Hubbry Logo
Natural historyNatural historyMain
Open search
Natural history
Community hub
Natural history
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Natural history
Natural history
Natural history
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Black and white tables of natural history, from Ephraim Chambers's 1728 Cyclopaedia.

Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a naturalist or natural historian.

Natural history encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it.[1] It involves the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms,[2] so while it dates from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the mediaeval Arabic world, through to European Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a cross-discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g., geobiology has a strong multidisciplinary nature.

Definitions

[edit]

Before 1900

[edit]
1888 illustration (left) and photograph (right) of a Palaeotherium magnum skeleton at the National Museum of Natural History, France

The meaning of the English term "natural history" (a calque of the Latin historia naturalis) has narrowed progressively with time, while, by contrast, the meaning of the related term "nature" has widened (see also History below).

In antiquity, "natural history" covered essentially anything connected with nature, or used materials drawn from nature, such as Pliny the Elder's encyclopedia of this title, published c. 77 to 79 AD, which covers astronomy, geography, humans and their technology, medicine, and superstition, as well as animals and plants.[3]

Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two main divisions: the humanities (primarily what is now known as classics) and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. The study of nature revived in the Renaissance, and quickly became a third branch of academic knowledge, itself divided into descriptive natural history and natural philosophy, the analytical study of nature. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, while natural history included the biological and geological sciences. The two were strongly associated. During the heyday of the gentleman scientists, many people contributed to both fields, and early papers in both were commonly read at professional science society meetings such as the Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences—both founded during the 17th century.

Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus' aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden.[4] Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits.[5]

Since 1900

[edit]
A natural history collection in a French public secondary school

Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources, and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field, creating a multiplicity of definitions with a number of common themes among them. For example, while natural history is most often defined as a type of observation and a subject of study, it can also be defined as a body of knowledge, and as a craft or a practice, in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed.[6] The multiplicity of definitions for the field has been recognized as both a weakness and a strength, and a broad range of definitions has recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history.[7]

Definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment, as seen in this definition by Marston Bates: "Natural history is the study of animals and Plants—of organisms. ... I like to think, then, of natural history as the study of life at the level of the individual—of what plants and animals do, how they react to each other and their environment, how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities"[8] and this more recent definition by D.S. Wilcove and T. Eisner: "The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior, and their relationships with other species".[9]

This focus on organisms in their environment is also echoed by H.W. Greene and J.B. Losos: "Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment, including interactions with other organisms. It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do".[10]

Some definitions go further, focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environments, both past and present, such as this one by G.A. Bartholomew: "A student of natural history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants and animals directly. Because organisms are functionally inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function cannot be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history, the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment".[11]

A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a descriptive component, as seen in a recent definition by H.W. Greene: "Descriptive ecology and ethology".[12] Several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history, including S. Herman, who defines the field as "the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the ecosystem, and stresses identification, life history, distribution, abundance, and inter-relationships. It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component",[13] and T. Fleischner, who defines the field even more broadly, as "A practice of intentional, focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy".[14] These definitions explicitly include the arts in the field of natural history, and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez, who defines the field as the "patient interrogation of a landscape" while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo (Inuit).[15]

A slightly different framework for natural history, covering a similar range of themes, is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading natural history museums, which often include elements of anthropology, geology, paleontology, and astronomy along with botany and zoology,[16][17] or include both cultural and natural components of the world.[18]

History

[edit]

Prehistory

[edit]

Prior to the advent of Western science, humans were engaged and highly competent in indigenous ways of understanding the more-than-human world that are now referred to as traditional ecological knowledge. 21st century definitions of natural history are inclusive of this understanding, such as this by Thomas Fleischner of the Natural History Institute (Prescott, Arizona):

Natural history – a practice of intentional focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy – is the oldest continuous human endeavor. In the evolutionary past of our species, the practice of natural history was essential for our survival, imparting critical information on habits and chronologies of plants and animals that we could eat or that could eat us. Natural history continues to be critical to human survival and thriving. It contributes to our fundamental understanding of how the world works by providing the empirical foundation of natural sciences, and it contributes directly and indirectly to human emotional and physical health, thereby fostering healthier human communities. It also serves as the basis for all conservation efforts, with natural history both informing the science and inspiring the values that drive these.[3]

Ancient

[edit]
Blackberry from the sixth-century Vienna Dioscurides manuscript

As a precursor to Western science, natural history began with Aristotle and other ancient philosophers who analyzed the diversity of the natural world. Natural history was understood by Pliny the Elder to cover anything that could be found in the world, including living things, geology, astronomy, technology, art, and humanity.[19]

De Materia Medica was written between 50 and 70 AD by Pedanius Dioscorides, a Roman physician of Greek origin. It was widely read for more than 1,500 years until supplanted in the Renaissance, making it one of the longest-lasting of all natural history books.

From the ancient Greeks until the work of Carl Linnaeus and other 18th-century naturalists, a major concept of natural history was the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being, an arrangement of minerals, vegetables, more primitive forms of animals, and more complex life forms on a linear scale of supposedly increasing perfection, culminating in our species.[20]

Medieval

[edit]

Natural history was basically static through the Middle Ages in Europe—although in the Arabic and Oriental world, it proceeded at a much brisker pace. From the 13th century, the work of Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into Christian philosophy, particularly by Thomas Aquinas, forming the basis for natural theology. During the Renaissance, scholars (herbalists and humanists, particularly) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history, and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual monsters. Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with Otto Brunfels and Hieronymus Bock. Other important contributors to the field were Valerius Cordus, Konrad Gesner (Historiae animalium), Frederik Ruysch, and Gaspard Bauhin.[21] The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into taxonomic groups, culminating in the system of the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus.[21]

The British historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham calls Li Shizhen "the 'uncrowned king' of Chinese naturalists",[22] and his Bencao gangmu "undoubtedly the greatest scientific achievement of the Ming".[This quote needs a citation] His works translated to many languages direct or influence many scholars and researchers.[citation needed]

Modern

[edit]
Georges Buffon is best remembered for his Histoire naturelle, a 44-volume encyclopedia describing quadrupeds, birds, minerals, and some science and technology. Reptiles and fish were covered in supplements by Bernard Germain de Lacépède.

A significant contribution to English natural history was made by parson-naturalists such as Gilbert White, William Kirby, John George Wood, and John Ray, who wrote about plants, animals, and other aspects of nature. Many of these men wrote about nature to make the natural theology argument for the existence or goodness of God.[23] Since early modern times, however, a great number of women made contributions to natural history, particularly in the field of botany, be it as authors, collectors, or illustrators.[24]

In modern Europe, professional disciplines such as botany, geology, mycology, palaeontology, physiology, and zoology were formed. Natural history, formerly the main subject taught by college science professors, was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an "amateur" activity, rather than a part of science proper. In Victorian Scotland, the study of natural history was believed to contribute to good mental health.[25] Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the study of birds, butterflies, seashells (malacology/conchology), beetles, and wildflowers; meanwhile, scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology (though with only partial success, at least until the modern evolutionary synthesis). Still, the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology, especially ecology (the study of natural systems involving living organisms and the inorganic components of the Earth's biosphere that support them), ethology (the scientific study of animal behavior), and evolutionary biology (the study of the relationships between life forms over very long periods of time), and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology.

Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the world's large natural history collections, such as the Natural History Museum, London, and the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC.

Three of the greatest English naturalists of the 19th century, Henry Walter Bates, Charles Darwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace—who knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years, collected thousands of specimens, many of them new to science, and by their writings both advanced knowledge of "remote" parts of the world—the Amazon basin, the Galápagos Islands, and the Indonesian Archipelago, among others—and in so doing helped to transform biology from a descriptive to a theory-based science.

The understanding of "Nature" as "an organism and not as a mechanism" can be traced to the writings of Alexander von Humboldt (Prussia, 1769–1859). Humboldt's copious writings and research were seminal influences for Charles Darwin, Simón Bolívar, Henry David Thoreau, Ernst Haeckel, and John Muir.[26]

Museums

[edit]
Further information: List of natural history museums

Natural history museums, which evolved from cabinets of curiosities, played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own morphological research.

Societies

[edit]
The monument of Jan Czekanowski, a president of Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists (1923–1924), in Szczecin, Poland

The term "natural history" alone, or sometimes together with archaeology, forms the name of many national, regional, and local natural history societies that maintain records for animals (including birds (ornithology), insects (entomology) and mammals (mammalogy)), fungi (mycology), plants (botany), and other organisms. They may also have geological and microscopical sections.

Examples of these societies in Britain include the Natural History Society of Northumbria founded in 1829, London Natural History Society (1858), Birmingham Natural History Society (1859), British Entomological and Natural History Society founded in 1872, Glasgow Natural History Society, Manchester Microscopical and Natural History Society established in 1880, Whitby Naturalists' Club founded in 1913,[27] Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society, Sheffield, founded in 1918.[28] The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many civil servants took an interest in their new surroundings, sending specimens back to museums in the Britain. (See also: Indian natural history)

Societies in other countries include the American Society of Naturalists and Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists. The Ecological Society of America launched its "Natural History Section" in 2010, using the tagline "the heart and soul of ecology."[29]

Professional societies have recognized the importance of natural history and have initiated new sections in their journals specifically for natural history observations to support the discipline. These include "Natural History Field Notes" of Biotropica,[30] "The Scientific Naturalist" of Ecology, "From the Field" of Waterbirds,[31] and the "Natural History Miscellany section" of the American Naturalist.

Benefits of natural history

[edit]

Natural history observations have contributed to scientific questioning and theory formation. In recent times such observations contribute to how conservation priorities are determined. Mental health benefits can ensue, as well, from regular and active observation of chosen components of nature, and these reach beyond the benefits derived from passively walking through natural areas.[3]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Natural history

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Natural history is the systematic observation and description of the natural world, focusing on the properties of organisms, their behaviors, habitats, and interactions with biotic and abiotic factors. It emphasizes direct fieldwork to uncover patterns in , , and evolutionary processes, distinguishing it from experimental sciences by prioritizing empirical encounters with nature. The discipline traces its origins to ancient civilizations, where early naturalists like documented animal behaviors and classifications, and compiled the encyclopedic in the 1st century CE, encompassing descriptions of plants, animals, minerals, and astronomical phenomena as a foundational text for observing without causal explanations. During the and Enlightenment, natural history flourished with explorations and collections, culminating in Carl Linnaeus's 18th-century system that standardized taxonomic classification of . The saw further advancements through figures like , whose observational voyages informed evolutionary theory, integrating natural history with emerging biological sciences. In contemporary science, natural history remains vital for informing , , and climate research by providing baseline data on species distributions and ecosystem dynamics that experimental methods alone cannot capture. It underpins inventories and predictive modeling, with institutions like natural history museums serving as repositories of specimens that enable long-term studies of . Despite challenges from funding shifts toward , renewed interest in "next-generation natural history" leverages technologies like and to revitalize observational approaches.

Definitions and Scope

Historical Definitions

The concept of natural history originated in as a philosophical into the natural world through systematic observation and description. (384–322 BCE) pioneered this approach in works such as Historia Animalium, where he documented the , behaviors, habitats, and classifications of over 500 animal , alongside observations of and minerals, viewing them as manifestations of nature's inherent principles of change and purpose. This empirical method integrated natural history into broader , emphasizing causal explanations derived from direct study rather than . Roman scholar (23–79 CE) further developed these ideas in Naturalis Historia, a 37-volume encyclopedia compiling knowledge on animals, plants, minerals, , and astronomy. Structured around Aristotle's tripartite division of nature (), Pliny's work prioritized comprehensive description and practical utility, drawing from hundreds of sources to portray the interconnected complexity of the as a unified whole accessible through inquiry. In the medieval era, scholastic thinkers reframed natural history within a theological context, interpreting the natural world as evidence of divine creation and order. (c. 560–636) exemplified this in , an encyclopedic compendium where etymologies of natural terms—such as those for animals in Book XII or elements in Book XIII—revealed God's providential design, linking empirical descriptions to biblical and moral instruction. This approach subordinated observation to theological harmony, preserving classical knowledge while aligning it with Christian doctrine. The initiated a pivot toward more empirical and humanistic study, reviving ancient texts while incorporating direct observation and illustration. (1516–1565) embodied this shift in Historia Animalium (1551–1558), a multi-volume work that systematically described thousands of animals with images, synthesizing classical authorities like and Pliny with contemporary reports to create an encyclopedic foundation for based on verifiable evidence. By the 18th and 19th centuries, natural history solidified as a descriptive of organisms, distinct from experimental . (1707–1778) articulated this in (1735 onward), defining it as the systematic recording of species' forms (morphology), habits (behavior and ), and distributions (geographical ranges), using to organize observations without delving into physiological mechanisms. His emphasis on global collecting and cataloging transformed natural history into a tool for exploration and classification. Throughout the pre-1900 period, terminological distinctions emerged to clarify natural history's scope. It diverged from "," which broadly included physics and speculative inquiries into motion and matter, as seen in the works of figures like . Similarly, it separated from "," which employed natural observations to infer divine attributes, as in William Paley's (1802), positioning natural history instead as a neutral, accumulative discipline focused on factual description.

Modern Interpretations

In the early 20th century, natural history underwent a significant redefinition influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by , shifting its focus from taxonomic cataloging to the dynamic study of organism-environment interactions and adaptive processes. This perspective emphasized biotic interactions, such as and co-adaptation among species, integrating evolutionary mechanisms into observations of natural phenomena. Following , natural history expanded to incorporate ecological principles and assessment, reflecting growing concerns over . Aldo Leopold's "land ethic," articulated in his 1949 book , exemplified this evolution by advocating a holistic ethical framework that extends moral consideration to ecosystems, viewing humans as members of the biotic community rather than conquerors. This post-war development aligned natural history with , promoting systematic evaluations of species diversity and habitat integrity to inform . Contemporary interpretations, as defined by institutions like the Natural History Museum in London, portray natural history as the comprehensive study of life's story, including , , and the impacts of human activities on natural systems. This broad scope encompasses the origins and adaptations of organisms, from ancient fossils to modern threats, while addressing anthropogenic influences such as and habitat loss. The rise of digital natural history has further modernized the field, with platforms like —launched in 2008—enabling crowdsourced observations that contribute to data collection. Users worldwide document encounters via mobile apps, generating verifiable datasets exceeding 250 million observations by 2025, which support ecological research and conservation efforts through shared scientific repositories. Natural history distinguishes itself from the broader sciences by prioritizing a holistic, narrative-driven approach rooted in field observations and long-term patterns, in contrast to the reductionist, lab-based methods of experimental that dissect phenomena into molecular or genetic components. This observational emphasis fosters an integrative understanding of ecosystems, complementing reductionist insights while underscoring the interconnectedness of and environment.

Historical Development

Ancient and Prehistoric Roots

The roots of natural history trace back to , where early humans demonstrated keen observation of the natural world through artistic and technological expressions. Cave paintings in sites like , , dating to approximately 17,000 BCE, depict over 600 animals, predominantly horses, bison, and , reflecting detailed knowledge of animal forms, behaviors, and habitats that likely served ritualistic or educational purposes. Similarly, the creation of stone tools during the era, such as those involving the selective heating of silcrete rocks to improve flaking properties, indicates an understanding of environmental materials and their properties, passed down through cumulative cultural practices over millennia. In ancient and around 3000 BCE, systematic recording of natural phenomena emerged on durable media. Mesopotamian clay tablets from Sumerian cities list hundreds of , including and , with instructions for their preparation in remedies for ailments, alongside observations of animal behaviors for and divinatory purposes. In , early records from , preserved on and stone inscriptions, document plant uses in and , such as the cultivation of cereals and for ointments, demonstrating practical knowledge integrated into societal practices like and treatments. The classical Greek period marked a shift toward systematic classification, exemplified by Aristotle's Historia Animalium around 350 BCE, which describes over 500 animal through empirical , , and categorization into genera based on anatomical and behavioral traits. This work laid foundational principles for zoological study by emphasizing direct investigation over . Aristotle's research was bolstered by specimens collected during the Great's expeditions in the 4th century BCE, where hunters and explorers gathered diverse and from and beyond, enabling broader empirical analysis of global biodiversity. Roman contributions synthesized these traditions in Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia of 77 CE, a comprehensive 37-volume drawing from over 2,000 sources to catalog natural phenomena, including animals, plants, minerals, and medicines, while highlighting practical applications in and . This encyclopedic approach influenced subsequent generations by compiling and disseminating accumulated knowledge across the Mediterranean world.

Medieval to Enlightenment Periods

During the Medieval period, natural history in Europe underwent a synthesis that integrated classical Greek knowledge, particularly from Aristotle, with Christian theology, viewing the study of nature as a means to understand divine creation. Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280), a Dominican friar and scholar, exemplified this approach in his extensive work De vegetabilibus (c. 1250), a comprehensive treatise on plants that drew upon Aristotelian botany while harmonizing it with biblical interpretations of the natural world as God's handiwork. This text, part of his broader De animalibus and other natural philosophical writings, emphasized empirical observation alongside theological reflection, establishing a framework for medieval scholastic inquiry into flora and fauna that influenced subsequent generations. Albertus's efforts rehabilitated Aristotelian natural philosophy for Christian audiences, promoting the idea that studying nature revealed the order and purpose of creation without contradicting faith. The marked a revival of direct observation and visual representation in natural history, shifting from textual reliance to illustrated documentation that prioritized accuracy over symbolism. German physician and herbalist Otto Brunfels (1488–1534) pioneered this transition with his Herbarum vivae eicones ad naturae imitationem (1530–1536), featuring illustrations by Hans Weiditz that depicted plants from living specimens with unprecedented detail, including roots, flowers, and imperfections, rather than stylized medieval archetypes. These engravings, based on direct examination of , represented a break from earlier herbals and laid the groundwork for as a scientific tool, influencing later works by figures like . This emphasis on empirical visuals fostered a more systematic approach to identifying and describing , bridging medieval synthesis with emerging . The Age of Exploration from the late 15th to early 16th centuries dramatically expanded natural history through encounters with previously unknown species, prompting initial descriptions and collections from the Americas and beyond. Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage to the Caribbean introduced Europeans to novel and , such as parrots, alligators, and plants, which he documented in his journal as part of the broader that reshaped global biodiversity knowledge. Ferdinand Magellan's expedition (1519–1522), the first of the globe, further enriched these records; chronicler described exotic Pacific species like giant clams and unfamiliar birds, highlighting the voyage's role in revealing the planet's vast ecological diversity. These discoveries culminated in early systematic accounts, such as Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés's Summa de la natural historia de las Indias (1526, expanded in Historia general y natural de las Indias, 1535), the first comprehensive natural history of the , detailing hundreds of American plants, animals, and minerals with observations drawn from colonial experiences. In the 16th and 17th centuries, emerged as private collections that amassed natural specimens alongside artifacts, serving as precursors to organized by encouraging comparative analysis and wonder at nature's variety. These Wunderkammern housed exotic items from explorations, such as shells, fossils, and preserved animals, blending , , and curiosity to catalog the world's diversity. A prominent example was the museum of Danish physician and antiquarian (1588–1654), cataloged posthumously in Museum Wormianum (1655), which included Nordic fauna, exotic imports like narwhal tusks, and ethnographic objects, illustrating how such collections facilitated early taxonomic thinking through visual and material juxtaposition. The Enlightenment period advanced natural history toward systematic classification, culminating in efforts to impose rational order on the accumulating knowledge from explorations and collections. Swedish naturalist (1707–1778) revolutionized this field with (1735, with expanded editions through 1758), introducing —using a two-part Latin name for and —to standardize naming and organize the three kingdoms of nature (minerals, plants, animals) hierarchically based on shared characteristics. This method, rooted in empirical observation and sexual reproductive analogies for plants, provided a universal framework for cataloging , enabling global collaboration and influencing the transition from descriptive to classificatory natural history.

19th and 20th Century Evolution

The publication of Charles Darwin's in 1859 marked a pivotal shift in natural history, moving the discipline from primarily descriptive cataloging of organisms to an emphasis on evolutionary processes and as explanatory mechanisms for . Darwin's theory posited that species adapt over time through variations that confer survival advantages in specific environments, fundamentally altering how naturalists interpreted field observations and specimen collections. This evolutionary framework encouraged practitioners to integrate , , and behavior into their studies, fostering a more dynamic understanding of life's interconnections. In the late 19th century, imperial expeditions by British and French colonial powers expanded natural history's global reach, particularly in documenting tropical , often aligning scientific pursuits with empire-building efforts. These surveys, supported by naval and administrative networks, collected vast arrays of and from regions like and , contributing to biogeographical insights while reinforcing European dominance over distant ecosystems. A notable example is Alfred Russel Wallace's eight-year journey through (1854–1862), detailed in his 1869 book , which described over 125,000 specimens and highlighted faunal divides that paralleled Darwin's ideas on . Such ventures not only amassed collections for European museums but also advanced theories on island amid colonial resource extraction. The professionalization of natural history accelerated in the 19th century through the establishment of dedicated field stations, which institutionalized observation and experimentation beyond expeditions. These facilities enabled sustained, collaborative research, shifting from individual collector efforts to structured scientific programs. The Naples Zoological Station, founded in by Anton Dohrn, exemplified this trend by providing marine laboratories for international researchers to study living organisms , focusing on and ecological interactions in the Mediterranean. This model influenced subsequent stations worldwide, promoting rigorous methodologies and peer-reviewed outputs that elevated natural history's status within academia. Key figures like advanced natural history's intersection with conservation in the late 1800s, advocating for wilderness preservation through detailed observations of American landscapes. 's writings and campaigns, including his role in establishing Yosemite as a in 1890, emphasized the intrinsic value of unaltered ecosystems, blending descriptive natural history with ethical imperatives against industrialization. The 20th century brought significant challenges to natural history practices, particularly through the disruptions of the World Wars, which curtailed expeditions and redirected resources toward military applications. During World War I, naturalists contributed expertise on pests and camouflage, halting traditional collecting in favor of war-related studies, while World War II caused widespread destruction of specimens—such as bombing damage to European museums—and further stalled fieldwork amid evacuations and rationing. Post-1950s, the field saw a resurgence with the rise of ecology as a subdiscipline, integrating natural history observations into systems-level analyses of populations and environments. Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962) exemplified this evolution, using empirical data on pesticide impacts to link biodiversity loss with human activity, galvanizing environmentalism and prompting regulatory reforms like the U.S. ban on DDT in 1972. Edward O. Wilson's Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975) further extended natural history into behavioral studies, applying evolutionary principles to social structures across species, including humans, and drawing on field data from and other organisms to explore gene-environment interactions. This work bridged descriptive traditions with quantitative modeling, influencing modern and by highlighting behavioral adaptations in changing habitats.

Practices and Methodologies

Observation and Fieldwork Techniques

Observation and fieldwork techniques in natural history emphasize direct, in-situ study of living organisms and ecosystems to document behaviors, patterns, and interactions without alteration. Core observational protocols include systematic journaling of animal behaviors and phenological tracking of seasonal changes. For instance, Jane Goodall's studies of chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, beginning in 1960, relied on prolonged direct observation and detailed field notes to record social dynamics, tool use, and individual personalities, challenging prior assumptions about primate intelligence. Similarly, phenology involves recording recurrent seasonal events, such as plant flowering or bird migrations, to understand environmental influences on life cycles; the USA National Phenology Network facilitates this through standardized protocols for citizen scientists to log data on species-specific timing shifts. Field equipment has evolved significantly to enhance accuracy and minimize human presence. In the , naturalists employed basic tools like insect nets for close observation of flying specimens and quadrants for angular measurements during landscape surveys on expeditions. By the , , first patented in 1823, became essential for distant wildlife viewing without disturbance. Modern advancements include GPS devices, available for civilian use since the 1990s, which enable precise geolocation of observations in ecological surveys, and trail cameras, developed in the 1980s and popularized in the 1990s, that automatically capture images and videos of animal activity. Ethical considerations guide the adoption of non-invasive techniques to reduce stress on and preserve natural behaviors. Post-1970s developments in , building on foundations, allow remote tracking via lightweight collars that transmit location data, minimizing physical handling after initial fitting. Camera traps further exemplify non-invasive methods by passively recording movements without contact, ensuring observations align with standards established in guidelines. Long-term studies exemplify sustained application of these techniques to capture ecosystem dynamics. The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study, initiated in 1963, uses ongoing field monitoring of stream chemistry, , and to track responses to environmental changes, providing decades of on nutrient cycling and . These observation methods integrate with by generating empirical that inform and test hypotheses about interactions and habitat use, forming the foundational step in the before experimental validation.

Specimen Collection and Documentation

Specimen collection in natural history has traditionally involved targeted methods to capture animals and plants for study, ensuring representative samples while minimizing harm where possible. For animals, common techniques include trapping and netting to live-capture specimens, followed by euthanasia if necessary, and skinning to prepare study skins that preserve morphological features. These methods allow for the documentation of biodiversity and distribution patterns essential to taxonomic research. Historical examples illustrate their application; during the production of The Birds of America (1827–1838), John James Audubon employed shooting and subsequent skinning to obtain fresh bird specimens for detailed illustrations, enabling accurate depictions of plumage and anatomy. For plants, collection typically entails gathering whole or representative parts—such as stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits—and pressing them flat between absorbent sheets to facilitate drying, a process standardized for herbarium storage. This pressing and drying technique, used since the 16th century, prevents decay and maintains structural integrity for long-term examination. Preservation techniques are critical to maintaining specimen integrity over time, with methods varying by organism type and research needs. Animal specimens are often fixed in a 10% formalin solution ( diluted in water) to halt , then transferred to 70% for long-term storage in fluid-preserved collections. , involving the removal of internal tissues, cleaning, stuffing with supportive materials, and mounting in lifelike poses, has been a staple for display and anatomical study since the , though it requires ongoing conservation to prevent pest damage and material degradation. For , dried specimens are mounted on with glue or straps, poisoned with compounds like to deter insects, and stored in protective folders. Modern alternatives emphasize non-destructive approaches, such as , which extracts genetic material from small tissue samples or surfaces without altering the specimen's physical form, allowing repeated molecular analyses on historical collections. Documentation standards ensure specimens serve as reliable scientific records, with labeling protocols requiring details on locality, collection date, collector's name, , and associated notes. These elements provide context for ecological and evolutionary studies, linking specimens to their origins. A seminal example is Darwin's practices during the HMS Beagle voyage (1831–1836), where he meticulously recorded geological and biological collections in field notebooks, noting precise locations, dates, and observations to support later analyses in works like On the Origin of Species. Such standards, formalized in institutional guidelines by the late , remain foundational to vouchering in natural history. Ethical and legal frameworks governing specimen collection have evolved significantly since the 1970s, prioritizing and species protection. The , adopted in 1973, regulates global trade in specimens of through appendices listing varying levels of restriction, prohibiting commercial exploitation that could endanger survival. This , ratified by 185 parties as of 2025, has curbed unregulated collecting of items like , rhino horn, and rare orchids, influencing acquisition policies and fieldwork permits. Additional national laws, such as the U.S. , complement CITES by prohibiting take or possession of protected species without authorization, fostering ethical practices like salvage of or non-lethal sampling. Since the 2000s, has transformed specimen access, enabling virtual study without physical handling. Techniques like high-resolution scanning and , using or computed tomography (CT), create detailed digital replicas for global sharing via online databases. For instance, collaborative projects such as oVert (2017–2023) CT-scanned more than 13,000 specimens from 18 institutions, making 3D models freely available to researchers and educators, thus reducing wear on fragile originals while expanding analytical possibilities in fields like and .

Institutions and Organizations

Natural History Museums

Natural history museums originated in the late as public institutions evolving from private , which were eclectic collections amassed by scholars and nobles to showcase natural specimens alongside artifacts. The in , , opened in 1683 as the world's first university museum, transitioning these private hoards into systematic displays organized by scientific principles, including natural history items like fossils, minerals, and biological specimens. This shift marked the beginning of museums as accessible spaces for and research, distinct from elite personal repositories. Prominent examples include the Smithsonian Institution's , established in under U.S. with collections to the Smithsonian's founding in 1846 to advance scientific knowledge and house national collections, and the Natural History Museum in London, established in 1881 to accommodate the British Museum's expanding holdings. Other notable institutions include the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris, , founded in 1635, which holds over 68 million specimens. These institutions function as primary repositories, collectively preserving specimens that represent nearly 80% of the world's described , including type specimens essential for taxonomic identification and ongoing biodiversity studies. For instance, the London museum maintains over 80 million items spanning billions of years of Earth's history, while the Smithsonian's collections exceed 148 million objects (as of 2025), supporting global research on and ecology. Curators in natural history museums perform multifaceted roles centered on , conservation, and public exhibition. They conduct scientific investigations using collections to explore topics like and , while overseeing the preservation of specimens through techniques such as climate-controlled storage and chemical stabilization to prevent degradation. Exhibitions, often featuring immersive dioramas that recreate ecosystems—such as the American Museum of Natural History's habitats depicting African savannas or North American forests—serve to educate visitors on and ecological interconnections, drawing from specimen collection methods to illustrate natural processes. In the post-2010 era, natural history museums have adapted to digital technologies to broaden engagement, incorporating interactive exhibits and (VR) tours that appeal to diverse audiences beyond traditional displays. Examples include the Smithsonian's apps overlaying digital reconstructions on physical exhibits, allowing visitors to interact with virtual fossils, and the Natural History Museum London's VR experience reviving the 180-million-year-old marine predator in its fossil halls. These innovations enhance accessibility, enabling remote exploration and while complementing physical collections. Contemporary challenges involve initiatives to address ethically problematic acquisitions from colonial eras, including efforts to specimens obtained without consent. Museums like the have repatriated over 200 sets of human remains to Indigenous communities since 1993, guided by international ethical standards, while institutions such as the Booth Museum in have returned Australian Aboriginal ancestral remains to their origins. These actions aim to rectify historical injustices, foster partnerships with source communities, and reinterpret collections through inclusive narratives.

Scientific Societies and Networks

Scientific societies dedicated to natural history emerged as key platforms for collaboration, knowledge dissemination, and advocacy, beginning with foundational organizations in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Royal Society of London, established in 1660, advanced natural history by sponsoring expeditions that combined astronomical observations with biological and geological collections; notably, it played a central role in planning and supporting the voyage (1768–1771) under Captain , where naturalists and gathered extensive specimens of plants, animals, and minerals from the Pacific. The , founded in 1788 by James Edward Smith, focused on promoting and , honoring the legacy of by fostering research into the classification of living organisms and publishing early works on . The 19th century witnessed rapid growth in such societies amid expanding scientific exploration and institutionalization. National academies, such as the National Academy of Sciences chartered in 1863, integrated natural history into broader scientific endeavors, supporting research in , , and through advisory roles and funding. In ornithology, the National Audubon Society formalized in 1905—building on local bird protection groups initiated around 1886—advocated for avian conservation while promoting field studies and public education on natural history. Affiliates of major institutions, like those connected to the , further networked researchers in specialized fields such as and , facilitating shared resources for taxonomic work. In the , international and participatory networks have broadened the scope of natural history collaboration. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), established in 1948, unites governments, scientists, and organizations to coordinate assessments and policy advocacy, drawing on natural history data for conservation strategies. platforms like eBird, launched in 2002 by the Cornell Lab of and National Audubon Society, enable widespread public contributions to ornithological databases, amassing over 2 billion observations (as of 2025) to track species distributions and migrations in real time. These networks complement physical institutions such as natural history museums by emphasizing and fieldwork coordination. Core activities of these societies include publishing peer-reviewed journals, hosting conferences, and providing grants for expeditions. For instance, the Proceedings of the (1839–1968) documented taxonomic advancements and meeting discussions, serving as a precursor to contemporary outlets like the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Annual gatherings, such as those organized by the IUCN, facilitate interdisciplinary dialogue, while funding programs support emerging researchers in remote fieldwork. Historically, these organizations exhibited male dominance, with women systematically excluded from full membership—exemplified by the 's admission of its first fellows only in —reflecting broader 19th-century barriers in . Since the 2000s, concerted diversity initiatives have addressed these legacies, with societies implementing programs to recruit and retain underrepresented groups through mentorship, inclusive conferences, and equity-focused policies in natural history research.

Contributions and Impacts

Scientific and Educational Benefits

Natural history has significantly advanced scientific knowledge through the systematic discovery and of new species, with an estimated 15,000 to 18,000 new species described annually, many originating from fieldwork and collections. These discoveries, often facilitated by and specimen , expand the catalog of and provide critical data for refining evolutionary models, such as by revealing phenotypic and genotypic variations over time that inform phylogenetic relationships and adaptation processes. For instance, comparisons of historical specimens with modern ones have helped model events and trait in response to environmental pressures. Biodiversity documentation from natural history collections serves as essential baseline data for studying climate change impacts, enabling researchers to track long-term shifts in distributions and behaviors. Since the , analyses of these records have documented alterations in patterns, such as earlier arrivals or northward expansions in response to warming temperatures, providing quantifiable evidence of phenological changes. These collections, spanning centuries, offer a temporal that reveals trends like range shifts in marine , with the center of for many and moving northward by nearly 17 miles from 1989 to 2019. Such data underpin predictive models for responses to global environmental shifts. In education, natural history contributes to formal and informal learning by integrating museum visits and hands-on activities into school programs, fostering scientific literacy among students. Programs at institutions like the Smithsonian align exhibits with national science standards, enhancing understanding of biological concepts through direct interaction with specimens. Studies show that children participating in museum visits during early education achieve higher scores in science, reading, and mathematics compared to those who do not, due to the immersive exposure to real-world examples of and processes. Similarly, nature journaling, incorporated into curricula as a tool for observation and inquiry, promotes scientific literacy by encouraging students to document ecosystems and develop skills in formation and data recording. Natural history practices also yield cognitive benefits, particularly by enhancing through pattern recognition in ecosystems during . Research indicates that outdoor learning experiences improve students' abilities to identify ecological interconnections and solve problems, as evidenced by measurable gains in analytical skills from nature-based activities. These benefits arise from direct engagement with fieldwork techniques, such as observing species interactions, which build interpretive skills essential for scientific reasoning. Furthermore, natural history links to interdisciplinary fields like , where historical collections have informed the development of plant-derived drugs. Herbarium specimens have been instrumental in identifying bioactive compounds, with examples including the extraction of precursors for analgesics like aspirin from willow bark and antimalarials like from sweet wormwood, both traced back to traditional uses documented in natural history records. Approximately 40% of modern pharmaceuticals draw from natural products, and studies using preserved plant samples continue to yield novel leads for by analyzing chemical profiles preserved over decades.

Role in Conservation and Public Engagement

Natural history has played a pivotal role in shaping conservation efforts by providing the foundational and that influenced landmark . The U.S. , for instance, was driven by extensive records from naturalists highlighting habitat destruction and species decline, leading to protections for hundreds of species and contributing to recoveries like the and . This act built on earlier naturalist observations that shifted public and policy focus from exploitation to preservation, establishing a framework for federal intervention against threats. Public engagement through natural history has amplified conservation awareness via influential literature and media. Henry David Thoreau's Walden (1854) articulated a philosophy of environmental responsibility, inspiring modern conservation movements by emphasizing the intrinsic value of wilderness and influencing policies like national park establishments. Similarly, the BBC Natural History Unit, established in 1957, has produced documentaries such as Life on Earth that educate global audiences on ecological interdependence, fostering support for international conservation initiatives. These works have mobilized societal action, bridging scientific observation with cultural appreciation to promote sustainable practices. Citizen science programs rooted in natural history traditions have empowered volunteers to contribute directly to conservation data collection. The Christmas Bird Count, initiated in 1900 by ornithologist Frank Chapman, replaced holiday bird hunts with systematic surveys, engaging approximately 83,000 participants as of the 2024-2025 count to monitor population trends and inform policy on threats like . This ongoing effort has provided long-term datasets essential for species protection strategies across . Globally, natural history integrates Indigenous knowledge to enhance monitoring and protection in biodiverse regions. In Brazil's Amazon, post-2010 projects like the Socio-Environmental System of Acre (SISA) have combined satellite technology with Indigenous traditional practices for tracking, empowering communities in sustainable forest management and reducing by incorporating local ecological insights. Addressing current challenges, natural history advocacy draws on assessments like the 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report, the 2023 Invasive Alien Species Assessment, and the 2024 Nexus Assessment, which together document that around one million species face due to habitat loss and , urging integrated approaches to halt decline through policy reforms and community involvement. Naturalists continue to advocate for these solutions, leveraging historical documentation to support global frameworks like the .

References

  1. https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/64/4/300/2754159
  2. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10591213/
  3. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369848611001130
  4. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt24hshw
  5. https://www.americanscientist.org/article/why-ecology-needs-natural-history
  6. https://www.amnh.org/research/scientific-collections
  7. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.698131/full
  8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2672651/
  9. https://www.livius.org/articles/person/pliny-the-elder/pliny-the-elder-natural-history/
  10. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/etymologies-of-isidore-of-seville/F2336BA779D4ED95E6D25AAE2CCBAD25
  11. https://direct.mit.edu/books/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/2308979/9780262281775_cah.pdf
  12. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41554547_History_redoubled_The_synthesis_of_facts_in_Linnaean_natural_history
  13. https://monoskop.org/images/3/39/Cahan_David_ed_From_Natural_Philosophy_to_the_Sciences.pdf
  14. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4447030/
  15. https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/life-sciences/was-darwin-ecologist
  16. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42532-020-00044-5
  17. https://www.aldoleopold.org/blogs/the-once-and-future-land-ethic-part-three
  18. https://naturallycurious.nhm.ac.uk/course/natural-history-introduction
  19. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/how-natural-history-museums-can-help-fight-future-pandemics.html
  20. https://bioone.org/journals/wildlife-research/volume-48/issue-4/WR20154/An-overview-of-the-history-current-contributions-and-future-outlook/10.1071/WR20154.full
  21. https://www.inaturalist.org/blog/113107-we-ve-reached-250-million-verifiable-observations
  22. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.10621
  23. https://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plans/cave-art-discovering-prehistoric-humans-through-pictures
  24. https://news.emory.edu/features/2019/03/tiny-tools/index.html
  25. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3049103/
  26. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11245246/
  27. https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=gvjh
  28. https://extension.psu.edu/herb-and-spice-history/
  29. https://www.academia.edu/114770392/Ancient_Egyptian_Agriculture_and_the_Origins_of_Horticulture
  30. https://philosophy.lander.edu/intro/artbook/c970.htm
  31. https://scarab.bates.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1340&context=honorstheses
  32. http://s.si.edu/2hPF2lP
  33. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1890/0012-9623%25282003%252984%255B87%253AAHOTES%255D2.0.CO%253B2
  34. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-science/medieval-natural-history/791FA9AB4F01111B94B4E38311379045
  35. https://thomistica.net/book-reviews/https/thomisticanet/quaestiones-url/albertus-magnus-world-of-nature
  36. https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/otto-brunfels/
  37. https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=1837
  38. https://www.geraceresearchcentre.com/pdfs/7thNatHist/1_Campbell_7thNatHist.pdf
  39. https://artsandculture.google.com/story/the-fauna-observed-while-sailing-the-pacific-museo-nacional-de-ciencias-naturales-mncn-cesic/xAVxJXEXFlrlLA?hl=en
  40. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/156633
  41. https://smarthistory.org/ole-worm-museum-wormianum/
  42. https://collections.reading.ac.uk/special-collections/2020/05/12/a-cabinet-of-curiosities-ole-worms-museum-wormianum-1655/
  43. https://www.linnean.org/learning/who-was-linnaeus/linnaeus-and-race
  44. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1973966/
  45. https://www.genome.gov/25520157/online-education-kit-1859-darwin-published-on-the-origin-of-species-proposing-continual-evolution-of-species
  46. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/november-24/origin-of-species-is-published-2
  47. https://www.nyas.org/ideas-insights/blog/165-years-of-on-the-origin-of-species/
  48. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10078011/
  49. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-global-history/article/when-commerce-science-and-leisure-collaborated-the-nineteenthcentury-global-trade-boom-in-natural-history-collections/83650D4ECD68F1FD433F67691D129FCB
  50. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2530/2530-h/2530-h.htm
  51. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26368440_Natural_History_collecting_and_the_Biogeographical_tradition
  52. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo18991041.html
  53. https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-colonial-origins-of-tropical-field-stations
  54. https://www.szn.it/index.php/en/who-we-are/our-history
  55. https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/stazione-zoologica-anton-dohrn-naples-italy
  56. https://www.nps.gov/jomu/learn/historyculture/who-was-john-muir.htm
  57. https://vault.sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/about/
  58. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/services/library/collections/world-wars.html
  59. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.201983
  60. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2320
  61. https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/rachel-carson-silent-spring.html
  62. https://eowilsonfoundation.org/about-us/e-o-wilson/
  63. https://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/research/jane-goodall-institute-research-center/legacy
  64. http://www.usanpn.org/nn
  65. https://wp.optics.arizona.edu/jgreivenkamp/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/01/Binoculars-and-Telescopes-Proceedings-8129.pdf
  66. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2894966/
  67. https://extension.oregonstate.edu/forests/health-managment/wildlife-cameras-snapshot-what-you-need-know
  68. https://www.telonics.com/technotes/tracking.php
  69. https://www.wildtrack.org/our-work/non-invasive-monitoring
  70. https://hubbardbrook.org/
  71. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022098100001817
  72. https://www.audubonart.com/exploring-early-methods-of-specimen-collection-in-natural-history-art/
  73. https://louisiana-anthology.org/texts/audubon/audubon--journal_2.html
  74. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/herbarium/methods/vouchers/
  75. https://www.sdnhm.org/science/botany/resources/general-information/how-to-make-a-plant-collection/
  76. https://lsa.umich.edu/ummz/herps/collections/preservation-techniques.html
  77. https://conservation.myspecies.info/node/33
  78. https://naturemuseum.org/cas/blog/what-is-taxidermy
  79. https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/3063/
  80. https://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks.html
  81. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/museums/upload/MHI_AppQ_NaturalHistory.pdf
  82. https://cites.org/eng/disc/text.php
  83. https://www.fws.gov/sites/default/files/documents/endangered-species-act-accessible.pdf
  84. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/scientists-ct-scanned-thousands-of-natural-history-specimens-which-you-can-access-for-free/
  85. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6062129/
  86. https://www.ashmolean.org/the-ashmolean-story-gallery
  87. https://www.mnhn.fr/en
  88. https://www.si.edu/newsdesk/factsheets/brief-history-smithsonian-institution
  89. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/a-history-of-the-museum-grounds-and-wildlife-garden.html
  90. https://riojournal.com/article/114548/
  91. https://naturalhistory.si.edu/about
  92. https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/curator/
  93. https://exhibits.si.edu/even-better-than-the-real-thing-augmented-and-virtual-reality/
  94. https://artsandculture.google.com/story/rhomaleosaurus-back-to-life-in-virtual-reality-natural-history-museum/6AXBsZqTLhHBKA?hl=en
  95. https://www.amnh.org/about/repatriation
  96. https://brightonmuseums.org.uk/discovery/history-stories/decolonising-the-natural-history-collection-at-the-booth/
  97. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.1995.0026
  98. https://www.linnean.org/the-society
  99. https://www.nasonline.org/about-the-nas/history/
  100. https://www.audubon.org/about/history
  101. https://iucn.org/about-iucn
  102. https://ebird.org/about
  103. https://ebird.org/news/ebird-passes-2-billion-bird-observations
  104. https://academic.oup.com/proceedingslinnean
  105. https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/in-focus/women-in-the-royal-society
  106. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/education/articles/10.3389/feduc.2022.757816/full
  107. https://www.worldatlas.com/science/how-many-new-species-are-discovered-every-year.html
  108. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4755843/
  109. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/mec.13529
  110. https://climatechangeresponses.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40665-015-0013-9
  111. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-marine-species-distribution
  112. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-64303-3
  113. https://naturalhistory.si.edu/education/school-programs
  114. https://www.imls.gov/blog/2014/04/children-who-visit-museums-have-higher-achievement-reading-math-and-science
  115. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/research-projects/2017/jun/contribution-natural-history-museums-science-education
  116. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9149177/
  117. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X24004098
  118. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/essential-medicines-powered-by-plants.html
  119. https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/traditional-medicine-has-a-long-history-of-contributing-to-conventional-medicine-and-continues-to-hold-promise
  120. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/pharmacology/articles/10.3389/fphar.2020.00208/full
  121. https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/united-states/endangered-species-success-stories/
  122. https://www.doi.gov/blog/endangered-species-act-celebrating-50-years-success-wildlife-conservation
  123. https://www.politico.com/story/2017/12/28/nixon-signs-endangered-species-act-dec-28-1973-319102
  124. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/its-easy-being-green-happy-birthday-henry-david-thoreau/
  125. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/5188/1/5188.pdf
  126. https://www.audubon.org/community-science/christmas-bird-count/summary-of-125th-cbc-2024-2025
  127. https://www.usgs.gov/publications/role-citizen-science-bird-conservation-christmas-bird-count-and-breeding-bird-survey
  128. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901119307245
  129. https://www.oneearth.org/technology-and-indigenous-knowledge-combine-to-protect-the-amazon/
  130. https://files.ipbes.net/ipbes-web-prod-public-files/inline/files/ipbes_global_assessment_report_summary_for_policymakers.pdf
  131. https://www.ipbes.net/assessment-reports/invasive-alien-species
  132. https://www.ipbes.net/assessment-reports/nexus
  133. https://www.wbcsd.org/resources/2019-ipbes-biodiversity-and-ecosystems-services-report/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.