Hubbry Logo
ZebuZebuMain
Open search
Zebu
Community hub
Zebu
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Zebu
Zebu
Zebu
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Zebu
Scientific classification Edit this classification
(disputed,[1] see § Taxonomy and name)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Bovinae
Genus: Bos
Species:
B. indicus
Binomial name
Bos indicus
Synonyms[2][3]

The zebu (/ˈziːb(j)uː, ˈzeɪbuː/; Bos indicus), also known as indicine cattle and humped cattle, is a species or subspecies of domestic cattle originating in South Asia.[4] Zebu, like many Sanga cattle breeds, differ from taurine cattle in the fatty hump on their shoulders, their large dewlap, and their sometimes-drooping ears. They are well adapted to high temperatures and are raised throughout the tropics.

The zebu is used as a draught and riding animal, as dairy cattle and beef cattle, and as a source of byproducts such as hides and dung for fuel and manure. Some small breeds such as Nadudana (also known as the miniature zebu)[5] are also kept as pets.[6]

In some regions, zebu have significant religious meaning.

Taxonomy

[edit]

Both scientific names Bos taurus and Bos indicus were introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, with the latter used for humped cattle in China.[3]

The zebu was classified as a distinct species by Juliet Clutton-Brock in 1999,[7] but was later classified as a subspecies of the domestic cattle, Bos taurus indicus, by both Clutton-Brock and Colin Groves in 2004[8] and by Peter Grubb in 2005.[9] In 2011, Groves and Grubb classified it as a distinct species again.[10][failed verification]

The American Society of Mammalogists considers it as belonging to the species Bos taurus in analogy to Sanga cattle (Bos taurus africanus Kerr, 1792).[2] The extinct wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) is thought to have diverged into two distinct genetic strains: the humped Bos indicus and the humpless Bos taurus.[11]

Origin

[edit]

Zebu cattle were found to derive from the Indian form of aurochs and one of the key centers of the Indian Subcontinent been domesticated between 7,000 and 6,000 YBP at Mehrgarh, present-day Pakistan, by people linked to or coming from Mesopotamia, including with South India and Gujarat from Western-India being the additional centers for domestication.[12][13][14][15]

Its wild ancestor, the Indian aurochs, became extinct during the Indus Valley Civilisation likely due to habitat loss, caused by expanding pastoralism and interbreeding with domestic zebu.[4][16] Its latest remains ever found were dated to 3,800 YBP, making it the first of the three aurochs subspecies to die out.[17][18]

Bull in Seal of Indus valley civilization
A Pillar of Ashoka, dating to the 3rd century BCE, depicting a zebu
Zebu pictured on a coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II, late first century BCE

Archaeological evidence including depictions on pottery and rocks suggests that humped cattle likely imported from the Near East was present in Egypt around 4,000 YBP. Its first appearance in the Subsahara is dated to after 700 AD and it was introduced to the Horn of Africa around 1000.[19]

Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all the zebu Y chromosome haplotype groups are found in three different lineages: Y3A, the most predominant and cosmopolitan lineage; Y3B, only observed in West Africa; and Y3C, predominant in south and northeast India.[20]

Characteristics

[edit]
A Zebu bull
Female zebu of Kankrej breed from Gujarat, India

Zebu, as well as many Sanga cattle, have humps on the shoulders, large dewlaps and droopy ears.[21]

Compared to taurine cattle, the zebu is well adapted to the hot tropical savanna climate and steppe environments. These adaptations result in higher tolerance for drought, heat and sunlight exposure.[22]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]

Studies on the natural weaning of zebu cattle have shown that cows wean their calves over a 2-week period, but after that, continue to show strong affiliatory behavior with their offspring and preferentially choose them for grooming and as grazing partners for at least 4–5 years.[23]

Reproduction

[edit]

Zebu are generally mature enough to give birth when they are 29 months old. This is based on the development of their bodies to withstand the strain of carrying the calf and lactation. Early reproduction can place too much stress on the body and possibly shorten lifespans. The gestation period averages 285 days, but varies depending on the age and nutrition of the mother. The sex of the calf may also affect the carrying time, as male calves are carried for a longer period than females. Location, breed, body weight, and season affect the overall health of the animal and in return may also affect the gestation period.[22]

Health and diseases

[edit]

The zebu is susceptible to nagana as it does not exhibit trypanotolerance.[24][25] It is said to be resilient to parasites.[26]

Breeds and hybrids

[edit]

Zebu are very common in much of Asia, including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and China. In Asia, taurine cattle are mainly found in the northern regions such as Japan, Korea, northern China and Mongolia. In China, taurine cattle are most common in northern breeds, zebu more common in southern breeds, with hybrids in between.[27][28]

Zebu market in Madagascar

Geneticists at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Nairobi, Kenya and in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia discovered that cattle had been domesticated in Africa independently of domestication in the Near East. They concluded that the southern African cattle populations derive originally from East Africa rather than from a southbound migration of taurine cattle.[29] The results are inconclusive as to whether domestication occurred first in Africa or the Near East.[30]

Sanga cattle breeds is considered to have originated from hybridization of zebu with taurine cattle [31] leading to the Afrikaner, Red Fulani, Ankole, Boran and many other breeds.

Some 75 breeds of zebu are known, split about evenly between African and Indian breeds.

List of widely distributed zebu breeds
Gyr[32] |Kankrej and Guzerat[33] |Indo-Brazilian[34] |Brahman[35] |Sibi Bhagnari[36] |White Nukra[37] |Cholistani[38] |Dhanni[39] |Lohani[39] |Nelore |Ongole[39] |Sahiwal[39] |Red Sindhi[39] |Butana and Kenana[40] |Baggara[41] |Tharparkar[39] |Kangayam[39] |Southern Yellow[42] |Kedah Kelantan[43] |Local Indian Dairy[44]
Hariana breed of zebu type cattle in north India

Other breeds of zebu are quite local, like the Hariana from Haryana, Punjab[45] or the Rath from Alwar district, Rajasthan.[46]

Zebu were imported into Brazil in the early 20th century. Their importation marked a change in cattle ranching in Brazil as they were considered "ecological" since they could graze on natural grasses, and their meat was lean and without chemical residues.[47] From the 1960s onwards, Nelore which is an off breed of Ongole Cattle became the primary cattle breed in Brazil because of its hardiness, heat-resistance, and because it thrives on poor-quality forage and breeds easily, with the calves rarely requiring human intervention to survive. More than 80% of beef cattle in Brazil (approximately 167,000,000 animals) are either purebred or hybrid Ongole Cattle.[48]

Uses

[edit]
Draft zebu pulling a cart in Mumbai, India (2004)
A villager with a decorated bull during Pongal festival

Zebu are used as draught and riding animals, beef cattle, dairy cattle, as well as for byproducts such as hides, dung for fuel and manure, and horn for knife handles and the like. Zebu, mostly miniature zebu, are kept as pets.[49] In India, the number of draft cattle in 1998 was estimated at 65.7 million head.[50] Zebu cows commonly have low production of milk. They do not produce milk until maturation later in their lives and do not produce much. When zebus are crossed with taurine cattle, milk production generally increases.[22]

In Madagascar, zebu outnumber people, and there are an "astonishing" 6,813 Malagasy proverbs, common sayings, and expressions referring to zebu in parlance on the island.[51] Zebu are wrestled by young men in a competitive ritual of courtship called tolon'omby.[51][52]

Within the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, zebu are used for jallikattu.

In 1999, researchers at Texas A&M University successfully cloned a zebu.[53]

Hindu tradition

[edit]
Further information: Cattle slaughter in India

Zebu are venerated in Hinduism of India. In the historical Vedic religion they were a symbol of plenty.[54]: 130  In later times they gradually acquired their present status. According to the Mahabharata, they are to be treated with the same respect 'as one's mother'.[55] In the middle of the first millennium, the consumption of beef began to be disfavoured by lawgivers.[54]: 144 

Milk and milk products were used in Vedic rituals.[54]: 130  In the postvedic period products like milk, curd, ghee, but also cow dung and urine gomutra, or the combination of these five panchagavya began to assume an increasingly important role in ritual purification and expiation.[54]: 130–131 

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Zebu

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Zebu (Bos indicus), also known as humped or indicine , is a species of domestic bovine originating in the , distinguished by a prominent fatty hump over the shoulders, a pendulous , loose skin, and large, drooping ears. These traits contribute to their superior , allowing efficient sweating and heat dissipation in arid and tropical environments. Zebu exhibit greater resistance to ectoparasites, ticks, and diseases such as compared to taurine (Bos taurus), enabling survival in regions with high vector prevalence. Domesticated from the Indian subspecies of the wild (Bos primigenius namadicus) in the Indus Valley region of the Indian subcontinent around 8,000 years before present, zebu represent one of the earliest centers of , predating widespread husbandry in other regions. Genetic evidence confirms the Indus as the primary origin for the indicine lineage, with subsequent dispersal to , , and beyond via trade and migration routes. Archaeological records from the region show zebu remains in sites, underscoring their role in early agricultural societies for traction and subsistence. In , zebu function as multipurpose animals, providing draft power for plowing and transport, for human consumption, and where culturally permissible, though their slower growth rates limit intensive production relative to temperate breeds. Crossbreeding with cattle has produced hardy hybrids like , enhancing global industries in subtropical zones such as the and . Culturally, zebu hold profound significance in Indian subcontinental traditions, particularly , where non-slaughter norms preserve breeding stock amid ecological pressures like scarcity, sustaining long-term productivity over short-term gains. This interplay of utility and has maintained zebu populations despite modern commercialization elsewhere.

Taxonomy and Classification

Scientific Classification

The zebu (Bos indicus or Bos taurus indicus) belongs to the domain Eukarya, kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, subfamily Bovinae, genus Bos, and species B. indicus (Linnaeus, 1758). The species name Bos indicus was originally proposed by in 1758 to describe humped observed in regions including , distinguishing them from non-humped forms. Taxonomic treatment varies: some authorities recognize B. indicus as a distinct adapted to tropical environments, supported by genetic and morphological divergences such as the thoracic hump and , while others classify it as a subspecies B. taurus indicus under the broader domestic species B. taurus, reflecting shared ancestry from the extinct (Bos primigenius). This distinction historically treated indicine (zebu) and taurine as separate species but now often views them as subspecies due to hybridization potential and history.
Taxonomic RankClassification
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumChordata
ClassMammalia
OrderArtiodactyla
FamilyBovidae
GenusBos
SpeciesB. indicus

Distinction from Taurine Cattle

Zebu (Bos taurus indicus) constitute a separate from ( taurus taurus), with genetic divergence estimated at 117,000 to 275,000 years ago based on sequencing. This separation is reflected in distinct genomic profiles, including higher differentiation on the and greater overall in zebu lineages, which were domesticated around 7,000 years ago in the Indus Valley region of the Indian subcontinent, approximately 2,000 years later than in the . Morphologically, zebu differ markedly through the presence of a fatty dorsal hump, extensive , and loose folds, adaptations absent in cattle that enhance in hot climates. histology further distinguishes them, with zebu exhibiting thicker and more sweat glands per unit area, facilitating superior heat dissipation compared to the denser, less vascularized of breeds. Physiologically, zebu demonstrate enhanced resilience to tropical stressors, including higher resistance to and associated pathogens, attributed to innate immune differences and behavioral traits like reduced grooming time. Endocrine profiles vary, with zebu displaying , elevated concentrations of and , and smaller dominant follicles at ovulation, contrasting the earlier maturity and larger ovarian structures in cattle. These traits underpin zebu's adaptation to arid, parasite-laden environments, where cattle experience higher morbidity from heat stress and vector-borne diseases.

Domestication and Historical Spread

Archaeological and Genetic Evidence of Origins

Archaeological evidence points to the domestication of zebu (Bos indicus) occurring approximately 8,000 to 9,000 years in northwestern , with early remains associated with sites in the region. Domestic zebu bones and artifacts indicate their widespread presence during the Indian subcontinental , as evidenced by remains from sites such as , , , , Dholavira, , and dating to around 5,000–4,000 years . These findings suggest initial pastoralist management and for traits like the dorsal hump, distinct from (Bos taurus), with no earlier domesticated zebu identified outside the . Genetic analyses of modern and ancient Bos indicus samples confirm an independent domestication event from local wild Indian subcontinental (Bos primigenius), separate from the Near Eastern origins of cattle, with divergence estimated at 7,000–10,000 years ago. and genome-wide studies trace zebu matrilineal and autosomal lineages exclusively to the Indus Valley region of the Indian subcontinent around 8,000 years , showing minimal pre- admixture with other bovine populations. Y-chromosome data further support male-driven dispersal from this center, with haplogroups unique to indicine cattle absent in lineages until later hybridizations. Post-domestication genetic bottlenecks, evident in reduced diversity compared to wild ancestors, align with archaeological timelines of controlled breeding and expansion, reinforcing as the sole primary origin without for multiple independent events. from Indus periphery sites reveals early zebu introgression into local populations around 4,000 years ago, but core indicine signatures remain tied to sources. These combined lines of refute hypotheses of African or West Eurasian contributions to zebu origins, attributing their genetic distinctiveness to isolation and adaptation in tropical environments.

Patterns of Migration and Introduction to New Regions

Zebu cattle (Bos indicus), domesticated in the Indus Valley region of the Indian subcontinent (present-day and northwest ) approximately 8,000 years , initially spread across the through pastoralist mobility and trade networks associated with early agricultural societies. From this core area, zebu migrated westward into the around 4,000 years (circa 2000 BCE), as evidenced by in regional cattle populations, likely facilitated by Indo-European dispersals and overland trade routes. This expansion marked the first major introduction beyond , with archaeological and genomic data indicating zebu into local taurine (Bos taurus) herds without full replacement. Subsequent migrations reached Africa via maritime and overland pathways from the Arabian Peninsula, with genetic evidence pinpointing introductions to the Horn of Africa between 2,000 and 1,600 years before present through Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite trade links across the Red Sea. Two distinct waves of zebu influx—likely tied to Arab and Swahili commerce—resulted in widespread admixture with indigenous African taurine cattle, leading to hybrid sanga types in West and Central Africa and near-total dominance of zebu traits in East African populations by the medieval period. Genomic analyses confirm varying zebu ancestry levels, highest in the Horn (up to full indicine profiles) and lower in West Africa, reflecting geographic gradients of migration intensity and selective breeding for tropical resilience. Further eastward and insular dispersals carried zebu to and the islands, mirroring human Austronesian and Bantu migrations, with high-density SNP data from Malagasy and populations revealing admixture histories tied to 1st-millennium CE seafaring trade. In , zebu arrived via East African intermediaries in the early centuries CE, becoming integral to highland ; by the early 20th century, zebu numbers exceeded human populations at ratios up to 2:1, underscoring their rapid proliferation post-introduction. Transoceanic introductions to the occurred primarily through European colonial routes in the 16th–19th centuries, with and Spanish traders importing zebu from and to and the for draft and meat production in tropical zones. Ancient DNA from sites confirms early African-derived zebu presence by the 1800s, including strains from , which hybridized with imports to form heat-tolerant breeds dominant in modern South American herds, such as those in . Zebu cattle were introduced to Central America in the 19th and 20th centuries, primarily from South America (e.g., Brazil) or African sources, and are prevalent in countries such as Guatemala and Costa Rica for agricultural purposes due to their adaptation to tropical climates. These patterns highlight zebu's adaptability driving human-mediated global dissemination, often via admixture rather than displacement.

Physical Characteristics

Key Morphological Features

Zebu (Bos taurus indicus) exhibit a distinctive thoracic hump composed of located over the shoulders, which serves as an energy reserve and contributes to their silhouette. This hump, absent in cattle (Bos taurus taurus), typically measures 30-50 cm in height in mature bulls and is more pronounced in males. A prominent , consisting of loose, pendulous skin extending from the neck to the chest and sometimes the , is another hallmark feature, facilitating through increased surface area for heat dissipation. Ears are often long, floppy, and drooping, contrasting with the upright ears of many breeds. The overall body conformation includes a narrow frame, sloping rump, and relatively long legs, supporting adaptation to arid terrains. The hide is thin and loosely attached to the body, with excess skin folds around the neck and underbelly, enhancing flexibility and cooling. Horns are typically lyre-shaped or half-moon in profile, though polled variants exist in some breeds.
  • Hump: Fatty deposit over , larger in bulls (up to 20-30% of body weight in extreme cases).
  • Dewlap and skin: Excessive, pendulous folds for heat management.
  • Ears: Pendulous, 20-30 cm long.
  • Body: Narrow, with elongated legs and minimal muscling compared to counterparts.
These traits distinguish zebu from other bovines and vary slightly across breeds but remain consistent markers.

Physiological Adaptations to Tropical Environments

Zebu ( indicus) possess physiological mechanisms that confer superior tolerance to stress prevalent in tropical climates, characterized by high temperatures and exceeding 30°C, where evaporative cooling becomes the primary mode of heat dissipation. These include a lower and reduced internal production compared to taurine ( taurus), minimizing endogenous heat load. Additionally, zebu exhibit enhanced cutaneous evaporative cooling through larger sweat glands positioned closer to the skin surface, enabling higher sweat rates and more efficient heat loss via evaporation. Thermoregulatory efficiency is further supported by physiological traits such as lower rectal temperatures (averaging 39.28°C in heat-stressed zebu breeds like versus 39.47°C in less adapted crosses) and reduced respiratory rates (26 breaths/min versus 36 breaths/min), reflecting diminished reliance on panting for respiratory . Cellular and integumentary adaptations, including thinner with lower thermal resistance from core to surface and a hair coat with shorter, denser follicles that limit solar radiation penetration while facilitating conduction, contribute to maintaining under chronic heat exposure. These traits result in less pronounced declines in feed intake, growth, and reproduction during , unlike in B. taurus breeds. In terms of disease resistance, zebu demonstrate innate immune enhancements suited to tropical pathogens, including higher serum gamma globulin levels and stronger acute-phase protein responses that bolster defenses against ectoparasites such as ticks (Rhipicephalus microplus). Elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentrations support oxygen transport under parasitic burdens, conferring greater resilience to helminths, pinkeye, and tick-borne infections compared to B. taurus. However, zebu remain more susceptible to certain vector-borne diseases like trypanosomosis, highlighting breed-specific vulnerabilities despite overall tropical adaptation. Lower maintenance energy requirements (74.93–79.29 kcal/kg^{0.75} versus 84.59–86.56 kcal/kg^{0.75} in B. taurus) further enable sustained performance on low-quality tropical forages amid environmental stressors.

Behavior and Ecology

Social and Foraging Behaviors

Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) exhibit gregarious , forming matrilineal herds primarily composed of females and their , while young males disperse at 1–2 years to join groups or live solitarily. These herds establish dominance through agonistic interactions such as head butting, which are maintained via affiliative including allogrooming; hierarchies stabilize within consistent groups but can shift with the introduction of new members. Social organization traits like dominance value and hierarchy show moderate (0.23–0.25), influencing feeding patterns where dominant individuals make more frequent but shorter visits to feed sources compared to subordinates. Herd synchronization is pronounced, particularly for activities like and resting on , reflecting their adaptation to . This gregarious nature renders zebu susceptible to social stress when isolated or exposed to novel environments, such as the introduction of unfamiliar conspecifics. In , zebu primarily graze grasses as ruminants but browse shrubs and trees when available, allocating 6–10 hours daily to feeding on with diurnal patterns peaking in daylight and nighttime for rumination (8–12 hours). In semi-arid , they favor over browsing, sustaining consistent time budgets across periods. Environmental factors modulate ; in tropical silvopastoral systems, higher shade from tree densities (e.g., 357 trees/ha) increases rumination and time while reducing bouts, with heifers preferring sunlit areas for afternoon and shorter swards influencing morning intake duration.

Reproductive Biology

Zebu (Bos taurus indicus) exhibit reproductive traits adapted to tropical environments, including , abbreviated estrus periods, and extended postpartum anestrus, which contribute to longer calving intervals under extensive management. Females typically reach between 16 and 40 months of age, later than in Bos taurus (8-15 months), with attainment influenced by nutrition, season, and genotype-environment interactions. The in zebu females averages 21 days (range 17-31 days), comparable to cattle, but standing estrus is shorter, lasting about 10 hours (range 1.3-20 hours), often with reduced mounting and a higher incidence of silent or nocturnal heats, complicating detection in field conditions. behavior involves natural serving by bulls, which display adequate scores (mean 6.4 out of 10 in tested groups), though influenced by factors such as prior exposure and cow receptivity; zebu bulls perform effectively in systems but may show seasonal variations in activity. Gestation length averages 285 days (range 275-297.5 days), slightly longer than the 282 days typical in Bos taurus, with some studies reporting up to 293 days; parturition occurs without major deviations from taurine patterns, though zebu exhibit strong maternal protectiveness post-calving. Uterine involution completes in 23-35 days postpartum, varying by parity and calving season. Postpartum anestrus is prolonged in zebu, often exceeding 60-120 days under pasture-based systems due to nutritional constraints and suckling effects, leading to calving intervals of 400-500 days or more, lower than optimal but reflecting adaptations for and calf in resource-limited . Despite these challenges, zebu demonstrate robust responses to improved and management, with greater reproductive lifespan and lower embryonic losses in adapted environments compared to non-indicine breeds.

Health and Disease Resistance Mechanisms

Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) exhibit superior resistance to many tropical diseases compared to cattle (Bos taurus), a trait evolved through in harsh environments, enabling survival with minimal veterinary intervention. This resistance manifests in lower parasite burdens, reduced clinical severity of infections, and enhanced immune responses, particularly innate immunity involving monocytes and non-T/non-B cells at higher frequencies in breeds like . Physiological adaptations, such as thicker skin and robust grooming behaviors, contribute to deterring ectoparasites, while genomic signatures indicate selection for immune pathways that bolster tolerance to heat stress-linked pathologies. Epigenetic modifications, including differences, further underpin disparities in disease susceptibility between zebu and lineages. Against tick infestations and associated tick-borne diseases (TBDs) like and , zebu demonstrate markedly lower attachment and reproductive success of s such as Rhipicephalus , with pure zebu carrying fewer s than taurine-zebu crosses under field conditions. Breeds like Orma and Maasai Zebu show innate resistance via enhanced host immunity, including and II alleles that promote cytotoxic T-cell responses against tick salivary antigens. This reduces TBD transmission, as evidenced by quantitative studies in where zebu maintain low tick populations through combined behavioral and immunological defenses. Zebu display heightened tolerance to , caused by Trypanosoma species vectored by tsetse flies, with zebu breeds like Gobra exhibiting lower parasitemia and compared to susceptible counterparts in experimental exposures. Genetic factors, including trypanotolerance loci on chromosomes influencing IgM responses and activation, enable control of parasite proliferation without severe . Crosses with even partial zebu ancestry confer partial resistance, though full benefits require substantial indicine . For bacterial infections, zebu resist bovine tuberculosis () more effectively, with African zebu breeds showing genome-wide variants in immune genes like NRAMP1 and SLC11A1 that enhance killing of intracellular pathogens. They also exhibit reduced colonization by hoof pathogens such as spp., , and Dichelobacter nodosus, linked to skin microbiome differences and innate . Whole-genome analyses reveal enriched pathways in zebu for signaling (e.g., IL-1, TNF-α) and complement activation, directly supporting these resistances.

Breeds and Genetic Diversity

Classification of Major Breeds

Zebu breeds are classified primarily by utility into milch (dairy), draught, and dual-purpose categories, a system developed through in their native . This classification reflects adaptations for specific economic roles in , with over 30 indigenous breeds recognized in alone. Milch breeds prioritize milk production and include the from , characterized by excellent milk yields and a red-brown coat; the from , noted for high milk output with a distinctive red coat; and from the , featuring good milk production in a white or light grey coat. The Gir breed, originating in , , is another prominent milch type with a red or spotted coat and pronounced hump, contributing significantly to dairy in tropical regions. Dual-purpose breeds balance milk and work capabilities, exemplified by the Hariana from , which has a medium-sized frame and variable coat colors suitable for both traction and moderate dairy output. Draught breeds emphasize strength for plowing and transport, such as the from , with its large body, lyre-shaped horns, and grey-white coat for heavy labor; and from , known for a massive build and white coat, forming the basis for derived breeds like in . In , zebu breeds are less formally classified by utility but include types like the in , valued for beef, milk, and draught with a white coat and strong heat tolerance; and shorthorned dairy variants such as and Kenana in , adapted for milk in arid conditions. African zebu often represent smaller East African strains or larger imported derivatives, totaling around 35 varieties.

Genomic Diversity and Population Structure

Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) represent a distinct domesticate lineage from taurine cattle (Bos taurus), with genomic divergence estimated at approximately 200,000–300,000 years ago based on whole-genome sequencing and phylogenetic analyses of ancient and modern samples. Domestication of zebu occurred independently in the Indus Valley region of northwest Indian subcontinent around 8,000–10,000 years ago, as evidenced by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) surveys of 844 zebu sequences showing exclusive South Asian Neolithic origins without significant African or taurine contributions to the core indicine maternal pool. This separation is marked by unique autosomal ancestry components, two mtDNA haplogroups (I1 and I2), and a Y-chromosome haplogroup (Y3) prevalent in zebu populations. Within zebu populations, is moderate to high, with observed heterozygosity averaging 0.356 across Asian breeds and diversity (π) ranging from 0.0008 to 0.0012 in Indian indicus samples, reflecting to diverse tropical environments but also historical bottlenecks from and migration. Genome-wide SNP analyses of 244 zebu and related reveal lower overall variability in indicus compared to due to smaller effective population sizes (Ne) post-, estimated at 100–500 in recent generations for many breeds, though African zebu maintain higher diversity (e.g., expected heterozygosity He > 0.35) from admixture events. Copy number variations (CNVs) and selection signatures further differentiate zebu, with over 1,000 indicus-specific CNV regions associated with heat tolerance and disease resistance loci. Population structure analyses using ADMIXTURE at K=2 consistently delineate zebu as a monophyletic group separate from , with substructure emerging at higher K values (K=3–10) reflecting regional breed clusters: Indian subcontinental (e.g., Indian Gir, ), African zebu (e.g., Nigerian breeds), and East/Southeast Asian indicus derivatives showing . Fst values between zebu breeds range from 0.05–0.15, indicating moderate differentiation, while (PCA) positions Indian zebu centrally, with African populations shifted due to ~10–30% admixture from historical introductions. Y-chromosome studies of 301 Indian zebu bulls identify 19 haplotypes with high diversity (Hd=0.92), underscoring patrilineal structure tied to breed-specific alleles. Admixture patterns reveal limited in core Indian subcontinental zebu (<5%), but higher levels in peripheral populations, such as 20–40% in East African zebu from 16th–19th century trade routes, as detected via genome-wide decay and ABBA-BABA tests. In , some breeds exhibit hybrid ancestry with local wild bovids like , contributing to unique population structures. Recent mitogenome sequencing of 78 Indian zebu confirms two dominant haplogroups with low divergence (0.5–1.9% among breeds), supporting a single event followed by breed radiation. Declining Ne in modern breeds, from ~1,000 five generations ago to <100 today in some Indian populations, signals risks to diversity from intensive selection.

Hybrids and Crossbreeding

Historical and Regional Hybrids

Historical hybridization between zebu (Bos indicus) and (Bos taurus) cattle occurred primarily in following the introduction of zebu from via Arab traders around the AD, resulting in the group. These intermediates exhibit partial humps, combining zebu heat tolerance and disease resistance with productivity traits, as evidenced by genomic analyses showing male-mediated zebu into maternal lines. Sanga breeds, stabilized over centuries in sub-Saharan regions, include the Afrikaner (South Africa), Nguni (southern Africa), and East African types like the Boran (Kenya/Ethiopia) and Ankole (Uganda/Rwanda), adapted to arid savannas and tsetse fly zones through selective retention of zebu alleles for trypanosomosis resistance. Archaeological and genetic evidence dates this admixture to approximately 700 AD, predating European colonial introductions and distinguishing sanga from later pure zebu expansions in East Africa. In the , regional zebu-taurine hybrids emerged post-1492 with European taurine imports, but significant crossbreeding began in the 19th century as Indian zebu breeds (Guzerat, , Gir) were imported to tropical zones for heat adaptation. This culminated in the breed, formalized in the U.S. by 1932 through crosses with and , enhancing beef production in humid like the southeastern U.S. and , where Nelore-influenced hybrids dominate commercial herds. Such historical hybrids reflect adaptive responses to local environments, with African sanga preserving indigenous taurine diversity against zebu dilution, while American variants prioritized yield under , though both faced challenges from ongoing purebred imports reducing hybrid vigor.

Modern Breeding Programs and Outcomes

Modern breeding programs for zebu hybrids primarily aim to leverage effects by crossing Bos indicus zebu with Bos taurus breeds, enhancing tropical adaptability while improving productivity traits such as growth rate, milk yield, and reproductive efficiency in subtropical and tropical environments. In , —derived from zebu imports starting in 1933 and subsequent grading-up with local breeds—have been central to northern production programs, incorporating genomic selection for traits like resistance and tolerance since the early . Brazilian programs, particularly for and zebu lines, have utilized large-scale genetic evaluations via systems like BREEDPLAN equivalents, achieving positive genetic gains in weaning weight (up to 5-10 kg increase per generation) and reduced age at first calving by 2-4 months from 1990 to 2020. Outcomes demonstrate hybrid vigor, with F1 zebu-taurine crosses exhibiting 10-20% higher daily weight gains and 15-25% improved rates compared to purebred parents, alongside retained zebu advantages in parasite resistance and . In African smallholder systems, structured crossbreeding of indigenous zebu with breeds has yielded with 20-30% better adaptation to local stressors, including reduced mortality from ticks and , though milk yields in zebu-dominant hybrids (e.g., 1.4-3.5 liters/day) remain lower than pure without compensatory gains. Togolese programs crossing dwarf with zebu reported average milk production of 2-4 liters/day in F1 hybrids, with calf mortality rates dropping to 5-10% versus 15-20% in pure zebu, attributed to balanced resistance. Challenges include dilution of zebu adaptability beyond F1 generations, necessitating rotational or composite breeding to sustain , as seen in Australian Brahman programs where backcrossing maintains 50-75% indicus ancestry for optimal carcass quality (e.g., marbling scores improving 0.2-0.5 units on IMF scales). Genomic tools have accelerated progress, with multi-country datasets (, , ) enabling prediction accuracies of 0.4-0.6 for resistance in Brahman hybrids as of 2021. Overall, these programs have boosted economic viability, with hybrid systems increasing net returns by 15-30% in tropical operations through combined yield and benefits.

Uses and Economic Importance

Agricultural and Productive Roles

Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) play essential roles in tropical and subtropical , primarily as draft animals, sources of and , and providers of byproducts like and hides. Their physiological adaptations, including tolerance and lower maintenance requirements, enable sustained productivity under harsh environmental conditions prevalent in developing regions. In draft applications, zebu excel due to their robust build and resilience to high temperatures and humidity, making them indispensable for plowing fields, pulling carts, and other tasks in areas lacking . These support smallholder farming systems across , , and , where they contribute to crop production by enabling efficient land preparation without reliance on fossil fuels. Their ability to work longer hours in hot climates stems from efficient and reduced metabolic heat production compared to Bos taurus breeds. For dairy production, zebu yields vary by and , typically ranging from 1 to 9 kg per day during peak , with local strains like those in averaging around 1 kg daily and improved breeds such as or reaching 2,100–2,200 kg over a 270–280-day . Zebu exhibits higher solids content, including fat (often over 5%) and protein, which enhances its suitability for fermented products and cheese-making in traditional systems. However, pure zebu output remains lower than temperate breeds, prompting crossbreeding programs to boost productivity while retaining tropical adaptations. In beef production, zebu and zebu-influenced dominate tropical systems, accounting for a significant portion of global growth, with FAO projections indicating at least 70% of future increases originating from these regions by leveraging their parasite resistance and efficiency on low-quality pastures. Carcass yields and growth rates are optimized through , though they lag behind temperate breeds under intensive feeding; zebu's role is critical for sustainable output in resource-limited environments. Byproducts further amplify zebu's value: manure serves as a key to enhance and as a source in fuel-scarce rural areas, while hides provide material for goods. These uses underpin household economies, acting as a form of savings and risk mitigation in agrarian societies.

Global Economic Contributions and Trade

Zebu cattle underpin beef production in tropical regions, where their thermotolerance and foraging efficiency lower costs compared to Bos taurus breeds. In Brazil, zebu-derived Nelore dominate, forming 80% of the 239 million-head national herd as of 2025 and propelling the country to the world's top beef exporter position, with exports accounting for nearly 20% of global supply in 2018. This economic impact extends to reduced hunger through scalable pasture-based systems, supporting agribusiness valued in billions annually. In and , zebu sustain smallholder economies via draft labor, milk, and meat, with lower maintenance needs aiding resilience in resource-scarce environments. Countries like and derive rural income from zebu herds, where improved management—such as reducing calf mortality—can elevate offtake rates and net returns, as partial-budget analyses indicate positive economic viability. In , zebu-focused projects target US$7.7 million in annual sales, bolstering local and export markets. International trade historically featured live zebu exports from to , with over 5,000 animals shipped from 1890 to 1921, laying the foundation for Brazil's industry despite later import bans due to . Contemporary flows emphasize genetics: Brazil's enhanced zebu lines drive and embryo exports, with emerging as the leading importer of Brazilian bovine material in 2025. Such exchanges propagate traits like resistance, influencing global herd improvements in heat-stressed zones.

Cultural and Religious Significance

Role in Hindu and Traditional Societies

In , zebu cattle (Bos indicus) are revered as sacred embodiments of , nourishment, and (non-violence), with cows symbolizing the divine and associated with deities such as Krishna, , and , the mythical wish-fulfilling cow that emerged from the churning of the ocean and represents the totality of the gods. Bulls, depicted as the humped zebu form, hold prominence as Nandi, the eternal devotee and (mount) of , embodying , purity, strength, and ; granite sculptures of Nandi, often adorned with garlands and positioned facing Shiva lingams in temples, date to the Chola period (c. 1000–1100 CE) and serve as focal points for worship where devotees seek blessings for progeny and justice. Rituals underscore this veneration: cows undergo gau puja, involving bathing, decoration with vermilion and garlands, and feeding of sweets during festivals like (commemorating Krishna's cowherding), , and , while bulls receive offerings of fodder and bells on Shiva-related auspicious days; —a mixture of milk, curd, , dung, and urine—is employed in purification ceremonies and Ayurvedic medicine for its purported therapeutic properties. The prohibition on slaughter, codified by 200 CE among texts after earlier Vedic allowances, aligns with ecological imperatives in India's monsoon-dependent , where zebu oxen provide essential draft power for plowing (requiring an estimated 140 million animals for 70 million farms) and byproducts like dung (yielding 800 million tons annually, equivalent to 43 million tons of coal for fuel and ) sustain households during famines, as zebu's heat tolerance and enable herd survival when crops fail. In traditional Indian societies, this religious framework integrates zebu into daily life and cosmology, fostering a exceeding 305 million as of 2021, with females outnumbering males (approximately 70 cows per 100 bullocks) to maximize reproductive output for traction animals; the , while religiously absolute for most , permits indirect through neglect or sale to non-Hindus, reflecting a pragmatic balance between sanctity and rather than unyielding irrationality. Anthropologist attributes the persistence of this system to its adaptive value, arguing that forbiding slaughter preserved breeding stock amid periodic ecological stresses, a causal mechanism later mythologized in Hindu doctrine to enforce communal resilience.

Debates on Conservation Versus Utilization

The debate centers on preserving the genetic integrity of zebu (Bos taurus indicus) populations, valued for their adaptations to tropical environments, against pressures to enhance productivity through crossbreeding with high-yielding breeds (Bos taurus taurus). Uncontrolled crossbreeding has led to significant , with 22% of African breeds—including zebu types—extinct in the last century and 32% at risk, primarily due to replacement by exotic breeds in pursuit of short-term economic gains. In , particularly , government policies emphasizing crossbreeding since the 1960s have increased average milk yields by 5-8 times in hybrid herds, but at the cost of diluting adaptive traits in indigenous zebu, exacerbating breed purity threats through indiscriminate mating. Proponents of conservation highlight zebu's empirical advantages in causal resilience under low-input conditions prevalent in developing regions, including superior heat tolerance, tick resistance, and trypanotolerance, which enable sustained productivity where breeds fail due to higher mortality and feed demands. in zebu is projected to halve within 20-50 years without intervention, underscoring the need for (on-farm) and ex situ (cryopreservation) strategies to safeguard traits essential for climate-vulnerable agroecosystems. Economic analyses recommend allocating limited conservation funds to a of high-priority zebu breeds—such as 3-9 out of 23 African zebu types—based on their within-breed variation and adaptive utility, rather than uniform efforts across all populations. In , where zebu hold cultural significance limiting slaughter, within pure lines is advocated to balance preservation with gradual improvement, avoiding the dependency on external inputs fostered by hybrids. Advocates for greater utilization argue that crossbreeding delivers verifiable productivity gains, with India's 16.1 million crossbred contributing 19% of national milk output as of recent assessments, supporting in densely populated areas. However, empirical data reveal trade-offs: hybrids exhibit higher rates, reproductive disorders, and vulnerability to tropical diseases, often negating net benefits in resource-poor settings where zebu's low-maintenance efficiency prevails. biases toward exotic infusion, evident in institutional promotion of crossbreeding programs, have accelerated without robust evidence of long-term superiority in zebu-dominant ecologies, prompting calls for evidence-based shifts toward conserving foundational breeds as against environmental stressors.

References

  1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/zebu
  2. https://beefrepro.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Thomoas-2018-Bos-indicus-ARSBC-Proceedings.pdf
  3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4478499/
  4. https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/27/1/1/1127118
  5. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19770222/
  6. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/age.12836
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10339982/
  8. https://www.thecattlesite.com/breeds/beef/76/zebu
  9. https://people.uncw.edu/ricej/intro/indiasacredcow.pdf
  10. https://acir.aphis.usda.gov/s/cird-taxon/a0ut0000000rEyWAAU/bos-indicus
  11. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=info&id=9915
  12. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/datasets/taxonomy/9915/
  13. https://www.fws.gov/species/zebu-bos-taurus-indicus
  14. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18467841/
  15. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.91647
  16. https://academic.oup.com/jas/article/89/7/2050/4764229
  17. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4046821/
  18. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23824223/
  19. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245028557_Differences_of_skin_morphology_in_Bos_indicus_Bos_taurus_and_their_crossbreds
  20. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378113524002062
  21. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/2/203
  22. https://www.animal-reproduction.org/article/doi/10.21451/1984-3143-AR868
  23. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51491575_Physiological_differences_and_implications_to_reproductive_management_of_Bos_taurus_and_Bos_indicus_cattle_in_a_tropical_enviroment
  24. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20477791/
  25. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-36444-7
  26. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248478800323
  27. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-39518-3
  28. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6304694/
  29. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0509210103
  30. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aav1002
  31. https://www.brownpundits.com/2019/07/18/who-brought-the-zebu-in-the-near-east/
  32. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Approximate-migration-route-and-the-origin-of-Africa-domestic-cattle-adapted-and_fig1_279222258
  33. https://www.animbiosci.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5713/ajas.15.0002R
  34. https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-017-1153-y
  35. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/zebu
  36. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8982424/
  37. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.1204
  38. https://factanimal.com/zebu/
  39. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/ancient-dna-reveals-an-early-african-origin-of-cattle-in-the-americas/
  40. https://www.alimentarium.org/en/fact-sheet/zebu
  41. https://www.gbif.org/species/113274210
  42. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11250968/
  43. https://www.fao.org/4/t0095e/t0095e04.htm
  44. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/zebu-breeds
  45. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7023624/
  46. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-66675-w
  47. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7032034/
  48. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/behavior/behavior-of-production-animals/behavior-of-cattle
  49. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016815912300148X
  50. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11405345/
  51. https://stud.epsilon.slu.se/2122/1/jonsson_h_110111.pdf
  52. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168159121001477
  53. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/4eb48cdf-38a3-424d-b75a-83415605bc05/content/x5442e05.htm
  54. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7702482/
  55. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10730985/
  56. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0168159188900639
  57. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0749072015311348?via%253Dihub
  58. https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/gen-2021-0030
  59. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.12.09.627532v1.full-text
  60. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357102533_Whole-Genome_comparative_analysis_reveals_genetic_mechanisms_of_disease_resistance_and_heat_tolerance_of_tropical_Bos_indicus_cattle_breeds
  61. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030440179700229X
  62. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001706X00000632
  63. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/89440b31-7c28-428a-b436-b76a611959ef/content/x5485e0j.htm
  64. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9776143/
  65. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30129859
  66. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304401724000530
  67. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-52606-2
  68. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38996749/
  69. https://www.ifizci.com/indian-zebu-breeds/
  70. https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/ta/animal_husbandry/animhus_cattle%2520_breed.html
  71. https://nadudana.com.au/the-breed/
  72. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2022.847492/full
  73. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-14744-z
  74. https://gsejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12711-021-00640-3
  75. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1751731114002560
  76. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-01144-2
  77. https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12864-022-08512-w
  78. https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12864-021-07808-7
  79. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.09.25.678660v1.full.pdf
  80. https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12864-020-07270-x
  81. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-66133-3
  82. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62692-z
  83. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378111924009776
  84. https://gsejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12711-016-0266-1
  85. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2017.00068/full
  86. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/6/4/705
  87. https://academic.oup.com/jas/article-abstract/50/6/1188/4662919
  88. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8375302/
  89. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6288114/
  90. https://www.embrapa.br/en/busca-de-noticias/-/noticia/63171708/brazil-australia-and-south-africa-unify-genomic-data-on-bovine-tick-resistance
  91. https://www.nuffieldscholar.org/sites/default/files/reports/2011_AU_Lorre-Herrod_Increasing-Reproduction-Genetic-Benefits-In-Reproduction-Of-Bos-Indicus-Brahman-Under-Harsh-Conditions.pdf
  92. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1828051X.2022.2104662
  93. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1751731119000855
  94. https://gsejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12711-025-00952-8
  95. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6498096/
  96. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349892817_Birth_weight_milk_production_and_mortality_rate_in_crossbred_cattle_Dwarf_taurine_Zebu_in_Togo
  97. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7400063/
  98. https://www.fao.org/4/t0413e/T0413E05.htm
  99. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022030211001913
  100. https://www.publish.csiro.au/AN/pdf/AN21230
  101. https://www.lrrd.org/lrrd15/3/Tade153.htm
  102. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958694623002984
  103. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174023002814
  104. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8151705/
  105. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/4eb48cdf-38a3-424d-b75a-83415605bc05/content/x5442e03.htm
  106. https://www.animbiosci.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5713/ajas.16.0024
  107. https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2025/05/14/brazilian-supercows-are-taking-over-the-world
  108. http://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2019/july/brazil-once-again-becomes-the-world-s-largest-beef-exporter
  109. https://en.clickpetroleoegas.com.br/as-supervacas-zebu-transformaram-o-brasil-no-maior-exportador-de-carne-bovina-do-planeta-vml97/
  110. https://academic.oup.com/af/article/15/3/38/8223531
  111. https://www.ilri.org/knowledge/publications/economic-evaluation-improved-management-zebu-cattle-northern-tanzania
  112. https://www.gafspfund.org/projects/gafsp-helps-madagascar-beef-its-zebu-export-market
  113. https://www.thebeefsite.com/breeds/beef/76/zebu
  114. https://valorinternational.globo.com/agribusiness/news/2025/03/31/india-becomes-top-importer-of-brazilian-bovine-genetics.ghtml
  115. https://ukragroconsult.com/en/news/zebu-in-brazil-the-future-of-global-livestock-farming/
  116. https://www.hinduismtoday.com/magazine/october-november-december-2024/the-divine-bovine/
  117. https://earthstoriez.com/india-go-cow-bull-mythology-history
  118. https://www.denverartmuseum.org/en/edu/object/sacred-bull-shiva-nandi
  119. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667071224000413
  120. https://www.longdom.org/open-access/crossbreeding-in-cattle-for-milk-production-achievements-challenges-and-opportunities-in-indiaa-review-23656.html
  121. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800903000922
  122. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20133344837
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.