurology training follows a structured postgraduate model: after a two-year Foundation Programme and two to three years of Training (IMT), trainees enter a five-year higher specialty training (ST3-ST7) program in neurology, during which they must pass the Membership of Colleges of Physicians (MRCP) examination and the Specialty Certificate Examination (SCE) in Neurology to achieve specialist registration with the General Medical Council. This pathway emphasizes integrated medical and neurological competencies, with opportunities for subspecialty extensions such as in stroke medicine, extending training to six years. Worldwide, program durations range from three to seven years post-medical school, with longer pathways in high-income regions reflecting more extensive subspecialty rotations and research components.

Daily Caseload and Responsibilities

Neurologists typically manage a diverse caseload that includes both acute and chronic neurological conditions, balancing outpatient consultations, , diagnostic procedures, and administrative tasks in a standard workday. Their responsibilities often span 8-12 hours, with variability based on practice setting, such as private clinics or academic hospitals. In outpatient clinics, neurologists conduct follow-up visits for chronic conditions like , , and migraines, seeing 6-8 patients per day to monitor treatment efficacy and adjust medications. For instance, they may perform Botox injections for migraine management or assess cognitive changes in Parkinson's patients during routine appointments. These sessions emphasize on lifestyle modifications and seizure management to enhance long-term outcomes. Inpatient rounds form a core component of hospital-based practice, where neurologists oversee acute cases such as management and provide consultations in intensive care units for conditions like . Daily rounds involve reviewing vital signs, interpreting imaging results, and coordinating multidisciplinary teams to stabilize patients, often including on-call duties that extend into evenings for emergencies like ischemic s. Neurologists frequently perform or interpret procedures essential for diagnosis, including lumbar punctures to analyze in suspected or , and electroencephalogram (EEG) readings to detect epileptiform activity. Electromyography (EMG) tests are also common to evaluate nerve and muscle function in peripheral neuropathies, with results guiding targeted therapies. Administrative duties encompass documenting patient encounters, coordinating referrals to specialists like neurosurgeons, and handling prescription renewals, often consuming 1-2 hours daily. Neurologists also engage in patient communication, such as discussing test results over phone calls, to ensure continuity of care. Ethical considerations are integral, particularly in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, where neurologists navigate end-of-life decisions such as withholding life-prolonging treatments while respecting patient autonomy and advance directives. These discussions prioritize and quality-of-life assessments to align care with patient values.

Intersections with Other Fields

Overlap with Psychiatry

Neurology and share a historical origin in the unified field of , which dominated medical practice in the early before diverging into separate disciplines around the mid-20th century due to evolving diagnostic paradigms and institutional separations. This split, influenced by advances in and the as primarily psychological rather than neurological, created artificial boundaries despite the interconnected nature of and mind disorders. Efforts to reunite these fields persist through integrated programs and , reflecting the recognition that many conditions defy strict categorization. A key area of overlap lies in the neurobiological substrates of psychiatric disorders, where neurological mechanisms underpin symptoms traditionally viewed as psychiatric. For instance, involves dysregulation of the system, leading to aberrant salience attribution and psychotic experiences through hyperactive mesolimbic pathways. This hypothesis, supported by evidence from and pharmacological studies, highlights how disruptions in subcortical circuits contribute to core symptoms like hallucinations and delusions, blurring lines between neurological and psychiatric etiologies. Similar neurochemical imbalances appear in other conditions, such as , where altered signaling in prefrontal and striatal regions correlates with mood instability. Comorbid psychiatric conditions frequently accompany neurological disorders, complicating diagnosis and management. In , depression affects up to 70% of mid-to-advanced patients without , arising from deficits in limbic pathways that parallel motor symptoms and exacerbate cognitive decline. Likewise, anxiety disorders occur in approximately 39% of patients, often interictally due to involvement or the psychological burden of seizures, with higher rates in those with focal . These comorbidities underscore shared pathophysiological pathways, such as and imbalances, that demand integrated evaluation. Diagnostic boundaries between the fields are increasingly permeable, with tools from each informing the other. , including functional MRI, reveals structural and connectivity abnormalities in mood disorders like major depression, such as reduced hippocampal volume and prefrontal hypoactivity, aiding in from primary neurological conditions. Conversely, psychiatric assessments are essential in evaluation to distinguish cognitive decline from mood-related impairments, using scales to quantify behavioral and psychological symptoms that overlap with or . The guidelines emphasize comprehensive psychiatric screening in protocols to identify treatable symptoms like or agitation. Collaborative care models bridge these disciplines, particularly for neurodevelopmental disorders like autism spectrum disorder (ASD), where joint clinics integrate neurological and psychiatric expertise. Multidisciplinary teams in specialized centers, such as those combining child neurology and psychiatry, provide coordinated diagnostics, behavioral interventions, and family support to address ASD's heterogeneous presentations, including issues and comorbid anxiety. These clinics emphasize shared basic , like deficits in ASD, while accounting for training differences in neurologists' focus on biomarkers versus psychiatrists' emphasis on psychosocial factors.

Relations to Neurosurgery and Neurophysiology

Neurology and maintain a close collaborative relationship, particularly in the preoperative evaluation of patients undergoing surgical interventions for neurological conditions. Neurologists often conduct comprehensive assessments to optimize patient outcomes, identifying risks such as perioperative or exacerbation of underlying neurological diseases before procedures like tumor resections. In the postoperative phase, neurologists play a key role in managing complications, monitoring neurological function, and coordinating rehabilitation following surgeries such as intracranial tumor removals. Clinical neurophysiology, as a subspecialty, intersects with neurology through the shared application of diagnostic tools like electroencephalography (EEG) for and electromyography (EMG) for neuropathies. These techniques allow neurologists to evaluate and function noninvasively, with neurologists frequently performing initial interpretations to guide and treatment planning. This overlap facilitates integrated care, where neurophysiological data informs broader neurological management without requiring surgical intervention. Multidisciplinary team dynamics further strengthen these relations, as seen in tumor boards where neurologists, neurosurgeons, and other specialists review cases to determine optimal treatment strategies for brain and spinal tumors. Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring (IONM), involving real-time EEG or EMG assessments, is commonly employed during neurosurgical procedures to protect neural integrity, with neurologists contributing to interpretation and postoperative follow-up. Subspecialty bridges, such as functional for like or , exemplify collaborative efforts where neurologists select candidates for while execute the implantation. This partnership enhances outcomes by combining neurological expertise in symptom management with surgical precision. Despite these synergies, neurology emphasizes a non-operative approach focused on , , and conservative therapies, in contrast to neurosurgery's emphasis on invasive interventions for structural abnormalities. This distinction ensures that neurologists handle the majority of chronic neurological care, referring to neurosurgeons only when is indicated.

Emerging Areas

Neurological Enhancement Techniques

Neurological enhancement techniques encompass a range of interventions aimed at augmenting cognitive and motor functions in healthy individuals, distinct from therapeutic applications for neurological disorders. These methods target neural plasticity and systems to improve alertness, learning, , and performance, often drawing on foundational principles of such as synaptic strengthening through repeated stimulation. While promising, their efficacy varies by context, with strongest in controlled settings like sleep-deprived states or targeted . Pharmacological approaches include nootropics such as , which promotes wakefulness and has shown modest enhancements in executive function and in non-sleep-deprived healthy adults, particularly in tasks requiring sustained focus. For instance, improves and by modulating and systems, though benefits are inconsistent across studies and limited outside fatigue scenarios. Stimulants like , commonly prescribed for ADHD, have been explored off-label for cognitive enhancement in healthy populations; they enhance and in novel tasks by increasing availability in prefrontal regions, reducing errors in numeric tasks by up to 20% in some trials, but may impair complex problem-solving quality despite boosting motivation. These agents carry risks of dependency, with exhibiting higher abuse potential than due to its amphetamine-like effects. Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques, such as (tDCS), apply weak electrical currents to modulate cortical excitability, enhancing learning and motor skills in healthy users. Anodal tDCS over the has been shown in meta-analyses to improve capacity in older adults by 10-15% when paired with cognitive training, facilitating faster acquisition of new skills through increased neuronal firing rates. (TMS) uses magnetic pulses to induce similar effects, with repetitive protocols targeting the yielding cognitive gains like better task-switching and mental flexibility in healthy individuals, as evidenced by improved executive function scores in randomized trials. These methods promote without invasive procedures, though response variability is high due to individual differences in brain . Neurofeedback, particularly EEG-based protocols, trains individuals to self-regulate activity for enhancement by providing real-time feedback on neural oscillations. In healthy adults, theta/beta ratio training over multiple sessions improves attentional performance and , with meta-analyses reporting medium-to-large effect sizes (Cohen's d ≈ 0.6-0.8) on sustained focus tasks, akin to for of . This approach fosters long-term cognitive gains through neuroplastic changes in frontoparietal networks, without pharmacological side effects. Current applications of these techniques extend to high-stakes environments, including operations where sustains pilot alertness during extended missions, improving reaction times and decision-making under . In athletics, tDCS has enhanced and skill acquisition, reducing perceived exertion by 10-20% in cyclists and aiding in precision sports like , by optimizing corticospinal pathways. has similarly boosted focus in competitive settings, with athletes reporting sustained attention improvements post-training. Ethical concerns surround these enhancements, including access disparities that favor affluent users, exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities in cognitive performance. Long-term safety remains uncertain, with potential risks like disruptions from overstimulation or from stimulants, as seen in dependency rates up to 5-10% for in non-clinical use. Broader issues involve for experimental protocols and the risk of in performance-driven fields like the , where enhancements could undermine voluntary participation. Regulatory frameworks emphasize equitable distribution and rigorous safety monitoring to mitigate these challenges.

Future Directions in Neurology

The field of neurology is poised for transformative advancements driven by innovations in , , , and strategies, alongside cutting-edge research frontiers that promise deeper insights into brain function. These developments build on foundational progress in molecular and to address unmet needs in neurological disorders. Anticipated breakthroughs aim to enhance precision in , treatment, and prevention, potentially revolutionizing patient outcomes worldwide. Gene therapy, particularly using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, represents a cornerstone of future neurological interventions, with the 2019 FDA approval of Zolgensma for (SMA) in children under two years exemplifying its potential to deliver functional genes and halt disease progression. Recent approvals include Lenmeldy (atidarsagene autotemcel) in 2024 for (), a neurodegenerative disorder affecting the . Ongoing expansions of AAV-based approaches target broader applications, such as neurodegenerative conditions, by improving vector specificity and reducing to enable safer, one-time treatments for genetic epilepsies and . Future refinements may incorporate integration for editable gene corrections, accelerating clinical translation for rare neurological disorders. Integration of (AI) into neurology is expected to enhance predictive and analytical capabilities, with models demonstrating high accuracy in EEG-based prediction by analyzing pre-ictal patterns to enable proactive interventions. In , AI algorithms are advancing automated analysis of MRI and CT scans, improving detection of subtle lesions in conditions like and with sensitivities exceeding 90% in recent validations. These tools will likely evolve into real-time clinical decision aids, fostering personalized therapies and reducing diagnostic delays in resource-limited settings. Regenerative medicine holds promise for restoring neural function in progressive disorders, as evidenced by ongoing stem cell trials for Parkinson's disease where induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived dopamine progenitors have shown safety and modest motor improvements in phase 1/2a studies involving bilateral transplantation. Recent updates from trials indicate sustained graft survival up to two years post-implantation, with no tumorigenicity observed, and phase 3 trials now underway as of 2025, including bemdaneprocel, targeting advanced patients. Future directions include optimizing cell sourcing and delivery to enhance integration with host circuitry, potentially extending applications to spinal cord injuries and Alzheimer's disease. Addressing global challenges will be crucial, as telemedicine expands access to neurological care in rural areas by enabling remote consultations that mitigate geographic barriers and reduce travel burdens for patients with mobility limitations. However, persistent issues like broadband disparities and regulatory hurdles must be resolved to ensure equitable implementation. The neurological sequelae of pandemics, such as , underscore the need for integrated research; studies reveal elevated risks of , neuropathy, and persisting beyond one year, with affecting approximately 43% and cognitive issues up to 28% of cases as of 2025, informing future preparedness for viral-induced vulnerabilities. Research frontiers like and are set to illuminate neural mechanisms at unprecedented resolution, with efforts mapping comprehensive brain wiring diagrams to uncover circuit-level disruptions in disorders like autism and . enables precise manipulation of neural circuits , allowing millisecond-scale activation or inhibition of targeted populations to dissect causal relationships in and models. These techniques, increasingly combined with AI for data interpretation, will drive discoveries in circuit-based therapies, including applications for neurological enhancement.

References

  1. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22277-neurologist
  2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurology
  3. https://www.aan.com/tools-resources/what-is-a-neurologist
  4. https://www.who.int/news/item/14-10-2025-11-million-lives-lost-each-year-urgent-action-needed-on-neurological-care
  5. https://www.mayoclinic.org/departments-centers/neurology/sections/overview/ovc-20117067
  6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=mesh&Cmd=DetailsSearch&Term=%2522Neurology%2522%255BMeSH%2BTerms%255D
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11236055/
  8. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22364-neurosurgeon
  9. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7292567/
  10. https://www.aan.com/Guidelines/home/GetGuidelineContent/1119
  11. https://www.aan.com/Fellowship
  12. https://www.world-stroke.org/world-stroke-day-campaign/about-stroke/impact-of-stroke
  13. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia
  14. https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000200150
  15. https://www.parkinson.org/about-us/news/economic-burden-of-parkinsons-disease-study
  16. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-of-older-adults
  17. https://www.cdc.gov/traumatic-brain-injury/prevention/index.html
  18. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.124.065473
  19. https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000210226
  20. https://www.who.int/news/item/14-03-2024-over-1-in-3-people-affected-by-neurological-conditions--the-leading-cause-of-illness-and-disability-worldwide
  21. https://thejns.org/view/journals/j-neurosurg/116/4/article-p743.xml
  22. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8051941/
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3026179/
  24. https://medcraveonline.com/JNSK/galen-and-the-neurosciences.html
  25. https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.88.16_supplement.P2.034
  26. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19892113/
  27. https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/130/5/1432/283170
  28. https://www.academia.edu/18280649/Part_1_The_history_of_19th_century_neurology_and_the_American_Neurological_Association
  29. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0072975208021398
  30. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1079269/
  31. https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/cajal-lecture.pdf
  32. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/advan.00119.2024
  33. https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/135/2/631/261811
  34. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25491387/
  35. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8555965/
  36. https://mccollege.edu/aas-in-magnetic-resonance-imaging-mri-technology/about-the-mri-technology-career/the-history-of-the-mri-development-of-medical-resonance-imaging/
  37. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/about-ninds/what-we-do/impact/ninds-contributions-approved-therapies/tissue-plasminogen-activator-acute-ischemic-stroke-alteplase-activaser
  38. https://www.clinmedres.org/content/9/1/46
  39. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4899966/
  40. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542179/
  41. https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/organization/pns.html
  42. https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s2/chapter01.html
  43. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539882/
  44. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556027/
  45. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539845/
  46. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10869/
  47. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441945/
  48. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4397166/
  49. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/neurological-disorder
  50. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00705-021-04959-6
  51. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557861/
  52. https://www.findacode.com/icd-11/chapter-08.html
  53. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3076370/
  54. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003191.htm
  55. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/epilepsy/types-of-seizures
  56. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3823156/
  57. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK361950/
  58. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499997/
  59. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559173/
  60. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459143/
  61. https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-causes-and-risk-factors/what-happens-brain-alzheimers-disease
  62. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536722/
  63. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556151/
  64. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499849/
  65. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/guillain-barre-syndrome
  66. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/epilepsy-and-seizures
  67. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560787/
  68. https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1147993-overview
  69. https://geekymedics.com/neurological-history-taking-osce-guide/
  70. https://patient.info/doctor/history-examination/neurological-history-and-examination
  71. https://neurology.ufl.edu/wordpress/files/2019/09/Neurology-History-and-Physical-Guidelines.pdf
  72. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557589/
  73. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1202204/
  74. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554616/
  75. https://www.aan.com/siteassets/home-page/tools-and-resources/academic-neurologist--researchers/program-director-tools/00neuroimagingtrainingguidelines_tr.pdf
  76. https://insightsimaging.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13244-022-01309-1
  77. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878747923006190
  78. https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/abs/10.1148/rg.343135065
  79. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18025394/
  80. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK611987/
  81. https://www.nationalmssociety.org/for-professionals/for-healthcare-professionals/diagnosing-ms/diagnostic-criteria-workup
  82. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/article/PIIS1474-4422(25)00270-4/fulltext
  83. https://arupconsult.com/ati/huntington-disease
  84. https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003532
  85. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482455/
  86. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482140/
  87. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7446632/
  88. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8592652/
  89. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6187751/
  90. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547750/
  91. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5952271/
  92. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534257/
  93. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6431761/
  94. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7116238/
  95. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3494002/
  96. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1201315/
  97. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(02)11314-6/fulltext
  98. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3196659/
  99. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11984070/
  100. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0087987
  101. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4361809/
  102. https://medicaljournalssweden.se/jrm/article/view/15759
  103. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10227641/
  104. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3147016/
  105. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2846331/
  106. https://now.aapmr.org/wheelchair-and-power-mobility/
  107. https://www.espen.org/files/ESPEN-Guidelines/ESPEN-guideline_clinical_nutrition_in_neurology.pdf
  108. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24796442/
  109. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13561820.2024.2325694
  110. https://www.sralab.org/rehabilitation-measures/functional-independence-measure
  111. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5392193/
  112. https://www.aan.com/tools-resources/how-to-become-a-neurologist
  113. https://www.umhs-sk.org/blog/how-to-become-a-neurologist
  114. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8093009/
  115. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7891131/
  116. https://www.aan.com/tools-resources/how-to-apply-for-a-fellowship
  117. https://abpn.org/become-certified/taking-a-specialty-exam/neurology/
  118. https://www.aan.com/education/continuing-certification-requirements
  119. https://www.bmj.com/careers/article/the-complete-guide-to-becoming-a-neurology-doctor
  120. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022510X25002175
  121. https://www.brainandlife.org/articles/a-day-in-the-life-of-a-general-neurologist
  122. https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/explore-roles/doctors/roles-doctors/medicine/neurology
  123. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/lumbar-puncture/about/pac-20394631
  124. https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000200063
  125. https://www.medlink.com/news/neurology-in-practice-ethical-considerations-in-end-of-life-care
  126. https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.13120371
  127. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6309772/
  128. https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21110271
  129. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7350524/
  130. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00047/full
  131. https://www.nature.com/articles/mp201325
  132. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9200562/
  133. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2646652/
  134. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4513721/
  135. https://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/guidelines-dementia-age-related-cognitive-change.pdf
  136. https://www.neurologyadvisor.com/features/who-diagnoses-autism-expert-views-from-neurology-psychiatry-and-psychology/
  137. https://www.nyp.org/pediatrics/autismtaskforce/locations
  138. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3810828/
  139. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000968
  140. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1472029923000607
  141. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1178632917711942
  142. https://ce.mayo.edu/content/electromyography-emg-electroencephalography-eeg-and-neurophysiology-clinical-practice-2021
  143. https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/neuromuscular/emg-and-nerve-conduction-studies-in-clinical-practice/30863/
  144. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-39342-1
  145. https://www.nyp.org/advances/article/neurology-neurosurgery/a-multidimensional-treatment-approach-to-spinal-tumors
  146. https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/neurology-neurosurgery/news/team-approach-for-optimal-tumor-care/mac-20451959
  147. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11122101/
  148. https://med.stanford.edu/neurosurgery/divisions/functional.html
  149. https://towerhealth.org/services/functional-neurosurgery-and-movement-disorders
  150. https://thejns.org/focus/view/journals/neurosurg-focus/56/6/article-pE1.xml
  151. https://www.dignityhealth.org/articles/neurologist-vs-neurosurgeon-what-you-should-know
  152. https://www.rush.edu/news/whats-difference-between-neurologist-and-neurosurgeon
  153. https://www.uchicagomedicineadventhealth.org/hospital/uchicago-medicine-adventhealth-hinsdale/blog/neurology-vs-neurosurgery-whats-difference
  154. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3800148/
  155. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4083569/
  156. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31433334/
  157. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26381811/
  158. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3286657/
  159. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4471173/
  160. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2013.00198/full
  161. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.add4165
  162. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11456488/
  163. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2025.1631905/full
  164. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4833093/
  165. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/4/299
  166. https://bmcneurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12883-024-03726-9
  167. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0035378721006974
  168. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00051/full
  169. https://direct.mit.edu/imag/article/doi/10.1162/imag_a_00053/118349/Efficacy-of-neurofeedback-training-for-improving
  170. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34632515/
  171. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20240314-the-drug-pilots-take-to-stay-awake
  172. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5592297/
  173. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-red-light-district/201710/enhancing-athletic-performance-brain-stimulation
  174. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-26610-3
  175. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11542783/
  176. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2022.813922/full
  177. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8081770/
  178. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-025-01908-4
  179. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-innovative-gene-therapy-treat-pediatric-patients-spinal-muscular-atrophy-rare-disease
  180. https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/alzheimer-disease-dementias/special-report-2024-neurology-drug-device-approvals/33149/
  181. https://www.fda.gov/media/127961/download
  182. https://www.fda.gov/media/167536/download
  183. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8794701/
  184. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12025469/
  185. https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-025-00367-2
  186. https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)01041-4
  187. https://www.med.wisc.edu/news/cell-therapy-for-parkinsons/
  188. https://www.bluerocktx.com/first-parkinsons-disease-patient-treated-in-bluerocks-pivotal-phase-iii-trial-of-investigational-cell-therapy-bemdaneprocel/
  189. https://www.hsci.harvard.edu/parkinsons-disease-0
  190. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10635366/
  191. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44250-024-00098-2
  192. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-022-02001-z
  193. https://bmcneurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12883-025-04174-9
  194. https://bmcneurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12883-024-03864-0
  195. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3130851/
  196. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neural-circuits/articles/10.3389/fncir.2025.1516839/full
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.