Hubbry Logo
AniseAniseMain
Open search
Anise
Community hub
Anise
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Anise
Anise
Anise
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Anise
1897 illustration[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Pimpinella
Species:
P. anisum
Binomial name
Pimpinella anisum
Synonyms
Synonymy
  • Anisum odoratum Raf.
  • Anisum officinale DC.
  • Anisum officinarum Moench
  • Anisum vulgare Gaertn.
  • Apium anisum (L.) Crantz
  • Carum anisum (L.) Baill.
  • Pimpinele anisa St.-Lag.
  • Ptychotis vargasiana DC.
  • Selinum anisum (L.) E.H.L. Krause
  • Seseli gilliesii Hook. & Arn.
  • Sison anisum (L.) Spreng.
  • Tragium anisum (L.) Link

Anise (/ˈænɪs/;[3] Pimpinella anisum), also called aniseed or rarely anix,[4] is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae[2] native to the eastern Mediterranean region and Southwest Asia.[5]

The flavor and aroma of its seeds have similarities with some other spices and herbs, such as star anise,[4] fennel, liquorice, and tarragon. It is widely cultivated and used to flavor food, candy, and alcoholic drinks, especially around the Mediterranean.

Etymology

[edit]

The name "anise" is derived via Old French from the Latin words anīsum or anēthum from Greek ἄνηθον ánēthon referring to dill.[6][7]

An obsolete English word for anise is anet, also coming from anīsum.[8]

Botany

[edit]

Anise is an herbaceous annual plant growing to 60–90 centimetres (2–3 feet) or more. The leaves at the base of the plant are simple, 1–5 cm (3⁄8–2 inches) long and shallowly lobed, while leaves higher on the stems are feathery or lacy, pinnate, divided into numerous small leaflets.[9]

Both leaves and flowers are produced in large, loose clusters. The flowers are either white or yellow, approximately 3 millimetres (1⁄8 in) in diameter, produced in dense umbels.

The fruit is a dry oblong and curved schizocarp, 4–6 mm (1⁄6–1⁄4 in) long, usually called "aniseed".[9][10]

Ecology

[edit]

Anise is a food plant for the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths), including the lime-speck pug and wormwood pug.[11]

Cultivation

[edit]

Anise was first cultivated in Egypt and the Middle East, and was brought to Europe for its medicinal value.[12] It has been cultivated in Egypt for approximately 4,000 years.[13]

Anise plants grow best in light, fertile, well-drained soil. The seeds should be planted as soon as the ground warms up in spring. Because the plants have a taproot, they do not transplant well after being established so they should either be started in their final location or be transplanted while the seedlings are still small.[14]

Production

[edit]

Western cuisines have long used anise to flavor dishes, drinks, and candies. The word is used for both the species of herb and its licorice-like flavor. The most powerful flavor component of the essential oil of anise, anethole, is found in both anise and an unrelated spice indigenous to South China[15] called star anise (Illicium verum) widely used in South Asian, Southeast Asian and East Asian dishes. Star anise is considerably less expensive to produce and has gradually displaced P. anisum in Western markets. While formerly produced in larger quantities, by 1999 world production of the essential oil of anise was 8 tons, compared to 400 tons of star anise.[16]

Uses

[edit]

Composition

[edit]

As with all spices, the composition of anise varies considerably with origin and cultivation method. These are typical values for the main constituents.[17]

Moisture: 9–13%
Protein: 18%
Fatty oil: 8–23%
Essential oil: 2–7%
Starch: 5%
N-free extract: 22–28%
Crude fibre: 12–25%

In particular, the anise seeds products should also contain more than 0.2 milliliter volatile oil per 100 grams of spice.[18]

Culinary

[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
An unwrapped 'Troach drop', purchased at the Black Country Living Museum in the English Midlands, where such sweets are traditional

Anise is sweet and aromatic, distinguished by its characteristic flavor.[10] The seeds, whole or ground, are used for preparation of teas and tisanes[19] (alone or in combination with other aromatic herbs), as well many regional and ethnic confectioneries, including black jelly beans (often marketed as licorice-flavored), British aniseed balls, aniseed twists[20] and "troach" drops, Australian humbugs, New Zealand aniseed wheels, Italian pizzelle and biscotti, German Pfeffernüsse and Springerle, Austrian Anisbögen, Dutch muisjes, New Mexican bizcochitos and Peruvian picarones.[citation needed]

The culinary uses of anise are not limited only to sweets and confections, as it is a key ingredient in Mexican atole de anís and champurrado, which is similar to hot chocolate.[citation needed] In India and Pakistan, it is taken as a digestive after meals, used in brines in the Italian region of Apulia and as a flavoring agent in Italian sausage, pepperoni and other Italian processed meat products.[21] The freshly chopped leaves are added to cheese spreads, dips or salads, while roots and stems impart a mild licorice flavor to soups and stews.[21]

Liquor

[edit]
Anise alcohols of the Mediterranean region
Further information: Anisette and Mediterranean cuisine

Anise is used to flavour Greek ouzo and Bulgarian mastika;[22] Italian sambuca;[22] French absinthe, anisette,[23] and pastis;[24] Portuguese anis which has an aniseed stem in each bottle crystallised with sugar, Spanish anis de chinchón,[25] anís,[26] anísado,[22] and Herbs de Majorca;[27] Turkish and Armenian rakı;[22] Lebanese, Egyptian, Syrian, Jordanian, Palestinian and Israeli arak;[22] and Algerian Anisette Cristal.[22] Outside the Mediterranean region, it is found in Colombian aguardiente[23] and Mexican Xtabentún.[28] These liqueurs are clear, but on addition of water become cloudy, a phenomenon known as the ouzo effect.[29][30]

Anise is used together with other herbs and spices in some root beers, such as Virgil's in the United States.[31][32]

Traditional medicine

[edit]

The main use of anise in traditional European herbal medicine was for its carminative effect (reducing flatulence),[4] as noted by John Gerard in his Great Herball, an early encyclopedia of herbal medicine:

The seed wasteth and consumeth winde, and is good against belchings and upbraidings of the stomach, alaieth gripings of the belly, provoketh urine gently, maketh abundance of milke, and stirreth up bodily lust: it staieth the laske (diarrhea), and also the white flux (leukorrhea) in women.[33]

According to Pliny the Elder, anise was used as a cure for sleeplessness, chewed with alexanders and a little honey in the morning to freshen the breath, and, when mixed with wine, as a remedy for asp bites (N.H. 20.72).[34] In 19th-century medicine, anise was prepared as aqua anisi ("Water of Anise") in doses of an ounce or more and as spiritus anisi ("Spirit of Anise") in doses of 5–20 minims.[12] In Turkish folk medicine, its seeds have been used as an appetite stimulant, tranquilizer or diuretic.[35]

Essential oil

[edit]
Anise essential oil

Anise essential oil can be obtained from the fruits by either steam distillation or extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide.[36] The yield of essential oil is influenced by the growing conditions[37] and extraction process, with supercritical extraction being more efficient.[36] Regardless of the method of isolation the main component of the oil is anethole (80–90%), with minor components including 4-anisaldehyde, estragole and pseudoisoeugenyl-2-methylbutyrates amongst others.[38] (Alternately found by Orav et al. 2008 to be 2–6% extracted oil by weight of raw seed material, 74–94% being trans-anethole and the remaining fraction estragole (methylchavicol), anisaldehyde and γ-himachalene.)[39] Anethole is responsible for anise's characteristic odor and flavor.[40]

Other uses

[edit]

Builders of steam locomotives in Britain incorporated capsules of aniseed oil into white metal plain bearings so the distinctive smell would give warning in case of overheating.[41] Anise can be made into a liquid scent and is used for both drag hunting and fishing. It is put on fishing lures to attract fish.[42][43]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Anise

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is an annual herbaceous plant in the Apiaceae family, native to Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean region, where it has been cultivated for millennia as a culinary and medicinal herb. The plant grows erect to a height of 40–90 cm (1.3–3 ft), with finely divided, serrated green leaves that are aromatic and edible, and small white to yellowish flowers arranged in flat-topped umbels that bloom in summer. Its defining feature is the ovoid, ribbed seeds—technically dry fruits—that contain 1–5% essential oil rich in trans-anethole, giving them a distinctive sweet, licorice-like flavor used worldwide in food, beverages, and perfumes. Historically, anise has been valued since ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman times for its aromatic properties, with records of its use in rituals, , and ; it spread to via trade routes around 1200 CE and was mandated for cultivation in colonial to support local economies. Today, it is grown globally in temperate climates, thriving in full sun and well-drained soil, with major production in regions like , , and . In culinary applications, anise seeds flavor baked goods, meats, soups, and alcoholic beverages such as , , and , while the leaves add a mild tang to salads, teas, and cheeses. Traditionally, the seeds and have been employed in to aid digestion, relieve coughs and , and treat minor ailments like , though modern uses emphasize its role as a flavoring agent and natural preservative in the . The plant's versatility extends to non-food uses, including perfumery, and its has insect-repellent properties. underscoring its enduring cultural and economic significance.

Names and Origins

Etymology

The name "anise" entered English via "anys" or "anes," borrowed from "anis" in the 13th century, which itself derives from Latin anīsum. This Latin term stems from ánison (ἄνισον) or annḗson (ἄννησον), likely originating from a language or directly from Egyptian jnst (or inst), an ancient term for a used in preparing refreshing drinks, possibly alluding to its aromatic qualities. The Egyptian root suggests early recognition of the plant's sweet-smelling properties, though the precise meaning remains tied to its medicinal and flavorful applications in ancient texts like the Ebers (c. 1550 BCE). Historical variations of the name reflect its spread across cultures and languages. In , anise is called yansūn (ينسون) or anīsūn (أنيسون), adaptations that trace back through Greek and Latin influences during the Hellenistic and Islamic periods. These forms highlight the plant's Levantine and Mediterranean origins, with the Arabic term emphasizing its role as a sweet seed (ḥabbat al-ḥulwa, or "sweet seed"). The name's evolution also appears in other European languages, such as Italian anice and Spanish anís, all converging on the core Latin-Greek lineage. Etymologically, "anise" connects to related umbelliferous plants like fennel through historical naming confusions rather than true cognates. In ancient Greek, ánison was sometimes conflated with anḗthon (ἄνηθον), the term for dill, due to similar appearances and flavors, leading to interchangeable uses in early texts; this false cognate persisted in Latin anēthum for dill. Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), while botanically distinct from anise (Pimpinella anisum), shares a licorice-like aroma from anethole, fostering occasional misnomer as "sweet anise" in vernacular traditions, though their etymologies diverge—fennel's from Latin faeniculum ("little hay").

History

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) has been utilized since ancient times, with its earliest documented uses tracing back to around 1550 BCE. The , an ancient Egyptian medical text, references the plant under the term "inst" as a remedy for abdominal disorders and dental ailments, highlighting its role in early pharmacopeia for digestive and oral health issues. Cultivated in the Nile Valley for at least 4,000 years, anise was valued for treating conditions like kidney stones and served as a foundational element in Egyptian medicinal practices. By the classical period, its use spread to , where (c. 460–370 BCE) recommended it in his writings for respiratory and digestive relief, establishing it as a staple in Hellenistic medicine. In , (c. 23–79 CE) described two varieties—one from and one from —noting their applications as thirst quenchers, aphrodisiacs, and agents to induce perspiration when infused in wine; the plant was also incorporated into culinary preparations like and meats for its properties. Roman legions further disseminated anise across the empire, including cultivation in regions like , underscoring its cultural significance in both healing and daily sustenance. During the medieval era, anise's prominence grew through trade networks like the , which facilitated its exchange from the Mediterranean to and back, integrating it into diverse pharmacopeias. Arab scholars played a pivotal role in preserving and advancing knowledge of the plant; (Ibn Sina, 980–1037 CE) detailed its effects in his , recommending it for gastrointestinal relief and respiratory conditions such as , where it acted as a and agent. This text, influential across Islamic and later medicine, emphasized anise's warming qualities to balance bodily humors. In , monastic communities cultivated anise in herb gardens for therapeutic purposes, with Benedictine and Cistercian monks using it in remedies for stomach pains, , and as a component in spiced confections to aid digestion—often mixing it with and other herbs in infirmaries. (742–814 CE) mandated its planting in imperial gardens, promoting its widespread adoption in Carolingian for both medicinal and culinary roles. Anise's dissemination continued with European expansion; although already known in the Mediterranean, its commercial cultivation intensified in the across , , and other regions, driven by demand for liqueurs and confections. Spanish colonizers introduced the plant to the in the , where it quickly became integral to Latin American cuisines and folk medicine, used as an and digestive aid by settlers and indigenous communities alike. This transatlantic transfer marked a key phase in anise's global spread, blending traditions with adaptations and cementing its enduring cultural and therapeutic legacy.

Taxonomy and Description

Taxonomy

Anise is classified under the Pimpinella anisum L., within the family , formerly known as Umbelliferae. This family encompasses numerous aromatic herbs characterized by their umbellate inflorescences and compound leaves. The genus includes approximately 150–180 species, predominantly perennial or biennial herbs native to , , and , with a few annual representatives. P. anisum stands out as an annual herb in this genus, distinguished by its erect, branched stem and aromatic foliage, in contrast to the more common perennial species like P. saxifraga, which exhibit fibrous root remnants and persistent basal sheaths. Within the Apiaceae family, P. anisum shares phylogenetic affinities with other economically important genera, such as Foeniculum (fennel, F. vulgare) and Anethum (dill, A. graveolens), based on chloroplast and nuclear DNA analyses that place them in the apioideae subfamily. These relations are supported by shared traits like essential oil production and umbel structures, though DNA barcoding loci such as ITS and trnH-psbA reveal distinct genetic clusters, with A. graveolens showing closer ties to certain toxic congeners like Conium maculatum. It is important to distinguish P. anisum from star anise (Illicium verum), which, despite a similar flavor profile due to content, belongs to the unrelated family and derives from an evergreen tree rather than an annual herb. Common names for P. anisum include anise, aniseed, and sweet in English, with regional variations such as anis in French and anís in Spanish; pharmacologically, it is known as Fructus Anisi. No major botanical synonyms are recognized, though vernacular names like anise burnet saxifrage appear in some floras.

Botanical Description

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is an annual in the family, characterized by its erect growth habit and branching stems that reach heights of 30–60 cm. The stems are slender, grooved, and green, supporting feathery foliage that alternates along their length. The leaves are pinnate, with lower basal leaves being long-stalked (4–10 cm petioles), rounded, and serrated, measuring 0.5–5 cm in length, while upper stem leaves are shorter-stalked and more finely divided into linear segments. These leaves are green, slightly hairy on the undersides, and contribute to the plant's delicate, bushy appearance. The flowers emerge in summer, forming loose, compound umbels 2–5 cm in diameter, each consisting of numerous small white or yellowish blooms with five separate petals and sepals. These radially symmetrical flowers are pollinated primarily by insects, typical of the family. Following pollination, the plant produces fruits, which are dry, oblong, and slightly curved, measuring 3–5 mm in length. Each schizocarp splits into two gray-green to yellowish mericarps, each containing a single flattened, hairy seed; the fruits are ridged and ovoid-pear-shaped, turning brown at maturity. The consists of a primary that develops within the first few weeks after , supporting the 's upright structure in well-drained soils. As an , P. anisum completes its lifecycle from to seed maturity in 120–130 days, with occurring in 10–14 days under suitable conditions, vegetative growth in the first 60–90 days, followed by flowering and fruit set in late summer. The senesces after , with no overwintering capability in temperate climates.

Ecology and Distribution

Habitat and Ecology

Anise (Pimpinella anisum), a member of the family, is native to the region and Southwest , with its wild populations extending from southeastern through the to central and including ; it has a long history of cultivation in areas such as , , , and Asia Minor. In its natural , it thrives in dry, rocky terrains, mountain pastures, fields, meadows, and grasslands, where it grows as a slow-developing annual herb. These environments provide the open, sunny conditions essential for its lifecycle, contributing to its role in temperate herbaceous communities. The plant requires a warm, with full sun exposure and moderate temperatures ranging from 18–25°C for optimal growth and seed maturation, though it is highly sensitive to and demands a long frost-free period. It prefers cool, moist conditions during early (soil temperatures of 10–21°C) but transitions to drier autumn weather for seed production, reflecting its adaptation to Mediterranean seasonal patterns. Well-drained, fertile with a of 6.0–7.5, such as light sandy or loamy types, support its root development and prevent waterlogging, which can lead to . Ecologically, anise serves as a host plant for larvae of various Lepidoptera species in the swallowtail genus (Papilio), whose caterpillars feed on its foliage, thereby integrating it into local insect food webs. Its umbel-shaped flowers attract pollinators such as bees and parasitic wasps, enhancing biodiversity in Apiaceae-dominated habitats like meadows, while its aromatic compounds provide chemical defenses that repel certain pests, including aphids and red spider mites, though it remains vulnerable to aphid infestations under high population pressures. These interactions position anise as a valuable companion in natural and cultivated ecosystems, where it supports predator-prey dynamics and contributes to overall floral diversity without dominating the landscape.

Geographic Distribution

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is native to the region and Southwest , with its wild range extending from southeastern through the to central and including . It is cultivated in countries such as , , and , where it thrives in temperate climates with well-drained soils. The plant has naturalized in various parts of , including , , and , as well as in regions of like southern Russia and parts of the beyond its native limits. Its spread to these areas resulted from early human cultivation and dispersal along ancient trade routes, such as those connecting the Mediterranean to . Anise was introduced to the —particularly and parts of —and to through colonial and commercial exchanges during the 16th to 19th centuries, where it has since become established in suitable habitats. Today, anise is cultivated extensively worldwide for its seeds, with major production hotspots including , , and . As of 2023, leading producers include , , , , and . These countries lead in output due to favorable growing conditions and established agricultural practices, alongside significant cultivation in , , and , which together account for a large share of global supply. The plant's global distribution continues to expand through , adapting to diverse regions while preferring the dry, sunny environments reminiscent of its origins.

Cultivation and Production

Cultivation Practices

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) requires well-drained, soils such as sandy loam or clay loam with moderate fertility and a range of 6.0 to 8.5, ideally 6.3 to 7.3, to support healthy root development and prevent waterlogging. It avoids heavy, cold, or excessively soils that can promote disease. The thrives in temperate and subtropical climates, including Mediterranean regions, with optimal temperatures of 8–23°C during growth and a frost-free period of at least 120 days. Sunny, open sites with annual precipitation of 400–1,700 mm are preferred, though it tolerates semi-arid conditions with supplemental water; excessive or fluctuating can reduce . Sowing occurs in spring for temperate zones (– in hills) or fall for warmer areas (mid-October to early in plains), directly into prepared fields after the last risk. Seeds are planted at a depth of 1–2 cm in rows spaced 30–45 cm apart, with plants thinned to 20 cm within rows to allow adequate airflow and reduce competition. A seeding rate of 5–10 kg per ensures uniform stands, and light incorporation or pressing aids , which takes 10–20 days at temperatures around 21°C. Irrigation is moderate throughout the 120–150 day cycle, with 4–6 applications totaling 300–500 mm, focusing on pre-sowing if is dry and critical stages like flowering and filling to avoid stress that impacts yield. Drip or furrow methods are effective in dry regions, but overwatering must be avoided to prevent issues and . Mulching helps retain and suppress weeds in home gardens. Fertilization begins with incorporation of 15–20 tons of per to improve , followed by basal application of 80 kg (N), 30 kg (P₂O₅), and 20 kg (K₂O) per , split to minimize leaching. Excess is discouraged as it promotes lush foliage at the expense of and increases risk. Foliar sprays of micronutrients like iron, , and (e.g., 0.5% solutions) can boost content and overall vigor in nutrient-deficient soils. Pest management targets and , which damage foliage and roots; organic approaches include sprays or insecticidal soaps, while with non-legume crops disrupts cycles. Diseases such as powdery mildew and , often exacerbated by poor drainage, are mitigated through well-aerated soils, resistant planting material, and fungicides like where needed. Root-knot nematodes cause and stunted growth, controlled organically via , marigold intercropping, or rotation with nematode-resistant crops like cereals for 2–3 years. Common cultivars include 'Egyptian', valued for high seed yields in fertile, irrigated Mediterranean soils, and 'Spanish', selected for elevated percentages suitable for spice production. In semi-arid regions, '' offers improved and yields up to 1,150 kg/ha under optimal management. Variety selection depends on local and intended use, with breeding emphasizing resistance and .

Production and Yield

Anise is typically harvested 120–150 days after , once the seeds have matured and the umbels turn grayish-brown, signaling ripeness before they blacken and shatter. Farmers cut the entire stems just below the umbels to avoid seed loss, bundling them upside down in a dry, well-ventilated area to prevent mold. After 2–4 weeks of air drying, the seeds are threshed by rubbing or mechanical means to separate them from the umbels, followed by to remove ; this process ensures high-quality seeds with minimal moisture content below 10%. Global commercial production of anise seeds centers in regions with suitable Mediterranean climates, with major producers including , , , and . Although precise tonnage figures are aggregated under broader spice categories in international databases, the global anise market was valued at approximately USD 1.3 billion in 2023 (projected to reach USD 2.1 billion by 2032 at a of 5.2%), reflecting steady demand for culinary and medicinal uses as of 2023. Production has grown modestly at a of about 5% since 2020, driven by exports from top suppliers like (leading exporter with $84 million in trade value as of 2023) and . Average seed yields range from 500 to 1,000 kg per (or 0.7-1.5 t/ha), influenced by factors such as , , and planting density; research indicates optimal nitrogen application of 80–100 kg/ha supports seed production in fertile loams. yields typically reach 15 kg/ha under standard conditions. poses challenges, including increased drought frequency and erratic rainfall, which can reduce yields by up to 15–25% in rain-fed systems by stressing water uptake and lowering fill. In and , anise commands a market price of USD 2–4 per kg for high-quality , with exports supporting rural economies in producing countries through value-added like oil . Compared to star anise (), which has a global production of around 60,000 metric tons annually (as of 2023) and higher content (5–10% vs. 1–5% in anise), anise benefits from shorter growth cycles but faces competition in the licorice-flavored spice sector.

Composition

Nutritional Profile

Anise seeds (Pimpinella anisum) are nutrient-dense, providing a substantial energy source primarily from carbohydrates while offering notable amounts of protein and healthy fats. Per 100 grams of dried seeds, they contain approximately 337 kcal, 17.6 g of protein, 15.9 g of total fat (including 0.6 g and 9.8 g ), and 50 g of carbohydrates, of which 14.6 g is . This high fiber content supports digestive and contributes to . Key micronutrients in anise seeds include significant levels of minerals such as iron at 37 mg, calcium at 647 mg, and at 2.3 mg per 100 g. These amounts represent about 206% of the daily value (DV) for iron (based on 18 mg DV), 50% DV for calcium (1300 mg DV), and 100% DV for (2.3 mg DV). Vitamins present include at 10 μg (3% DV) and at 0.65 mg (50% DV).
NutrientAmount per 100 g% Daily Value*
337 kcal17%
Protein17.6 g35%
Total Fat15.9 g20%
Carbohydrates50 g18%
14.6 g52%
Iron37 mg206%
Calcium647 mg50%
2.3 mg100%
10 μg3%
0.65 mg50%
*Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000-calorie diet. The nutritional profile of anise seeds suggests potential health benefits, including antioxidant activity from polyphenols that may help combat oxidative stress. These attributes make anise a valuable addition to diets seeking mineral-rich, fiber-packed spices.

Chemical Constituents

The seeds of anise (Pimpinella anisum) contain 1.5–6% essential oil by mass, which constitutes the primary volatile fraction responsible for its characteristic aroma and flavor. This oil is predominantly composed of trans-anethole (75–90%), the key bioactive phenylpropanoid, along with estragole (10–20%) as a significant minor component. Other trace volatiles in the oil include γ-himachalene, p-anisaldehyde, and methyl chavicol, contributing to the overall chemical profile. Beyond the essential oil, anise seeds are rich in fixed lipids (8–11% by mass), which include polyunsaturated fatty acids such as and as the most abundant unsaturated forms, alongside petroselinic acid. The seeds also harbor , notably like and , which exhibit properties. Additionally, coumarins such as , , and are present, adding to the diversity. The is typically extracted via , a standard method that yields 2–5% oil (v/w) from the seeds, with optimal recovery achieved after 3–6 hours of distillation time. This process efficiently isolates the volatile fraction while preserving the integrity of heat-sensitive compounds like trans-anethole. in anise exhibits notable variability, influenced by genetic factors and environmental conditions such as , , and harvest timing. For instance, essential oil content ranges from 1.3% to 3.7% across populations, with trans-anethole levels often higher (up to 96%) in varieties from warmer Mediterranean regions compared to those from cooler s. Such differences underscore the role of agroecological adaptation in optimizing bioactive yields.

Culinary Applications

In Cooking

Anise seeds impart a sweet, licorice-like flavor primarily due to , the dominant compound in their , which constitutes 80-90% of the oil's composition. This distinctive taste makes anise a versatile spice, commonly used whole, ground into powder, or as an extract to enhance both sweet and savory dishes. In Middle Eastern cuisines, anise seeds feature prominently in spice blends like Egyptian dukkah. Indian cooking incorporates anise into masalas and , lending a subtle sweetness to curries and rice dishes. European recipes often employ anise in baked goods like Italian and German cookies, as well as in sausages and breads for a warm, anise-infused note. To maximize its aroma, anise seeds are best lightly toasted in a dry pan before use, which releases their volatile oils without burning. They pair effectively with and to balance richness, vegetables like for added complexity, and sweets such as fillings or pastries to complement and . For a milder licorice alternative, fennel seeds serve as a suitable substitute, offering a sweeter, less intense profile in similar applications.

In Beverages

Anise plays a prominent role in various alcoholic liqueurs, where its seeds are distilled with neutral spirits to impart a distinctive licorice-like flavor derived primarily from anethole, a key chemical constituent. Ouzo, a traditional Greek aperitif, is produced by distilling grape pomace or grain spirits with aniseed and other botanicals, resulting in an anise-forward spirit typically enjoyed as a digestif. Similarly, Italian sambuca is crafted through the distillation of star anise—a related plant with similar anethole content—with elderflower and sugar, yielding a sweet, clear liqueur often served chilled with coffee beans. Absinthe, the famed green spirit originating in 18th-century Switzerland and France, incorporates anise alongside wormwood and other herbs during maceration and distillation, contributing to its complex herbal profile. In , anise is commonly brewed into herbal teas and infusions, valued for its soothing, aromatic qualities. Anise tea, prepared by steeping the seeds in hot water, is a staple in Turkish culture, where it serves as a caffeine-free alternative often consumed alongside or in place of anise-flavored raki in non-alcoholic settings, promoting digestion after meals. These infusions are also widespread in Middle Eastern and Mediterranean traditions, typically enjoyed plain or lightly sweetened to highlight the subtle sweetness of . Historically, anise has flavored beverages since ancient times, with Romans incorporating the spice into spiced wines and herbal drinks to aid digestion during banquets. This practice evolved into modern anisette liqueurs by the 18th century, though anise-infused beverages trace back to Roman-era concoctions similar to early vermouths. In contemporary brewing, craft beers increasingly feature anise for its bold, spicy notes; for instance, saisons and stouts are spiced with star anise or aniseed during fermentation to create complex, licorice-tinged profiles. A hallmark serving tradition for anise spirits is the louche effect, where the addition of water or ice causes the clear liquid to turn milky due to the emulsification of anethole-rich essential oils, enhancing aroma and in drinks like , , and . This visual transformation, known scientifically as the , is a deliberate in Mediterranean and European drinking customs.

Medicinal and Therapeutic Uses

Traditional Medicine

Anise has been employed in since ancient times, particularly for digestive ailments. In , anise was documented in the , dating to approximately 1550 BCE, where it was recommended for treating abdominal disorders and promoting digestion. Similarly, in classical Greek medicine, the physician described anise as a agent to alleviate and stomach discomfort by expelling intestinal gas. Across various cultures, anise was commonly used to relieve , coughs, and menstrual cramps, often attributed to its aromatic . In Ayurvedic traditions, it served as a to support in nursing mothers. Historical preparations included teas brewed from crushed and poultices applied externally for pain relief, with recommended dosages in ancient texts typically ranging from 1 to 3 grams of daily, depending on the condition. Cultural practices varied regionally, reflecting local health concerns. In Middle Eastern folk medicine, particularly among communities in and populations in , anise tea was administered to infants to soothe and reduce abdominal discomfort.

Pharmacological Properties and Research

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) exhibits antispasmodic properties primarily attributed to its key compound, , which relaxes tissues. Studies from the 2000s demonstrated that hydroalcoholic extracts of anise aerial parts produce concentration-dependent relaxation in rat anococcygeus , comparable to the reference drug , with effects potentially mediated by compounds and inhibited by . Similarly, anise extracts showed relaxant effects on tracheal chains, supporting its traditional use for gastrointestinal and respiratory spasms through direct action on . In vitro research highlights anise's activity against various . from P. anisum demonstrates broad-spectrum inhibition of both Gram-positive (e.g., ) and Gram-negative (e.g., ) pathogens. These effects are linked to and other phenolic constituents disrupting bacterial cell membranes, though efficacy varies by strain and requires further validation . Clinical trials on anise are limited but indicate potential benefits for digestive issues. A 2015 involving patients with functional dyspepsia found that 3 grams of anise fruit powder daily for four weeks significantly reduced symptoms like and early satiety compared to , improving overall . For menopausal symptoms, a 2022 multicenter double-blind trial showed that 100 mg of anise extract twice daily for 12 weeks decreased the frequency and severity of es in postmenopausal women, with effects possibly due to phytoestrogenic activity. A 2012 study similarly reported relief from hot flash recurrence with anise supplementation. More recent research as of 2024 includes a demonstrating anise's efficacy in alleviating symptoms such as and when combined with other herbs. No large-scale meta-analyses exist for digestive aid specifically, underscoring the need for more robust (RCTs). A 2025 comprehensive review highlights ongoing evidence for anise's potential in neurological, respiratory, and gastrointestinal disorders. Anise holds Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status from the U.S. for use as a and flavoring agent in . However, potential risks include allergic reactions, particularly in individuals sensitive to family plants, manifesting as or respiratory issues. Concerns regarding , a minor constituent, arise from its carcinogenicity in studies at high doses (e.g., up to 550 mg/kg body weight), where it induced liver tumors via bioactivation to reactive metabolites; human risk at culinary doses remains low but warrants caution in excessive consumption. Research gaps persist, with few high-quality RCTs evaluating anise's efficacy and safety across populations. Limited data on drug interactions suggest potential potentiation of anticoagulants like , as evidenced by a of hemorrhage in an co-administered anise and , possibly due to coumarin-like effects in anise. Further studies are needed to clarify interactions and long-term effects.

Other Uses

Essential Oil Applications

Anise essential oil is primarily obtained through of the dried seeds of anisum, yielding a pale yellow to greenish liquid with a characteristic sweet, licorice-like aroma. This method ensures high purity, with the oil typically containing 80–90% trans-anethole as its dominant component, alongside minor constituents like and anisaldehyde. Commercial grades vary based on intended applications; therapeutic-grade oils prioritize minimal contaminants for , while cosmetic-grade versions undergo additional refinement to meet regulatory standards for skin contact. In , anise is employed for its calming and supportive effects when inhaled via or steam , particularly as a digestive to alleviate and discomfort by promoting relaxation of the . Its volatile compounds, released through , may stimulate digestive secretions without direct ingestion. Additionally, the oil exhibits properties due to its bioactive , which deter pests such as mosquitoes and flies when diffused or applied topically in diluted form, offering a natural alternative to synthetic repellents. Within cosmetics, anise serves as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions, and perfumes, imparting a warm, licorice note that enhances scent profiles and provides mild benefits to formulations. Its qualities make it suitable for oral care products like toothpastes and mouthwashes, where it helps combat oral and freshens breath. The oil's soothing properties also contribute to skin-balancing effects in deodorants and cleansing products, reducing irritation while adding aromatic appeal. Recent studies from the 2020s have explored anise essential oil's antifungal potential for agricultural applications, demonstrating its efficacy in controlling seed-borne pathogens and post-harvest fungal contamination. For instance, research has shown that the oil inhibits mycelial growth of fungi like and species on stored anise at low concentrations. Extraction temperature influences this activity, as higher temperatures yield oils with enhanced antifungal potency against crop-damaging molds, supporting its use as an eco-friendly . These findings highlight anise oil's role in , reducing reliance on chemical fungicides while preserving crop quality.

Industrial and Miscellaneous Uses

Anise finds application in the as a agent, where its , rich in trans-anethole, imparts a sweet, licorice-like aroma to products such as pipe tobaccos and cigarettes. In , anise serves as a natural option, with extracts from its seeds and demonstrating repellent and fumigant properties against stored-product insects like the Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) and rusty grain beetle (Cryptolestes ferrugineus). The primary active compound, trans-anethole, disrupts insect behavior and viability, offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic pesticides for grain protection. Additionally, aniseed oil is incorporated into birdseed blends to attract wild birds, enhancing the appeal of feeds through its aromatic qualities. In , anise oil acts as a potent attractant, drawing species like and bass due to its strong, licorice-scented chemoattractant effects, often added to baits or lures to increase bite rates. Beyond these sectors, anise holds miscellaneous roles in veterinary practice, where its from Pimpinella anisum is authorised by the (EFSA) as a sensory feed additive (flavouring) for , , dogs, cats, and ornamental birds, with studies indicating benefits for growth and digestive in and no withdrawal period required. Culturally, anise symbolizes hospitality and prosperity in traditions such as Italy's Anis Festival in Castignano, where it is celebrated through events promoting its local cultivation and use, and in Hispanic communities during holidays like Día de los Muertos, featured in anise-flavored biscochitos. Emerging research in the explores anise seed oil as a low-viscosity feedstock, showing promising combustion characteristics in diesel engines when blended with waste cooking oil, potentially contributing to renewable fuel alternatives.

References

  1. https://www.mccormickscienceinstitute.com/resources/culinary-spices/herbs-spices/anise
  2. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/pimpinella-anisum/
  3. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/anise
  4. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Pimpinella+anisum
  5. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814619306659
  6. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/957273
  7. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/pimpinella/anisum/
  8. https://gardenerspath.com/plants/herbs/anise-pest-repellent/
  9. https://www.etymonline.com/word/anise
  10. https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=anise
  11. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anise
  12. https://nutritionalgeography.faculty.ucdavis.edu/spices/anise/
  13. http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/Pimp_ani.html
  14. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/fennel-vs-anise-guide
  15. https://www2.hawaii.edu/~johnb/micro/m140/syllabus/week/handouts/m140.8.3.html
  16. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/anise
  17. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.41265
  18. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10035495/
  19. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3358962/
  20. https://cloverleaffarmherbs.com/anise/
  21. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:846658-1
  22. https://academic.oup.com/hr/article/doi/10.1093/hr/uhac076/6566412
  23. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/PDF/PDF14/Pimpinella.pdf
  24. https://bjbas.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43088-023-00457-7
  25. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8839413/
  26. https://theherbalacademy.com/blog/anise-monograph-pimpinella-anisum/
  27. https://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/anise/infos
  28. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3405664/
  29. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2949798123000030
  30. https://www.johnnyseeds.com/growers-library/herbs/anise/anise-key-growing-information.html
  31. https://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/CropOp/en/herbs/culinary/anis.html
  32. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Pimpinella%20anisum
  33. https://extension.colostate.edu/resource/butterfly-larval-host-plants/
  34. https://www.joyfulbutterfly.com/product/anise-seeds-pimpinella-anisum/
  35. https://www.gardenia.net/plant/pimpinella-anisum-anise-aniseed
  36. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/pimpinella-anisum
  37. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780124166417000225
  38. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Production-status-of-anise-Pimpinella-anisum-star-anise-Illicium-verum-coriander_tbl1_372477018
  39. https://journalcra.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/48810.pdf
  40. https://pubs.nmsu.edu/_h/H221.pdf
  41. https://www.growables.org/informationVeg/documents/Anise.pdf
  42. https://gardenerspath.com/plants/herbs/harvest-anise-seeds/
  43. https://harvesttotable.com/how_to_grow_anise/
  44. https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/anise-or-badian-seeds
  45. https://dataintelo.com/report/global-anise-seed-market
  46. https://as-proceeding.com/index.php/icensos/article/download/463/412/834
  47. https://www.lucintel.com/anise-seed-market.aspx
  48. https://www.verifiedmarketreports.com/product/star-anise-market/
  49. https://www.ruiqiaofoods.com/news/chinas-star-anise-industry-leads-the-world-annual-production-accounts-for-85-and-export-premiums-continue-to-rise-against-the-backdrop-of-sustained-growth-in-global-demand-for-spices-and-traditi/
  50. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170500/nutrients
  51. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304423818307969
  52. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12280138/
  53. https://pubs.aip.org/aip/acp/article-pdf/doi/10.1063/5.0093811/16197324/040049_1_online.pdf
  54. https://journals.ashs.org/view/journals/hortsci/48/11/article-p1393.xml
  55. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23312025.2019.1673688
  56. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292220818_Variation_in_essential_oil_content_and_composition_in_Turkish_anise_Pimpinella_anisum_L_populations
  57. https://www.thespruceeats.com/what-is-anise-995562
  58. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/how-to-use-anise-seed-in-cooking
  59. https://www.thespicehouse.com/blogs/news/fennel-substitute
  60. https://www.liquor.com/anise-spirits-5085280
  61. https://www.broekmans.be/en/blog/detail/84/anise-flavours-raki-pastis-sambuca-and-ouzo
  62. https://www.wineenthusiast.com/culture/spirits/absinthe-anise-spirits-guide/
  63. https://www.spiritsanddistilling.com/dictionary/acref-9780199311132-e-931
  64. https://turkishporter.com/dogadan-anise-anason-herbal-tea-20-tea-bags
  65. https://www.amazon.com/Anise-Herbal-Anis-infusion-Tea/dp/B077J3XML4
  66. https://www.rimping.com/blog/7308/anise-seed-history-uses
  67. https://byo.com/recipes/star-anise-stout/
  68. https://craftworkbrewery.co.nz/products/saison-anise
  69. https://www.seriouseats.com/why-absinthe-gets-opaque-with-water-science-absinthe-louche-essential-oils
  70. https://glossary.wein.plus/louche-effect
  71. https://extension.psu.edu/herb-and-spice-history/
  72. https://www.getty.edu/publications/resources/virtuallibrary/0892360356.pdf
  73. https://journals.lww.com/nutritiontodayonline/fulltext/2022/03000/anise__potential_health_benefits.10.aspx
  74. https://www.drugs.com/npp/anise.html
  75. https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-025-07360-2
  76. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10347090/
  77. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4354059/
  78. https://brieflands.com/journals/semj/articles/117385
  79. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24250540/
  80. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212958824001599
  81. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386744660_Therapeutic_potential_of_Pimpinella_anisum_L_Anisoon_A_comprehensive_review_of_potent_herbal_drug_in_traditional_medicine
  82. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-pimpinella-anisum-l-fructus-and-pimpinella-anisum-l-aetheroleum_en.pdf
  83. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21445103/
  84. https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00128415-201214170-00157
  85. https://www.science.gov/topicpages/a/anise%2Bpimpinella%2Banisum.html
  86. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Anise-Oil
  87. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/16/24/4357
  88. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/16/1/23
  89. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7865210/
  90. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9284/5/1/11
  91. https://www.imrpress.com/journal/JFSFQ/67/3/10.2376/0003-925X-67-72
  92. https://www.scielo.br/j/cagro/a/9wrTGNMkqgCXKdYPHDKP4wj/?lang=en
  93. http://www.leffingwell.com/download/TobaccoFlavorBook.pdf
  94. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8994810/
  95. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0926669020311249
  96. https://www.gardeningexpress.co.uk/aniseed-attraction-blend-special-seed-nut-food-selection-for-wild-garden-birds-1-litre-tub
  97. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159123001211
  98. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/7976
  99. https://www.youpiceno.it/en/food-and-wine/anis-castignanos-aniseed-festival.html
  100. https://sangreheritage.org/2802-2/
  101. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356852415_Exploration_of_combustion_behavior_in_a_compression_ignition_engine_fuelled_with_low-viscous_Pimpinella_anisum_and_waste_cooking_oil_biodiesel_blends
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.