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Resian dialect
View on Wikipedia| Resian | |
|---|---|
| Rozajanski langäč / Rozojanski langäč | |
 Pater Noster in the old Resian dialect | |
| Native to | Italy |
| Region | Resia valley |
| Ethnicity | Resians[1] |
Native speakers | 929 (2022)[2] |
| Dialects |
|
| Latin | |
| Official status | |
Recognised minority language in | |
| Regulated by | University of Padua[3] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| Glottolog | resi1246 |
| IETF | sl-rozaj |
 The Resian dialect | |
The Resian dialect or simply Resian (self-designation Standard Rozajanski langäč / Rozojanski langäč, Bila Rozajanski langäč / Rozojanski langäč, Osoanë Rozoanske langäč, Solbica Rozajonski langeč / Rozojonski langeč;[3] Slovene: rezijansko narečje [ɾɛziˈjáːnskɔ naˈɾéːt͡ʃjɛ], rezijanščina; Italian: Dialetto Resiano) is a distinct variety in the South Slavic continuum, generally considered a Slovene dialect spoken in the Resia Valley, Province of Udine, Italy, close to the border with Slovenia.[4][5][6]
Together with the Rosen Valley dialect and Ebriach dialect in Carinthia, it is one of the three dialects of Slovene spoken entirely outside the borders of Slovenia. It is unequivocally one of the most distinct and difficult dialects to understand for speakers of central Slovene dialects, especially because most Resians are not familiar with standard Slovene.[7] Its distinguishing characteristic is centralized, breathy vowels.[8] It borders the Slovene Torre Valley dialect to the south and the Soča dialect to the east, both separated by tall mountain ranges.[9] On the other sides, it mostly borders Friulian, but also Bavarian to the north. It belongs to the Littoral dialect group, although it shows few similarities with other Littoral dialects and evolved from the Carinthian dialect base, northern Slovene, as opposed to other Littoral dialects, which evolved either from western or southern Slovene. It is spoken by fewer than a thousand people and is listed as a definitely endangered language according to UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.[10] Despite this, Resians value their language and it is being passed down to younger generations.[7]
Geographic extension
[edit]The area where Resian is spoken is practically the same as the area of the Municipality of Resia (Italian: Comune di Resia). It is spoken entirely in northeastern Italy, in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region in the province of Udine, making it the only Slovene dialect that is spoken exclusively in Italy. The speakers are settled in villages in the Resia Valley (Slovene: Rezija), along the Resia River (Rezija), as well as the upper Uccea Valley (Učja) on the Italian side. This includes several villages, including (from west to east): San Giorno (Bilä, Bela), Prato di Resia (Ravanca), Gniva (Njïwa, Njiva), Criacis (Krïžaca, Križeca), Oseacco (Osoanë, Osojane), Carnizza (Karnïca, Karnica), Stolvizza (Solbica), Coritis (Korïto, Korito), and Uccea (Učja).[11] The Resia Valley is open to the west, where Friulian is spoken, and separated by tall mountains in other directions. There is a road connecting it to the Uccea Valley, reaching an elevation of more than 1,100 m above sea level, and it is further connected to the Torre and Soča Valleys, where Slovene is spoken. To the south, it is bordered by the Musi (Mužci) Mountains, to the east by Mount Canin (Ćanen, Kanin), and to the north by Mount Sard (Žard), therefore limiting possible connections with neighboring dialects and languages, which in turn has led to so many distinct features of Resian dialect.[9]
The area was settled by Slovenes from the north, the area of today's Gail Valley dialect. Both areas remained connected until the 14th century, when sparsely populated Slovenes living in the Raccolana and Dogna Valleys started speaking Romance languages. There is no Slovene-speaking minority in that area today because it is mainly populated by Friulian and German speakers.[12]
Standard Resian
[edit]Standard Resian was developed by Han Steenwijk from the University of Padua and his colleagues Alfonso Barazzutti, Milko Matičetov, Pavle Merkù, Giovanni Rotta, and Willem Vermeer in the 1990s and continuing today. To date, they have standardized the writing, pronunciation,[13] and declension.[14] At first it was suggested to base the standard language on a central microdialect, particularly that of Gniva (Njïva, Njiva), but later it was decided to allow four forms of standard Resian, based on the four microdialects of four larger villages: San Giorno (Bila, Bela), Gniva (Njïva, Njiva), Oseacco (Osoanë, Osojane), and Stolvizza (Solbica).[15] For other areas of grammar, only the microdialect of San Giorno can be used because it is the only one described in sufficient detail thanks to Steenwijk's extensive research.[16]
Characteristics
[edit]Resian belongs to the western subgroup of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, together with Slovene, which includes the Natisone Valley dialect, and Serbo-Croatian. It represents the far northwestern part of the dialect continuum. The closest written language is the Natisone Valley dialect and the closest standard language is Slovene. The closest (other) Slovene dialect is the Torre Valley dialect, another dialect known for little mutual intelligibility with other dialects.[17] Written Resian can be understood by most Slovenes, partially also due to its similar orthography. Spoken Resian, however, is much more difficult to understand, with the main reason being centralization of vowels, making them more difficult to distinguish. Speakers of the Torre Valley and Natisone Valley dialects, as well as other dialects in Littoral dialect group, can understand spoken Resian most easily because they have the most shared features and they all have extensive vocabulary from Friulian and Italian.[17]
Mutual intelligibility with other South Slavic languages is even more difficult, although Resian has undergone the *sěnȏ > *sě̀no accent shift,[18] and so these words are now accented on the same syllable as in Serbo-Croatian, as opposed to most Slovene dialects.
Language vs. dialect
[edit]There is disagreement between native speakers of the dialect and linguists regarding whether Resian should be considered a separate language or only a dialect of Slovene. Resians were isolated from other Slovenes from the 14th century onward, before standard Slovene was developed, and later they never had the chance to learn it because there were no Slovene schools in that area and none of the Italian schools taught Slovene, not even as a foreign language. Resians thus not only have a hard time understanding Slovene, but they also do not feel themselves part of the Slovene nation because they were left out, and they consider themselves an ethnic group separate from Slovenes. In 2004, 1,014 out of 1,285 (78.9%) inhabitants of Resia signed a petition declaring that they are not Slovenes.[1] The dialect also has its own orthography, which existed and was actively used even before standardization. Resian is also used instead of standard Slovene on bilingual signs and in public announcements.[19]
On the other hand, linguists have always treated Resian as a dialect. It does not show any features sufficiently distinct to qualify it as a separate language.[20][21][22] To avoid disputes, it is thus often referred to as a Slavic microlanguage.[23]
Accent
[edit]The Resian dialect, in contrast to neighboring dialects, does not have pitch accent and seems to have lost distinctions in vowel length, with the only difference in length being tied to stress (stressed vowels are longer than short)[24] and breathiness (breathy vowels are shorter than non-breathy),[24][25] although standard Resian forms still differentiate between length. From the historical perspective, Resian has undergone only the *sěnȏ > *sě̀no accent shift since Alpine Slovene,[18] making it two accent shifts different from standard Slovene, which has not undergone the *sěnȏ > *sě̀no accent shift, but has undergone the *ženȁ → *žèna and optionally *məglȁ → *mə̀gla accent shifts.[26]
Phonology
[edit]Due to years of isolated evolution from other Slovene dialects, Resian has developed some iconic features, particularly breathy, centralized vowels that are almost exclusive to Resian, with only some microdialects of the Torre Valley dialect also having a similar sound.[27] Its consonant inventory is shared with the Littoral dialects, retaining palatal sounds.
Consonants
[edit]Han Steenwijk recorded 25 consonant phonemes in San Giorno (Bila, Bela) and then also generalized the pronunciation to the other three standard forms, which are definitely similar, except that Stolvizza (Solbica) has somewhat different allophones for /g/ and /x/.[28] Tine Logar also recorded the phoneme /dz/.[29]
| Labial | Dental/ | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | |||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c | k | |
| voiced | b | d | ɟ | ɡ | ||
| Affricate | voiceless | ts | tʃ | |||
| voiced | (dz) | dʒ | ||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | x | |
| voiced | z | ʒ | ||||
| Approximant | ʋ | l | j | w | ||
| Trill | r | |||||
Vowels
[edit]In contrast to consonants, vowels differ significantly between the four microdialects, especially in accented syllables. They all have thoroughly researched accented vowels; however, Oseacco (Osoanë, Osojane) lacks research on unaccented vowels. This is the accent system for San Giorno (Bila, Bela):[31]
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | |||
| Close | i | ɨ | ʉ | u |
| Close-mid | e | ə̝ | ɵ | o |
| Open-mid | ɛ | ə | ɔ | |
| Near-open | ɐ | |||
| Open | a | |||
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | |||
| Close | i | u | ||
| Open-mid | ɛ | ə | ɵ | ɔ |
| Open | a | |||
Evolution
[edit]The evolution of Resian into such a distinct dialect happened gradually and in three stages. The first stage lasted until the 14th century; at that time, Resian was mostly influenced by the Gail Valley dialect. In the second stage, it acquired many features of Venetian Slovene dialects and other Littoral dialects. The third stage represents changes that are unique to Resian and cannot be found elsewhere.
First stage
[edit]Until the 13th century, Resian experienced the same evolution as all other Slovene dialects, forming into Alpine Slovene.[32] It was part of the northwestern dialect because long yat diphthongized into *ie and long *ō diphthongized into *uo. It did not experience denasalization of nasal vowels.[33] After further division, it fell into the category of the northern dialect, the same as other Carinthian dialects and unlike other Littoral dialects. It thus did not experience lengthening of non-final vowels at that time, because vowel lengthening in northern dialects happened only after the 16th century, well past the point when Resian lost contact with the Carinthian dialects and leading to possible different reflexes for formerly long and short vowels.[34][35] Long *ə̄ also turned into *ē, which is unique to Resian in comparison to other Littoral dialects because there it turned into *a.[36] The evolution then continued the same as with other Carinthian dialects, leading to the Carinthian dialect base. Short non-final *ě̀, *ò, and è evolved differently from their long counterparts, into *é, ó, and é, respectively. Long *ē turned into *ẹ̄, whereas the nasal vowels remained intact and only lengthened. Long *ə̄ turned into a very open ȩ̄ and short non-final vowels lengthened.[37]
Later, Resian followed the same patterns as the Jaun Valley dialect, such as *ie and *uo simplifying into *iə and *uə, *é and ó turned into *ẹ and *ọ, and the *sěnȏ > *sě̀no accent shift, as well as the merger of *ē and *ě̄. Long nasal vowels also denasalized and *ę̄ merged with *ə̄, resulting in *ē and *ō.[38]
Second stage
[edit]The second stage was primarily influenced by the Torre Valley dialect. Open *ē and *ō became close-mid *ẹ̄2 and *ọ̄2 (in contrast to previously existing *ẹ̄1 and *ọ̄1). Short *ə turned into *a, *ĺ turned into *i̯, *w started turning into *v before front vowels, and *ł turned into *l. This connection also hindered some developments, such as *t → č, the *ženȁ > *žèna shift, and the *məglȁ > *mə̀gla shift, which are present today in the Gail Valley dialect, but not in Resian. Final -m in most cases also turned into -n, a feature that also appeared in the Gail Valley dialect. The dialect also devoiced all final obstruents.[39]
Third stage
[edit]Resian lost both tonal and length oppositions, which is unlike any neighboring dialect. The diphthongs *iə and *uə monophthongized into *í2 and *ú2, respectively, forming a vowel system without diphthongs, another feature of Resian not seen in any neighboring dialects. The vowels *ọ́1 and *ẹ́1 turned into o̤ and e̤, which might have actually happened before *ọ́2 and *ẹ́2. Now only *ọ́ and *ẹ́ turned into *i and *u near a nasal consonant. Other changes did not cover the entire territory. The vowels *í1 and *ú1 from previously longer syllables turned into i̤ and ṳ, except in San Giorno (Bila, Bela), where previously short *í1 and *ú1 turned into centralized vowels, whereas elsewhere they turned into e and o. Syllabic *ł̥́ mostly turned into ol, except in Oseacco (Osoanë, Osojane) and Uccea (Učja), where it turned into ú. The consonant *ɣ then turned into h, or even disappeared. Other changes are specific to each microdialect.[39]
Morphology
[edit]Resian retained neuter gender, as well as some dual forms. It uses the long infinitive without the final -i.
Its special feature is the distinction between animate and inanimate masculine o-stem nouns in more than just the accusative case; the distinction is also present in the dative and locative singular. In the locative, the ending -u can be used for both animate and inanimate, whereas the ending -e̤ is generally reserved for inanimate nouns. In the dative, animate nouns have the ending -ovi/-evi. Specific to Resian are also special unstressed forms for pronouns in the nominative case—for example, ja 'I'—as well as clitic doubling; for example, Ja si ti rë́kal tabë́. 'I told you'. It also has two stressed first-person singular pronouns, jä́ and jä́s, the second being used to be more conceited. Atypical for a Slavic language, Resian also has a definite article (masculine te, feminine ta; the only standard Slavic languages to contain definite articles are Bulgarian and Macedonian) and an indefinite article. It retained the aorist and imperfect until recently, which is unlike (other) Slovene dialects. The aorist is completely unknown to living generations but it was still present in the 19th century, whereas the imperfect is actively used only with a handful of verbs and is now mostly used as a past conditional.[40]
Orthography
[edit]The standard orthography, devised in 1994 by Han Steenwijk, which is still in use today, has 34 letters for Gniva (Njïwa, Njiva) and Oseacco (Osoanë, Osojane), whereas the other two standard forms have an additional letter, ⟨y⟩.
The alphabet contains the letter ⟨w⟩, a letter that few Slavic languages use (only Polish, Kashubian, and Upper and Lower Sorbian). According to the Italian linguist Bartoli, this grapheme is characteristic of the Ladin language of the eastern Alps and indicates the native Neolatin population's strong influence on Resian.
The standard orthography uses only the letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet plus eleven other letters, which are letters from the ISO basic Latin alphabet with added acute, caron, or diaeresis:[13]
| Letter | Phoneme:
San Giorno (Bila, Bela) standard version |
Example word | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| A a | /a/ | parjät 'to seem' | [parˈjɐt] parjät |
| Ä ä | /ɐ/ | tatä 'aunt' | [taˈtɐ] tatä |
| B b | /b/ | baba 'grandma' | [ˈbaba] bába |
| C c | /ts/ | cöta 'cloth' | [ˈt͡sɵta] cö́a |
| Č č | /tʃ/ | čäs 'time' | [ˈt͡ʃɐs] čäs |
| Ć ć | /c/ | ćamïn 'chimney' | [caˈmɨn] ćamïn |
| D d | /d/ | sidët 'to sit' | [siˈdət] sidët |
| E e | /ɛ/ | maještra 'teacher' | [maˈjɛʃtra] majéštra |
| Ë ë | /ə/ | kë 'where' | [ˈkə] kë |
| F f | /f/ | fïn 'thin' | [ˈfɨn] fïn |
| G g | /g/ | goba 'mushroom' | [ˈgɔba] góba |
| Ǧ ǧ | /dʒ/ | ǧelato 'ice cream' | [ˈdʒɛlatɔ] ǧeláto |
| Ǵ ǵ | /ɟ/ | ǵanaral 'general' | [ɟanaˈral] ǵanarál |
| H h | /x/ | mihak 'soft' | [ˈmixak] míhak |
| I i | /i/ | paǵina 'page' | [ˈpaɟina] páǵina |
| Ï ï | /ɨ/ | pïsat 'to write' | [ˈpɨsat] pïsat |
| J j | /j/ | jüšt 'right' | [ˈjʉʃt] jüšt |
| K k | /k/ | kjüč 'key' | [ˈkjʉt͡ʃ] kjüč |
| L l | /l/ | listyt 'to fly' | [lisˈtə̝t] listýt |
| M m | /m/ | mama 'mom' | [ˈmama] máma |
| N n | /n/ | natik 'fast' | [naˈtik] natík |
| O o | /ɔ/ | parsona 'person' | [parˈsɔna] parsóna |
| Ö ö | /ɵ/ | patök 'stream' | [paˈtɵk] patök |
| P p | /p/ | grüpo 'group' | [ˈgɾʉpɔ] grüpo |
| R r | /r/ | dyržat 'to hold' | [ˈdə̝rʒat] dýržat |
| S s | /s/ | sam 'alone' | [ˈsam] sám |
| Š š | /ʃ/ | šëjst 'six' | [ˈʃəjst] šëjst |
| T t | /t/ | tatä 'aunt' | [taˈtɐ] tatä́ |
| U u | /u/ | klubük 'hat' | [kluˈbʉk] klubük |
| Ü ü | /ʉ/ | cükër 'sugar' | [ˈt͡sʉkər] cükër |
| V v | /ʋ/ | vys 'village' | [ˈʋə̝s] výs |
| W w | /w/ | wïža 'song' | [ˈwɨʒa] wïža |
| Y y | /ə̝/ | byt 'to be' | [ˈbə̝t] být |
| Z z | /z/ | zalën 'green' | [zaˈlən] zalë́n |
| Ž ž | /ʒ/ | žanä 'woman' | [ʒaˈnɐ] žanä |
Previously, the phoneme /ts/ could optionally also be written with ⟨z⟩ (e.g., Ravanza instead of Ravanca); however that is found inappropriate today. Despite the standard orthography, many street signs are still not adapted to the new orthography and have misspelled names on them.[19]
In addition, the acute accent ( ´ ) can be used to mark stress where it cannot be inferred.
Literature
[edit]The first written texts in Resian were already written in the 18th century. The first known instances are two manuscripts called Rez'janskij katichizis I and II, which are thought to have been written after 1700, but the exact date remains unclear because only copies exist, one of them being dated to 1797. The first manuscript must have been written before the second because it contains archaisms not seen in the second manuscript. The second known manuscript is Passio Domini ec., which has been dated between 1830 and 1848 but was probably written by a nonnative speaker. The first longer piece, spanning over 95 pages, was Christjanske uzhilo, dated to somewhere between 1845 and 1850, but it was still a manuscript. The first book was To kristjanske učilo po rozoanskeh, written by Giuseppe Cramaro sometime between 1923 and 1933. There are also numerous instances of Resian written by scholars that studied the dialect.[41]
Literature written in Resian is still being published; for instance, in 2021 Silvana Paletti and Malinka Pila published a Resian translation of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince.[42]
Research
[edit]Notable linguists who have studied the dialect include Jan Niecisław Baudouin de Courtenay, Eric Hamp, Milko Matičetov, and Roberto Dapit.
Encoding
[edit]The IETF language tags have registered:[43]
sl-rozajfor the dialect in general.sl-rozaj-1994for text in the 1994 standard orthography.
sl-rozaj-biskefor the subdialect of San Giorgio/Bila.sl-rozaj-biske-1994for text in the 1994 standard orthography.
sl-rozaj-lipawfor the subdialect of Lipovaz/Lipovec.sl-rozaj-lipaw-1994for text in the 1994 standard orthography.
sl-rozaj-njivafor the subdialect of Gniva/Njiva.sl-rozaj-njiva-1994for text in the 1994 standard orthography.
sl-rozaj-osojsfor the subdialect of Oseacco/Osojane.sl-rozaj-osojs-1994for text in the 1994 standard orthography.
sl-rozaj-solbafor the subdialect of Stolvizza/Solbica.sl-rozaj-solba-1994for text in the 1994 standard orthography.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b ""Siamo resiani e non sloveni" Mille firme per un referendum" ["We are Resians and not Slovenians" One thousand signatures for a referendum]. Il Messaggero. February 5, 2004.
- ^ "Popolazione residente al 1° Gennaio 2022 per sesso, età e stato civile - dati provvisori; Comune: Resia" [Resident population on 1st January 2022 by gender, age and marital status – data provider; Comune: Resia]. Istituto Nazionale di Statistica (in Italian and English). 1 January 2022. Archived from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ^ a b Steenwijk, Han (15 April 2004). "Resian dictionary". Resianica (in English, Italian, and Slovenian). University of Padua. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ^ Steenwijk (1992a:1)
- ^ Pronk, Tijmen (2009). The Slovene Dialect of Egg and Potschach in the Gailtal, Austria. Amsterdam: Rodopi. p. 2.
- ^ Stankiewicz, Edward (1986). The Slavic Languages: Unity in Diversity. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 93.
- ^ a b Logar (1996:231)
- ^ Logar (1996:4)
- ^ a b "Karta slovenskih narečij z večjimi naselji" (PDF). Fran.si. Inštitut za slovenski jezik Frana Ramovša ZRC SAZU. Retrieved June 8, 2020.
- ^ Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, UNESCO's Endangered Languages Programme, retrieved 2015-10-17
- ^ Vidau (2021:60)
- ^ Logar (1996:233)
- ^ a b Steenwijk (1994)
- ^ Steenwijk (1999)
- ^ Steenwijk, Han (1992b). "Verso la grammatica pratica del resiano" [Towards the practical grammar of the Resian]. Resianica (in Italian). Archived from the original on August 12, 2007. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ^ Steenwijk (1992a)
- ^ a b Logar, Tine (1970). "Slovenski dialekti v zamejstvu". Prace Filologiczne. 20: 84. ISSN 0138-0567.
- ^ a b Šekli (2018:310–314)
- ^ a b Vidau (2021:60–61)
- ^ Ahačič, Kozma; Škofic, Jožica; Gliha Komac, Nataša; Gostenčnik, Januška; Ježovnik, Janoš; Kenda-Jež, Karmen; Šekli, Matej; Škofic, Jožica; Zuljan Kumarr, Danila (2020). "Zakaj je nadiško narečje v Italiji slovensko narečje" [Why is Natisone dialect in Italy a Slovene dialect] (pdf). Jezikovni zapiski [Language notes]. 26/2020/1 (in Slovenian). ZRC SAZU. pp. 219–223. doi:10.3986/Jz.26.1.15. S2CID 216486109. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ^ Rigler, Jakob (1986). Razprave o slovenskem jeziku. Ljubljana: Slovenska Matica v Ljubljani. p. 100.
- ^ Natale Zuanella (1978). "Informacija o jezikovnem položaju v Beneški Sloveniji – Informazione sulla realtà linguistica della Slavia Veneta". Atti: conferenza sui Gruppi Etnico Linguistici della Provincia di Udine. Cividale del Friuli: SLORI. p. 273.
- ^ Šekli, Matej (2015). "Slovanski knjižni mikrojeziki: opredelitev in prikaz pojava znotraj slovenščine" [Slavic literary microlanguages: characterization and display of the feature inside Slovene language.] (PDF). Država in narod v slovenskem jeziku, literaturi in kulturi (in Slovenian) (1st ed.). Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. p. 95. ISBN 978-961-237-753-3.
- ^ a b Logar (1996:248)
- ^ Rigler, Jakob (2001). "V Ocene in polemike: O rezijanskem naglasu" [V Evaluations and polemics: About Resian accent]. In Smole, Vera (ed.). Zbrani spisi / Jakob Rigler [Collected essays / Jakob Rigler] (in Slovenian). Vol. 1: Jezikovnozgodovinske in dialektološke razprave. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC. pp. 494–495. ISBN 961-6358-32-4.
- ^ Šekli (2018:311–312)
- ^ Ježovnik, Janoš (2019). Notranja glasovna in naglasna členjenost terskega narečja slovenščine (pdf) (in Slovenian). Ljubljana. p. 26. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Steenwijk (1992a:14)
- ^ Logar (1996:122)
- ^ Steenwijk (1992a:20)
- ^ Steenwijk (1992a:19–20)
- ^ Šekli (2018:297)
- ^ Šekli (2018:297–300)
- ^ Rigler (2001:315)
- ^ Šekli (2018:300–302)
- ^ Šekli (2018:303)
- ^ Šekli (2018:325)
- ^ Logar (1996:233)
- ^ a b Logar (1996:233–236)
- ^ Benacchio, Rosana (1998). "Oblikoslovno-skladenjske posebnosti rezijanščine" [Morphologically-sytactical features of Resian]. Slavistična revija: časopis za jezikoslovje in literarne vede [Journal for linguistics and literary studies]. 46/3 (in Slovenian). Translated by Gruden, Živa. Ljubljana: Slavistično društvo Slovenije. pp. 249–259. ISSN 0350-6894.
- ^ Steenwijk, Han (2003). The Roots of Written Resian. Padua. pp. 313–322. S2CID 209507567.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Te Mali Prïncip (verlag-tintenfass.de)
- ^ "IETF Language Subtag Registry". IANA. 2021-08-06. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
Bibliography
[edit]- Logar, Tine (1996). Kenda-Jež, Karmen (ed.). Dialektološke in jezikovnozgodovinske razprave [Dialectological and etymological discussions] (in Slovenian). Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU, Inštitut za slovenski jezik Frana Ramovša. ISBN 961-6182-18-8.
- Steenwijk, Han (1992a). Barentsen, A. A.; Groen, B. M.; Sprenger, R. (eds.). The Slovene dialect of Resia: San Giorno. Vol. 18. Amsterdam - Atlanta: Rodopi. ISBN 90-5183-366-0.
- Steenwijk, Han (1994). Ortografia resiana = Tö jošt rozajanskë pïsanjë (in Italian and Slovenian). Padua: CLEUP.
- Steenwijk, Han (1999). Grammatica pratica resiana: il sostantivo (in Italian and Slovenian). Padua: CLEUP. ISBN 88-7178-646-7.
- Šekli, Matej (2018). Legan Ravnikar, Andreja (ed.). Tipologija lingvogenez slovanskih jezikov (in Slovenian). Translated by Plotnikova, Anastasija. Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU. ISBN 978-961-05-0137-4.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - Vidau, Zaira (12–19 November 2021). "Ocena stanja izvajanja določil iz 10. člena Zaščitnega zakona št. 38/2001 o krajevnih imenih in javnih napisih" [Evaluation of the state of execution of provision from 10th article of Preservation law number 38/2001 about settlement names and public inscriptions]. In Jagodic, Devan (ed.). Tretja deželna konferenca o varstvu slovenske jezikovne manjšine [Third provincial conference about preservation of Slovene language minority] (PDF) (in Slovenian). Translated by Castegnaro, Laura; Clerici, Martina; Umer Kljun, Jerneja. Trieste/Trst: Slovene research institute. pp. 60–61. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
External links
[edit]- Resianic homepage Archived 2006-05-06 at the Wayback Machine, containing texts in Italian, German, Slovenian, and English, as well as a Resian-Slovenian dictionary
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Resian dialect
View on GrokipediaThe Resian dialect (Rezijanščina or rezijanski jezik) is a Slovene dialect spoken primarily in the Resia Valley (Val Resia or Rezija) in the Province of Udine, Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of northeastern Italy, adjacent to the Slovenian border.[1][2] It is classified as a transitional variety within the South Slavic dialect continuum, exhibiting archaic phonological traits shared with the Carinthian (Koroško) group alongside innovations aligning it with the Littoral (Primorsko) dialects, which contribute to its distinctiveness from standard Slovene.[1][3] Spoken by an estimated 1,300 individuals in several villages, the dialect is maintained through oral tradition and limited literary efforts dating back to the 18th century, though it remains unprotected by standard orthography and faces endangerment from geographic isolation and cultural assimilation pressures.[4][5] As a minority variety under Italian law 482/1999, Resian exemplifies the linguistic diversity of borderland communities, with sociolinguistic studies highlighting its separation from the broader Slovene dialect network.[4][2]
Geography and Demography
Distribution and Settlement Patterns
The Resian dialect is spoken exclusively within the Resia Valley and the adjacent upper Uccea Valley in northeastern Italy, located in the municipality of Resia, Province of Udine, Friuli-Venezia Giulia region, bordering Slovenia.[1] This remote alpine area, characterized by rugged terrain and isolation, has confined the dialect's distribution to a small territory of approximately 100 square kilometers along the Resia River and its tributaries.[6] Speakers are settled in compact hamlets including Resia (Rezije), Oseacco (Osoanë), and Premio (Premul) in the main valley, as well as San Giorgio in the Uccea Valley, where distinct local varieties of the dialect prevail.[7] Settlement patterns follow a linear arrangement along river valleys, typical of alpine Slavic communities, with traditional wooden houses clustered in nucleated villages surrounded by pastures and forests, fostering linguistic continuity through geographic seclusion until mid-20th century infrastructure development.[8] Contemporary patterns show limited outward migration, with most speakers remaining in these rural settlements, though younger generations increasingly commute to nearby urban centers like Udine or Trieste for employment, potentially diluting daily dialect use.[9] No significant diaspora communities exist outside Italy, maintaining the dialect's hyper-local distribution.[6]Speaker Population and Vitality Status
The Resian dialect is spoken by fewer than 1,000 fluent speakers, primarily residing in the Resia Valley municipality in the province of Udine, northeastern Italy.[10] The valley's total population stands at approximately 916 as of 2023, with Resian usage concentrated among ethnic Resians who maintain traditional linguistic practices despite assimilation pressures.[11] Earlier estimates from 2001 indicated around 1,300 users, reflecting a gradual decline due to intergenerational transmission challenges.[4] Resian holds a definitely endangered status according to assessments derived from UNESCO's criteria, characterized by limited institutional support, restricted domains of use, and vulnerability to dominance by standard Italian and Slovene.[12] Community efforts, including cultural associations and bilingual signage, demonstrate resilience and active preservation initiatives, yet the dialect's vitality remains precarious with fewer young fluent speakers emerging.[4] Linguistic documentation projects continue to support its survival, but without broader revitalization measures, further erosion is anticipated.[1]Linguistic Classification
Affiliation with Slavic Languages
The Resian dialect belongs to the South Slavic branch of the Slavic language family, which derives from Proto-Slavic and encompasses languages spoken primarily in the Balkans and adjacent regions.[1] Within this branch, Resian is classified under the Western subgroup, aligning it with Slovene and its dialect continuum.[6] This positioning reflects shared innovations from Common Slavic, such as the development of certain palatalizations and vowel reductions typical of Southwestern South Slavic varieties.[13] Linguistically, Resian exhibits core South Slavic features, including the preservation of nasal vowels in some forms and a case system with dual number, distinguishing it from West Slavic (e.g., Polish, Czech) and East Slavic (e.g., Russian, Ukrainian) branches, which lack these traits or show divergent evolutions like the loss of the dual.[1] Its affiliation with Slovene is evidenced by lexical and morphological overlaps, such as the use of the synthetic future tense and specific verbal aspect markers, though Resian retains archaic elements like certain consonant clusters not fully simplified in standard Slovene.[6] Comparative studies confirm mutual intelligibility with neighboring Slovene dialects, supporting its integration into the broader Slovene dialect group rather than an isolated Slavic outlier.[1] Genealogically, the path traces from Indo-European through Balto-Slavic to Proto-Slavic, then South Slavic, with Resian emerging as a peripheral variety influenced by prolonged contact but retaining unambiguous Slavic substrate.[6] Phonological evidence, including the front rounded vowel /ü/ and centralized vowels, aligns it closely with Littoral Slovene dialects, reinforcing its non-controversial placement within the Slavic family tree.[1]Debate on Dialect vs. Independent Language Status
The classification of Resian as a dialect of Slovene rather than an independent language rests on its genealogical affiliation within the Western South Slavic continuum, sharing core innovations such as dual number preservation and specific verbal conjugations with the Littoral dialect group.[14] Phonological analyses confirm this link through common developments like the treatment of proto-Slavic *tj, *kt to *c, *c groups, despite Resian's peripheral innovations from isolation.[15] Morphosyntactic traits, including subject doubling—a phenomenon where pronouns redundantly mark subjects for emphasis—further align it with Slovene varieties, though exaggerated in Resian due to substrate influences.[16] Arguments for dialect status emphasize insufficient divergence for autonomy: Resian lacks standardized norms independent of Slovene orthography and lexicon, and written forms remain partially intelligible to educated Slovenes, supporting continuum models over discrete boundaries.[17] Mutual intelligibility tests, while asymmetrical and low (under 50% for spoken forms with central Slovene), exceed thresholds seen in undisputed dialect pairs like Croatian Kajkavian varieties, per comparative Slavic studies. Linguists reject separate status absent evidence of external genetic splits, attributing uniqueness to adstratum effects from Friulian and German rather than proto-language divergence.[18] Proponents of independent language recognition, often native activists in Italy's Resia Valley, highlight sociolinguistic isolation since medieval migrations, yielding archaic retentions like centralized vowels absent in core Slovene and near-zero spoken comprehension for non-locals.[18] This stance leverages UNESCO's 2009 listing of Resian as "definitely endangered," interpreting it as validation for microlanguage autonomy to secure Italian minority protections under Law 482/1999, which favors distinct "languages" over dialects for funding and education.[19] Independent scholars advocate microlanguage status, citing emergent literary efforts in Resian script since the 1980s, though these remain unstandardized and untranslated without Slovene mediation.[20] The debate reflects causal interplay between linguistic continuity and identity politics: Slovenian scholarship integrates Resian to assert ethnic continuity across borders, while Italian contextual pressures amplify separation claims for cultural survival amid assimilation, with speaker numbers below 1,000 as of 2016 surveys.[21] No peer-reviewed consensus supports full independence, and absence of an ISO 639-3 code underscores dialect treatment in global catalogs.[22] Preservation initiatives, including bilingual signage, proceed under Slovene-dialect framing despite advocacy.[16]Historical Evolution
Prehistoric Origins and Migrations
The prehistoric roots of the Resian dialect trace to the Proto-Slavic language, which developed among early Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe, with the hypothesized homeland spanning the regions between the Vistula River and the Dnieper River, including parts of modern-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus, during the late 1st millennium BCE to the early centuries CE.[23][24] This period corresponds to the ethnogenesis of the Slavs from the Balto-Slavic branch of Indo-European, characterized by archaeological cultures such as the Zarubintsy and Chernyakhov, where linguistic innovations like the satemization of Indo-European stops and the development of nasal vowels laid the foundation for Slavic phonology.[25] Genetic evidence supports a continuity of Eastern European ancestry in these populations, predating the major expansions.[26] During the Migration Period in the 6th century CE, Slavic tribes undertook large-scale southward expansions, filling power vacuums left by the Hunnic Empire's collapse and Avar incursions, with migrations carrying Proto-Slavic speakers into the Balkans and Eastern Alps by the mid-6th century.[27][26] These movements, driven by demographic pressures and opportunities for settlement, involved routes from the Carpathian Basin eastward along river valleys like the Sava and Drava, reaching the Julian Alps and Friuli region between approximately 568 and 592 CE.[28] The ancestors of Resian speakers, part of these Western South Slavic groups, likely originated from upstream settlements in the Soča/Isonzo valley and progressed westward via Roman-era roads through the Canal del Ferro, establishing pastoral communities in isolated alpine valleys.[29] In the Resia Valley specifically, Slavic settlement consolidated in the 7th to 9th centuries CE, evidenced by archaic toponyms like those derived from Common Slavic *bělъ ('white'), as in early references to local sites, and linguistic retentions linking Resian to northern Alpine Slavic varieties.[29] Historical accounts, such as those in Paul the Deacon's Historia Langobardorum, document Slavic incursions into Friuli around 610 CE alongside Avar forces under King Cacano, invading the Lombard Duchy of Cividale, which aligns with archaeological patterns of gradual infiltration by shepherds and warriors rather than wholesale conquest.[30][31] This isolation in the valley preserved early Proto-Slavic features, distinguishing Resian from later influences in adjacent Slovene dialects.[27]Medieval to Modern Developmental Stages
The Resian dialect, remaining primarily oral through the medieval period, underwent substrate influences from surrounding Romance and Germanic varieties due to the valley's incorporation into the Patriarchate of Aquileia around 1084–1085, fostering lexical borrowings from Friulian in domains such as agriculture (ronk for tree stump) and architecture (bant for boundary marker).[31][32] Germanic elements entered via Frankish administration and possible Carinthian colonists, evident in terms like kàs (cheese) and retained in toponyms, while the dialect preserved South Slavic archaisms like dual number and pitch accent amid relative isolation.[32] Venetian overlordship after 1420 introduced minor Venetian-Italian substrate but did not disrupt core Slavic structure, as Resian speakers maintained endogamous communities in hamlets like Njiva and Solbiza, limiting convergence.[31] The advent of written Resian occurred in the late 18th century with religious manuscripts, such as Libri od luzi nebesche (1797) and Rez’janskij katichizis (copied circa 1797 from post-1700 originals), composed by non-native priests from Natisone valleys using primarily the Gniva subdialect, mirroring medieval Slovene literary patterns of exogenous authorship for catechetical content.[5][31] These texts, lacking standardized orthography, featured admixtures of Central Slovene and local variants, with further religious works like Christjanske uzhilo (1845–1850) and Passio Domini (1830–1848) continuing the tradition amid growing scholarly interest, including Izmail Sreznevskij's 1841 analysis and Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's 1873 fieldwork, which documented archaic morphology such as supine forms absent in standard Slovene.[5][31] The 1838 carriage road breached isolation, accelerating Italian lexical influx via administration and trade, though core phonology—like centralized vowels—remained stable.[32] In the 20th century, annexation to Italy in 1866 intensified Italian dominance through schooling and media, eroding fluency and prompting secular literature from the 1930s, such as dialect poetry, while preservation efforts yielded a 1981 Gospel translation in the parish bulletin.[31][32] Hamlet-specific variants persist without unification, with modern studies highlighting retained Proto-Slavic retentions (e.g., jь > i) against Friulian-induced shifts in syntax, like calqued periphrases, underscoring Resian's trajectory as a conservative enclave amid Romance superstrata.[5][31]Phonology
Consonant Inventory and Variations
The consonant inventory of the Resian dialects comprises approximately 22 phonemes, aligning closely with other Littoral Slovene varieties while retaining distinct palatal consonants such as /ɲ/ and /ʎ/. [15] This system was systematically established by Ben M. Groen in 1980, drawing on phonetic data from Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's 1875 study of Resian speech ("Opyt fonetiki rez'janskich govorov"), which provided detailed realizations across multiple localities. [15] The core stops include bilabial /p b/, alveolar /t d/, and velar /k g/, with fricatives encompassing labiodental /f v/, alveolar /s z/, postalveolar /ʃ ʒ/, and velar /x/. [15] Affricates feature /ts tʃ dʒ/, alongside nasals /m n ɲ/, lateral approximants /l ʎ/, rhotic /r/, and palatal /j/. [15] A notable addition is the affricate /dz/, recorded as phonemic by Slovene linguist Tine Logar in his fieldwork on Resian varieties, distinguishing it from standard Slovene where it functions marginally or allophonically. [15] This phoneme appears in specific lexical items and contributes to the dialect's archaic profile. Reflexes of Proto-Slavic *g and *h show relative stability, with *g generally preserved as /g/ rather than shifting to fricatives like /h/ or /z/ seen in some neighboring dialects, though positional variations (e.g., before front vowels) occur. The /ʒ/ phoneme exhibits consistent postalveolar articulation without significant merger with /ʃ/. Variations across Resian's microdialects—spoken in localities like San Giorgio (Bila), Gniva (Niva), and Solbica (Stolvizza)—primarily involve allophonic realizations rather than systemic differences. [15] For instance, palatalization of dentals and alveolars intensifies before front vowels in upstream varieties (e.g., Osojane), yielding softer [tʲ dʲ] or near-affricates, while downstream areas like San Giorgio maintain crisper oppositions. Voicing distinctions in obstruents are preserved word-finally via devoicing rules akin to standard Slovene, but intervocalic lenition of /g/ to [ɦ] or approximant-like sounds appears sporadically in informal speech of peripheral hamlets. [15] These micro-variations reflect substrate influences from Friulian contact and internal migration patterns within the Resia Valley, yet the overall inventory remains robust without mergers or losses documented in central Slovene dialects. Empirical recordings from the 1970s onward confirm minimal erosion, supporting the dialect's phonological conservatism. [15]Vowel System and Centralized Features
The Resian dialect features a vowel system characterized by the presence of both peripheral and centralized (often termed "dark" or "breathy") vowels, distinguishing it from other Slovene varieties. The core accented vowel inventory includes the peripheral phonemes /i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u/, with no oppositions in tone or length. Centralized vowels, an innovative trait, comprise a parallel series such as /ï, ë, ö, ü/, which exhibit articulatory qualities like centralization, breathiness, or muffling, though precise realizations vary by locality and speaker age.[6] Centralization manifests prominently in stressed syllables, where these vowels often derive historically from proto-Slavic long or nasal vowels after the loss of length distinctions, potentially influenced by contact with Friulian lax vowels. For instance, in varieties like those of San Giorgio, additional central vowels include /ə/ (a schwa-like phoneme from jers, *r̥, or short *-ì, realized as [ə̝] or [ə̞]) and /ä/ (from *-à or *ǝ). Local differences persist: Stolvizza emphasizes /ə/ from *-ì and *r̥, while Oseacco features /ä/ more broadly. In younger speakers, mergers occur, such as /ï/ with /ü/ (high central) and /ë/ with /ö/ (mid central), reflecting ongoing simplification.[6][33][14] Orthographic conventions in Resian standardization represent centralized features using diaeresis (e.g., <ï, ë, ö, ü>) for "dark" vowels and <ä> specifically for stressed central ones, underscoring their phonological salience. Unstressed vowels tend to harmonize with accented non-low counterparts, but centralization can extend morphophonologically, as in certain endings. These features contribute to Resian's archaic retentions alongside innovations, setting it apart in the South Slavic continuum.[33][6]Suprasegmental Features and Accentuation
The Resian dialect lacks the pitch accent system prevalent in standard Slovene and many adjacent dialects within the Littoral group, instead relying on a non-tonal stress accent for prosodic prominence. This simplification distinguishes Resian as a transitional variety, where historical tonal contrasts from Proto-Slavic have been largely neutralized, with no phonemic oppositions in tone or vowel length preserved in the modern spoken form. Stressed syllables are primarily marked by increased intensity and duration, though these effects are allophonic rather than phonemically contrastive.[1][14] Accentuation in Resian follows a system of lexical accent classes, permitting mobile stress placement across paradigms, similar to patterns in broader Slovene dialectology but without associated pitch movements. For instance, masculine substantives may exhibit stress shifts between stem and endings depending on the accent class, as documented in detailed paradigmatic analyses; class (b) types often place stress on the initial syllable, while others allow retraction or fixed positions. This mobility reflects retention of Common Slovene accentual inheritance, albeit eroded by peripheral evolution and contact influences, leading to secondary fixed-stress tendencies in some lexical items.[34] Traces of Proto-Slavic falling tones persist selectively in reflexes of long vowels, where contrastive realizations may occur in specific villages, but these do not form a productive suprasegmental opposition and are limited to etymological contexts rather than systematic prosody. Intonation contours align with general South Slavic patterns, employing rising or falling pitch for declarative and interrogative functions, respectively, without dialect-specific innovations noted in phonetic descriptions. Empirical recordings from Resian speakers confirm that prosodic rhythm is syllable-timed, with stress reinforcing word boundaries but not altering segmental inventory.[35][36]Grammar and Lexicon
Morphological Characteristics
Resian morphology aligns with the fusional paradigm of South Slavic dialects, incorporating three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), six cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, locative, instrumental), and singular-plural number distinction, with potential vestiges of the dual in certain archaic forms.[17] It preserves several Proto-Slavic retentions absent in standard Slovene and most contemporary Slavic languages, such as the proximal demonstrative isi, which maintains the Old Church Slavonic stem s-, in contrast to later developments like Slovene tukaj or Russian zdes'.[17] Nominal declensions exhibit village-specific variations, particularly in the genitive plural of feminine a-stem substantives, marked by desinences including zero (-ø), -í, -ü, and -uw. In the Stolvizza subdialect, the archaic -ü appears mainly with substantives following accent paradigm (c), such as paired body parts, while -í predominates in paradigms (b) and (c); San Giorgio, by contrast, innovates with -uw for paradigm (a) stems ending in consonant clusters, often involving epenthetic vowels to avoid clusters with zero-marked forms. Oseacco and Gniva show intermediate patterns, with -uw emerging analogously.[37] These desinences reflect diachronic shifts from Proto-Slavic -ъ or -i, with Stolvizza conserving older allomorphy. Complex substantives formed with the suffix -(j)ustl display idiosyncratic patterns, such as irregular stem alternations or gender assignments, peculiar to Resian within Slovene dialects.[38] Verbal morphology follows Slovene patterns of aspectual pairing (perfective-imperfective) and tense conjugation, but integrates unique clitic phenomena at the morpho-syntactic interface. Subject doubling occurs when a full subject phrase (e.g., stressed pronoun tï 'you') co-occurs with a pre-verbal clitic variant (ti), as in Ma tï ti si mont ('But you are pure'), enabling emphasis without pro-drop constraints typical of Slavic. This construction, documented in approximately one-third of relevant sentences in translated texts, applies to pronouns, nouns, and quantifiers but excludes interrogatives and indefinites; it stems from contact with Friulian clitic-doubling systems rather than internal Slavic evolution.[16][17]Syntactic Peculiarities
The Resian dialect displays syntactic traits shaped by its isolation and contact with Romance varieties, deviating from standard Slovene in clitic usage, prepositional government, and nominal constructions. Unlike most Slavic languages, Resian features subject clitics that double full noun phrases, a pattern akin to Romance clitic doubling but exceptional in Slavic contexts.[16] These clitics encompass nominative forms (e.g., 3sg an, na, tö; 3pl ni, ne), positioning them separately from object clitics and enabling syntactic flexibility in subject realization.[39] This development likely stems from Romance substrate influence in the Friulian contact zone, altering traditional Slavic pro-drop tendencies.[40] Nominal syntax retains core Slavic structures without grammaticalized articles, yet exhibits Romance-like strategies for definiteness via contextual inference or adjectival positioning, rather than dedicated markers.[41] Adjectives typically precede nouns in Slavic fashion, but contact-induced variations appear in possessive and spatial expressions, preserving archaic Slavic nominal agreement while adapting to bilingual usage.[41] Prepositional phrases show instability in case selection, with prepositions like ziz/z governing either genitive (comitative) or instrumental (severative), and accusative not conditioned by motion versus static semantics—e.g., locative used for motion as in an jë wlizal tu-w isimu proǵëto ("he crawled into the project").[33] Archaic compound prepositions mark spatial relations, such as ta-na Bile ("to Resiutta") or tu-w Bile ("to San Giorgio"), reflecting retained Slavic compounding overlaid with local toponymy.[42] Subject properties emphasize clitic integration for agreement and positioning, with deviations from standard Slovene norms including enhanced proclitic attachment and potential Romance-inspired subject prominence in finite clauses.[43] These features underscore Resian's hybrid syntax, balancing conservative Slavic inheritance with contact-driven innovations documented in postwar varieties.[33]Lexical Borrowings and Archaic Retentions
The Resian dialect exhibits a lexicon heavily influenced by prolonged contact with neighboring Romance languages, particularly Friulian, resulting in numerous integrated loanwords that often pertain to agriculture, architecture, and daily life. Friulanisms, such as tarénj ("terrain") from Friulian teren, ronk ("tillable terraces") from ronc, and mir ("wall") from mûr, have been present for centuries and are frequently perceived by speakers as native Resian terms.[32] Other Romance borrowings include linda ("balcony"), racjun ("prayer") from Friulian razione, lïbri ("book") from libri, difïndinat ("to protect") from difindi, ćantun ("corner"), and đujat ("to play").[1] Italian loans further enrich the vocabulary, reflecting the dialect's embedding in Friuli's linguistic landscape.[1] Germanisms, traceable to Frankish and Lombard periods, appear in terms like want ("dress") from Frankish want, wéra ("war") from Germanic werra, and potentially hïša ("house") from Old High German hûz, though the latter overlaps with Slavic cognates.[32] Verbal loans from Romance languages are adapted via Slavic inflectional patterns, including aspectual integration, as seen in Friulian-derived verbs in Resian and related Friulian Slovene dialects.[44] Nouns often follow the i-declension, while adjectives may remain indeclinable, e.g., na nobil hïša ("a noble house").[1] This openness to borrowing stems from total language contact with Romance varieties over centuries, affecting all lexical categories without displacing core Slavic roots.[45] Resian also preserves archaic retentions from early Slavic stages, attributable to its geographic isolation in the Resia Valley, which has conserved paleoslavic forms absent in standard Slovene. Examples include wlëst ("to enter") from Proto-Slavic vъlěsti, ëro or jero ("priest") from ijerei (dating over 1,000 years), and lanita ("cheek") from lanita (preserved since the 10th-11th centuries).[32] Lexical archaisms often manifest as fossilized compounds or derivations, such as wàdlo ("withered, drooped") from a hypothetical (sa)wadlěti ("to shrivel"), bö́holo ("rainbow," literally "divine bow") from bogъ + lokъ, prëdnën ("early morning") from pred + dьnь, and töčikej ("just a little while ago") from vъ toliče kęj.[42] Additional retentions encompass bohow din ("Sunday," "divine day"), počasu ("slowly") from po času ("according to time"), and wdümu ("quickly") from vъ dымъ ("in the smoke").[42] These features underscore Resian's proximity to ancient Slavic lexicon, akin to elements in Russian, distinguishing it from more innovated Slovene varieties.[42]Standardization Efforts
Development of Standard Forms
Standardization efforts for Resian dialects emerged in the 1970s amid concerns over language preservation as the population declined from 3,350 in 1951 to around 1,800 by the decade's end.[17] Conferences in 1980 and 1991 addressed the need for a uniform orthography to facilitate written expression beyond ad hoc systems used in earlier folkloric transcriptions dating to the 18th century.[33] In 1992, Resia Mayor Luigi Paletti commissioned linguist Han Steenwijk of the University of Padua to develop Standard Resian (SR), a supradialectal form balancing the four main local varieties from San Giorgio, Gniva, Oseacco, and Stolvizza.[33] Steenwijk's orthography, published in 1994, employs a phonetically motivated system akin to Slovene conventions, usingOrthographic Conventions and Challenges
The Resian dialect employs a Latin-based orthography adapted to represent its distinctive phonetic inventory, incorporating diacritics and modified graphemes to distinguish sounds not adequately captured by standard Slovene or Italian scripts. Key conventions include the use of <ä> for a centralized or "hard" /a/ sound (as in däržät "to keep"), <č> for affricates like /tʃ/ (e.g., čenče "without"), <š> and <ž> for sibilants, andCultural and Literary Dimensions
Oral Traditions and Folklore
The oral traditions of the Resia Valley feature a diverse array of fables, fairy tales, legends, and folk songs, transmitted exclusively through spoken Resian until systematic documentation began in the mid-20th century. These narratives, collected by ethnographers such as those affiliated with the Centro Nazionale di musica popolare di Roma and the Ljubljana Institute starting in 1962, preserve archaic motifs and local customs reflective of the valley's isolation in the Julian Alps.[48][49] Folk songs constitute a core element, often performed in two- or three-part harmony with bourdon or terza voicing, and accompanied by instruments like the citira (a fiddle tuned a minor third higher than standard, typically in D major or G major) and bunkula (a bowed double bass). Categories include lyrical songs evoking nature, such as those praising Mount Banera; symbolic love songs; narrative ballads with themes of salvation from hell, echoing the Orpheus legend in pieces like Sveti Santilawdəć; religious hymns; children's rhymes and riddles; and upbeat dance tunes like Ta črni patök. These songs, rooted in 7th-century Slovene tribal settlement, end with distinctive jubilant cheers known as zajuhuhknot.[48] Legends and supernatural folklore emphasize perilous natural elements, including beliefs in the salamander—termed wodnek or žabarok—as a venomous creature capable of lethal attacks, documented in regional myth collections. Origin myths also circulate, positing Russian ancestry for Resian speakers, a motif shared with adjacent Friulian lore and underscoring ethnic self-perception amid historical migrations.[50][4]Emergence of Written Literature
The earliest written texts in the Resian dialect date to the late 17th or early 18th century, consisting primarily of handwritten religious manuscripts such as catechisms and doctrinal fragments. These include the Rez’janskij katichizis I (pre-1797, with a mid-18th-century copy) and Rez’janskij katichizis II (post-1700, copied in 1797), both in the Gniva variety and intended for local religious instruction. Additional examples, like fragments of Craka Dottrina cristianca from the late 18th century and possibly the Passio Domini (1830s–1840s, attributed to non-native scribe Valentin Bledigh), reflect a limited tradition of native or semi-native transcription for devotional purposes, often influenced by surrounding Italo-Slovene dialects.[5] These manuscripts, preserved locally, represent the initial shift from oral transmission to written form, though they remained unpublished until linguistic interest in the 19th century.[46] In 1875, Polish linguist Jan Baudouin de Courtenay transcribed and published selections from these manuscripts, including prayers and catechisms collected during his fieldwork, marking the first scholarly dissemination of Resian texts beyond the valley. This effort, based on materials like the Libri od luzi nebesche provided by priest Francesco Domenico Micelli in 1797, highlighted the dialect's archaic features but prioritized phonetic documentation over literary development. Earlier, in 1798, a local priest had presented a Cratca dottrina cristiansca manuscript to traveler Jan Potocki, underscoring sporadic external awareness of Resian's written potential.[5][46] The emergence of proper written literature accelerated in the early 20th century with the first printed book in Resian: the catechism To kristjanske učilo po rozoanskeh, composed by priest Giuseppe Cramaro while serving in Osojane (1923–1933) and reflecting that locality's variety. Printed in Gorizia, this work transitioned from manuscript to typographic form, facilitating broader access. Secular texts followed around 1930, expanding beyond religious confines and laying groundwork for dialectal literary expression amid growing standardization efforts.[5]Documentation and Research
Historical Linguistic Studies
The Resian dialect first attracted systematic scholarly attention in the late 19th century through the fieldwork of Polish linguist Jan Niecisław Baudouin de Courtenay, who visited the Resia Valley in 1873 and documented its phonological and morphological traits in publications spanning over two decades.[3] His transcriptions of 18th-century manuscripts, including catechisms such as Rez'janskij katichizis, marked the initial scholarly edition of Resian texts, highlighting archaic Slavic features like preserved aorists and distinct vocalic systems.[5] Baudouin's analyses emphasized the dialect's isolation and transitional position between Slovene varieties, influencing early classifications within South Slavic linguistics.[14] Early 20th-century studies built on this foundation, focusing on phonetic documentation amid broader dialect surveys of the Friulian-Slovenian border region. Yugoslav-era researchers, including Slovene dialectologist Milko Matičetov, conducted comparative work integrating Resian into the Littoral dialect group while noting its peripheral innovations, such as unique consonant shifts and vowel developments.[15] These efforts established foundational phonemic inventories, with analyses confirming systems like the dialect's seven-vowel framework and retention of Proto-Slavic distinctions lost elsewhere in Slovene.[15] By mid-century, American linguist Eric Hamp contributed etymological and areal studies, underscoring Resian's archaic retentions as evidence of early Alpine Slavic settlement patterns.[1] Post-World War II research shifted toward comprehensive grammars and sociolinguistic contexts, with Han Steenwijk's examinations of written traditions tracing orthographic evolution from Baudouin's Cyrillic-based transcriptions to Latin adaptations.[5] Italian scholars like Roberto Dapit advanced lexical inventories, documenting borrowings and substrate influences through field recordings in the 1980s–1990s, revealing Resian's divergence from standard Slovene norms.[2] This two-century trajectory of documentation, from isolated manuscripts to digitized corpora, has affirmed the dialect's status as a conservative yet contact-influenced variety, though debates persist on its precise genealogical ties due to limited pre-19th-century records.[2]Contemporary Research and Preservation Initiatives
Roberto Dapit, a linguist at the University of Udine, has conducted extensive contemporary research on the Resian dialect, including its evolution as a literary language and sociolinguistic dimensions such as identity and ideology.[51] His work emphasizes documentation of oral traditions and lexical features, contributing to understanding Resian's archaic retentions and contact influences.[52] Recent studies, such as a 2023 analysis of the imperfect tense in Resian and related dialects, explore aspectual and modal usages through comparative Slavic linguistics.[53] Preservation initiatives focus on education and standardization to counter endangerment. In the Resia Valley, courses teaching the Resian dialect are offered, though limited in scope compared to broader Slovene programs in adjacent areas.[54] Han Steenwijk's proposed orthography for standard Resian, reviewed in scholarly publications as recently as 2025, supports written documentation and literary production by addressing phonetic and graphemic challenges unique to the dialect's four variants.[55] These efforts tie into community perceptions of Resian as a marker of ethnic identity distinct from standard Slovene, with 2023 research underscoring written forms' role in reinforcing local cohesion amid intergenerational transmission declines.[17] Community-driven projects document folklore and lexicon, often in collaboration with academic researchers, to preserve oral heritage against assimilation pressures.[32] However, initiatives remain modest, lacking widespread institutional support, as evidenced by ongoing debates over Resian's classification and legal recognition in Italy.[56]Sociolinguistic Context
Endangerment Factors and Revitalization
The Resian dialect is classified as definitely endangered by UNESCO, with fewer than 1,000 fluent speakers remaining, primarily elderly residents of the Resia Valley.[57][12] Key endangerment factors include intense linguistic contact with Italian, driven by socioeconomic pressures such as emigration from the isolated valley, intermarriage with non-speakers, and dominance of Italian in education, media, and administration, leading to reduced intergenerational transmission.[57][58] Additionally, Resian's peripheral status relative to standard Slovene—lacking institutional recognition under Italy's regional laws protecting the Slovene minority—exacerbates shift, as families prioritize Italian for practical utility, confining Resian to informal, domestic domains among older generations.[4][59] Revitalization initiatives remain limited but include academic documentation and linguistic research, which have cataloged phonological, morphological, and lexical features to support preservation.[2] Community-driven efforts focus on fostering local identity and oral transmission through cultural associations and folklore events, though without standardized curricula or official bilingual policies, these have not reversed decline.[17] Preliminary technological and orthographic developments, such as morphosyntactic specifications, aim to enable written materials, but uptake is low due to historical orality and debates over standardization.[60] Overall, without broader policy inclusion or youth engagement programs, Resian's vitality depends on sustained grassroots motivation amid ongoing assimilation pressures.[57]Political and Legal Recognition Debates
The classification of Resian as a dialect of Slovene or a distinct language has shaped debates over its legal protections in Italy, where it falls under the umbrella of Slovenian minority varieties protected by Law No. 482 of December 15, 1999, which safeguards 12 historical linguistic minorities spoken before 1861.[4] This framework enables use in education, public signage, and administration in designated areas, with the Resia municipality self-declaring as a Slovenian linguistic community and receiving annual state funding—approximately €20,000–€30,000 in recent years—for preservation activities such as cultural events and documentation.[61] However, Resian's phonological, lexical, and grammatical divergences, including archaic features like subject doubling and limited mutual intelligibility with standard Slovene (estimated at under 50% for unschooled speakers), have prompted arguments from linguists and local advocates that its independent development since the early Middle Ages warrants separate recognition to avoid subsumption under broader Slovenian policies that may overlook its unique traits.[62][17] Proponents of distinct status, including independent scholars, emphasize Resian's isolation from other Slovene varieties since the 14th century due to geographic barriers in the Resia Valley, arguing that grouping it with Slovenian dilutes targeted revitalization efforts amid its endangerment, with fewer than 1,000 fluent speakers as of 2020.[16] This perspective aligns with UNESCO's designation of Resian as a "definitely endangered" language in its Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (3rd edition, 2010), listing it separately from standard Slovene to highlight its vulnerability and cultural specificity.[59] Critics of separate recognition, often from Slovenian dialectologists, counter that such reclassification could fragment minority protections under Italian law, which prioritizes Slovenian as a cohesive ethno-linguistic group in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, potentially reducing access to cross-border Slovenian cultural ties and EU minority rights frameworks.[3] Ongoing scholarly work, including orthographic standardization debates favoring Italian-influenced spelling over Slovene norms, reflects these tensions, with no formal Italian legislative push for autonomy as of 2025 but persistent local advocacy for enhanced signage and schooling tailored to Resian's phonology.[17]References
- https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Resia