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Zaqqum
Zaqqum
Zaqqum
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Zaqqoum, the fruit of the dwellers of Jahannam.

In Islamic tradition, the Zaqqum is a cursed tree that is rooted in the center of Hell. It is first referred to in the Quran on five occasions (17:60; 37:62-68; 44:43; 56:52), the latter three referring to it by name. There, it is described as producing fruits torturously fed to those condemned in hell as they burn the stomachs of the damned. Afterwards, those in hell are fed boiling liquids in a frenzy.

In Islamic exegesis and modern scholarship, the Zaqqum tree has also been related to Surat al-Masad, which cryptically describes a figure whose title is Abu Lahab.[1]

Etymology

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Al-Tabari claimed in his Tafsir that the word Zaqqum comes from a word meaning "bitter", although this gloss has not been accepted. Other grammarians believed it was a loanword from outside of Arabic, a view accepted by modern specialists, although the exact etymology is debated.[2] According to Emran El-Badawi, proposals for the word's etymology have included:[3]

... Aramaic ziqta meaning “goad;” Akkadian ziqtu meaning “spike;” or Middle Persian zaxm meaning “wound.” ... Others consider it a loanword from Greek sykon meaning “fig,” connected to the “accursed tree in the recitations” (Q 17:60), the tree of knowledge (Genesis 2:9), and the intervening Christian teachings about the “tree of death.”

Historical origin

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The idea of the Zaqqum tree may be rooted in Christian traditions surrounding the "Tree of Death" in relation to the Book of Genesis. In the Garden of Eden, the devil took on the form of a serpent and infected the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil before tempting Adam and Eve to eat from it. The infected and poisoned fruits produced by this Tree are the bitter fruits eaten by those tormented in Hell.[4] In particular, Quranic elements of an evil tree producing bitter fruit for the damned has been related to a passage found in the Apocryphon of John (2nd century AD):[5]

And the archons took him and placed him in paradise. And they said to him, “Eat, that is at leisure,” for their luxury is bitter and their beauty is depraved. And their luxury is deception and their trees are godlessness and their fruit is deadly poison and their promise is death. And the tree of their life they had placed in the midst of paradise. “And I shall teach you what is the mystery of their life, which is the plan which they made together, which is the likeness of their spirit. The root of this (tree) is bitter and its branches are death, its shadow is hate and deception is in its leaves, and its blossom is the ointment of evil, and its fruit is death and desire is its seed, and it sprouts in darkness. The dwelling place of those who taste from it is Hades, and the darkness is their place of rest. (§21)

A similar description, also related by historians to the description found in the Quran, has been identified in a 5th-century Manichaean text known as the Kephalaia, as well as a 6th-century Syriac text known as the Book of Hierothos by Stephen bar Sudayli.[6]

Emran El-Badawi has further argued that the hellish topography of the Quran is related to including a multitude in hell (involving both people and idols) eating from the tree and then drinking from a scalding hot spring is related to traditions concerning the burning of the Asherah idol in the Bible. For example, the Asherah idol is described as a "spreading tree", related to the Zaqqum tree which originates in the center of hell and then radiates outwards (Quran 37:64). Later in the same surah, Baal is condemned (v. 125), who in the Canaanite pantheon, was Asherah's consort.[7]

Others have emphasized a rabbinic context for the Zaqqum tree and its associated torment of the use of a molten metal.[8]

Quran

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The Zaqqum tree is one of the five categories of trees mentioned in the Quranic cosmology, the others being fruit trees, olive trees, palm trees, and lote trees.[9] In the Quran, there is a contrast between the Zaqqum tree and a healing gourd tree grown for the prophet Jonah (37:63, 146), a story going back to the biblical Book of Jonah 4:6–11.[10]

One description of the Zaqqum tree in the Quran reads like this:

[44.43] Surely the tree of Zaqqum,
[44.44] Is the food of the sinful
[44.45] Like dregs of oil; it shall boil in (their) bellies,
[44.46] Like the boiling of hot water.[11]

The fruits of Zaqqum are shaped like heads of devils (Qur'an 37:62-68). Some Islamic scholars believe in a literal meaning of this tree grown in fire, showing the inverted flora of hell. The inhabitants of hell are forced to eat the tree's fruits, which tears their bodies apart and releases bodily fluids as a punishment. According to Umar Sulaiman Al-Ashqar, once the palate of the sinners is satiated, the fruit in their bellies churns like burning oil. Other scholars suggest the tree is grown by the seeds of the evil deeds of the sinners, therefore the devilish fruits are the fruits of their bad actions during their lifetime. As ibn Arabi stated, the tree stands for the arrogant self.[12][13]

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Botany

[edit]

The name zaqqum has been applied to the species Euphorbia abyssinica by the Beja people in eastern Sudan.[14] In Jordan, it is applied to the species Balanites aegyptiaca.[15] Volney describes the Balanites aegyptiaca tree as a

”species called Zakkoun, which produces a sweet oil, also celebrated for healing wounds. This Zakkoun resembles a plum-tree; it has thorns four inches long, with leaves like those of the olive-tree, but narrower greener, and prickly at the end; its fruit is a kind of acorn, without calix, under the bark of which is a pulp, and then a nut, the kernel of which gives an oil that the Arabs sell very dear : this is the sole commerce of Raha, which is no more than a ruinous village."[16]

In Turkey, zakkum is the vernacular for Nerium oleander; and zıkkım, a Turkish cognate, means "poison".

References

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Sources

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  • El-Badawi, Emran (2024). Female Divinity in the Qur’an In Conversation with the Bible and the Ancient Near East. Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Zellentin, Holger (2016). "Q 44:43–57". In Azaiez, Mehdi; Reynolds, Gabriel; Tesei, Tommaso; Zafer, Hamza (eds.). The Qur’an Seminar Commentary. De Gruyter. pp. 342–343.
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Zaqqum

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In , Zaqqum (Arabic: زَقُّوم) refers to a cursed that grows in the depths of , serving as a tormenting form of sustenance for disbelievers and wrongdoers. Its fruits are described as resembling the heads of devils, thorny and bitter, which the inhabitants of are compelled to eat in their , only to experience boiling in their bellies like molten brass, exacerbating their punishment. This infernal symbolizes divine retribution and a trial for the unjust, contrasting sharply with the paradisiacal provisions for the righteous. The Quran mentions Zaqqum explicitly in three surahs: As-Saffat (37:62–68), where it is posed as an inferior alternative to Paradise and detailed as a source of endless suffering; Ad-Dukhan (44:43–46), portraying it as the primary food of sinners that scorches their insides; and Al-Waqi'ah (56:52), foretelling that the damned will eat from the trees of Zaqqum. Additionally, it is alluded to as the "cursed tree" in Surah Al-Isra (17:60), presented as a prophetic vision and warning to humanity about the afterlife's realities. Classical tafsirs, or exegeses, interpret Zaqqum not only as a literal element of Hellfire but also as a metaphor for the corrupting consequences of disbelief, emphasizing its role in illustrating the inversion of worldly blessings in the hereafter. While some early scholars identified a worldly tree named zaqqum in the region of the —characterized by its thorny, bitter fruits—the Quranic depiction distinctly pertains to its eschatological counterpart in (), underscoring themes of , , and eternal consequence central to Islamic .

Etymology and Historical Origins

Linguistic Etymology

The term "zaqqum" derives from the Arabic triliteral ز-ق-م (z-q-m), which fundamentally connotes the act of swallowing or gulping down something with force or difficulty, often implying a bitter, foul, or repulsive taste. In classical , the zaqama (زَقَمَ) describes the intense of or , such as forcefully feeding a morsel (luqma) or devouring in large bites, evoking notions of compulsion and distaste. This 's semantic field extends to anything ingested unwillingly or harmfully, laying the groundwork for "zaqqum" as a descriptor of inedible or noxious substances. In classical Arabic dictionaries, "zaqqum" (زَقُّوم) is morphologically a mafʿūl form with gemination (shadda) on the qāf, intensifying the root's implication of something swallowed bitterly or poisonously, and it denotes a thorny, bitter plant or a type of deadly food unrelated to eschatological contexts in its earliest attestations. Lisan al-ʿArab, compiled by Ibn Manẓūr (d. 1311 CE), defines it as any food that kills its consumer (kullu ṭaʿāmin yaqtulu ākilahu), citing early authorities like Thaʿlab (d. 904 CE), and also as a specific dish of dates mixed with rancid butter, evoking revulsion through its unpalatable combination. Similarly, Al-Munjid fī al-Lugha, a prominent modern lexicon drawing on classical sources, describes "zaqqum" as every type of food lethal to the eater, emphasizing its pre-religious association with harmful vegetation or provisions in arid regions like Tihāma. The singular form zaqqūm appears in this intensive pattern, while its broken plural is zaqāqīm (زَقَاقِيم), reflecting standard Arabic nominal morphology for collectives of such items. The term's evolution traces from general pre-Islamic usage for any foul-tasting, inedible, or poisonous —often small-leaved and thorny, growing in harsh environments—to its specialized adoption in Islamic scripture, where it retains the root's sense of compelled, bitter consumption but gains a punitive dimension. Phonetically, the word's structure aligns with Semitic patterns, though some scholars note possible affinities with zyqtʾ (""), suggesting subtle cross-linguistic influences within the Near Eastern linguistic milieu that may have shaped its of tormenting ingestion. This lexical shift underscores how a mundane descriptor of bitterness transformed into a symbol of , as seen briefly in Quranic references to a bearing such .

Pre-Islamic and Near Eastern Contexts

While direct references to Zaqqum in pre-Islamic or are absent from surviving texts, the term appears to have been familiar to of the Hijaz as denoting a form of sustenance, albeit one used to mock prophetic warnings. According to classical exegeses, when early revelations described Zaqqum as a tree of , the Meccan polytheist Abu Jahl reportedly derided it by claiming that Zaqqum referred to a common dish of dates mixed with , which he then consumed while challenging others to partake, thereby dismissing the divine admonition as trivial. This anecdote illustrates how pre-Islamic interpreted Zaqqum through the lens of everyday fare, potentially symbolizing bitterness or hardship in arid environments, though no explicit poetic depictions of it as cursed vegetation survive. Broader Near Eastern contexts suggest scholarly hypotheses linking Zaqqum to ancient motifs of infernal or punitive flora, drawing on shared cultural substrates across the region. Emran El-Badawi posits that the Qur'anic portrayal of Zaqqum as a terrifying hellish reworks earlier Late Antique and pre-Islamic traditions of sacred groves associated with female divinities, such as the Canaanite goddess , whose cult involved imagery symbolizing fertility and cosmic order inverted into motifs of punishment and hellfire. These connections trace back to Mesopotamian precedents like the goddess Inanna's associations with arboreal symbols in narratives, where trees represented both life-giving and destructive forces in eschatological lore. El-Badawi argues that such imagery formed a "treescape" in regional cosmologies, with Zaqqum embodying the demonic inversion of nurturing vegetation into a tool of . The lack of explicit pre-Islamic textual evidence for Zaqqum underscores its inferred role through analogous punitive plant motifs in Near Eastern lore, such as thorny or bitter flora denoting curses in desert or infernal settings, which likely influenced its adoption in emerging monotheistic narratives.

Scriptural References

Quranic Descriptions

The Zaqqum tree is first alluded to in the Quran as the "cursed tree" (shajarah mal'oonah) in Surah Al-Isra (17:60), where it is presented alongside a prophetic vision as a trial for humanity: "And [mention] when We said to you, 'Indeed, your Lord has encompassed the people.' And We did not make the sight which We showed you except as a trial for the people, and [likewise] the accursed tree in the Qur'an. And We threaten them, but it increases them not except in great transgression." This reference identifies Zaqqum implicitly as a symbol of divine warning, rooted in the context of testing human faith and response to revelation. In Surah As-Saffat (37:62-68), the provides a more detailed depiction, contrasting the comforts of paradise with Zaqqum's horrors: "Is that [paradise] better as accommodation or the of Zaqqum? Indeed, We have made it a for the wrongdoers. Indeed, it is a issuing from the bottom of the Blaze, its emerging as if it were heads of devils. And indeed, they will be eating from it and filling with it their bellies. Then indeed, they will have after it a mixture of scalding water." Here, the tree's roots are described as originating from the depths of Hell (), emphasizing its infernal origin and punitive role, while its fruits resemble the heads of devils (shayatin), evoking revulsion and demonic association. The term "shajarah mal'oonah" underscores divine curse (la'nah), implying rejection and wrath upon those who partake, linguistically deriving from roots connoting affliction and separation from mercy. Surah Ad-Dukhan (44:43-46) further elaborates on Zaqqum as sustenance for the sinful: "Indeed, the tree of Zaqqum is food for the sinners, like murky oil; it will boil in the bellies like the boiling of scalding water." This portrayal highlights its physical attributes as a thorny, bitter produce springing from Hell's bottom, serving as forced nourishment that induces internal torment akin to molten searing the organs. The narrative frames it as an inevitable provision for disbelievers, contrasting sharply with paradise's bountiful trees like , which symbolize eternal bliss and divine favor. Finally, Surah Al-Waqi'ah (56:52-56) reinforces the tree's role in eschatological punishment: "Then indeed, you, O those astray [and] those who denied, will surely eat from trees of Zaqqum. Then you will surely fill your bellies with it and drink on top of it scalding water." The consumption leads to scalding agony, with the fruits causing bellies to swell from boiling contents, portraying Zaqqum as Hell's yield designed to amplify suffering for the unrighteous. These descriptions collectively position Zaqqum as a emblematic of , distinct from prophetic elaborations in that confirm its Quranic traits.

Mentions in Hadith

In , a prominent narrated by explicitly identifies the "cursed tree" mentioned in the as the tree of Zaqqum, described as a bitter, pungent tree that grows at the bottom of . This narration, transmitted through chains including ibn Abdullah, recounts the Muhammad's night journey (), where he witnessed the tree's location and nature, emphasizing its role as a source of torment. The is graded as sahih (authentic) due to its rigorous chain of transmission in al-Bukhari's collection. Additional hadith in Jami' at-Tirmidhi and portray Zaqqum as the food for the inhabitants of . For instance, one narration in Tirmidhi warns that even a single drop of Zaqqum dripping into the world would spoil all livelihoods, underscoring the unimaginable severity for those who consume it directly ; this is graded sahih (authentic) by scholars. Other narrations in major collections reinforce Zaqqum's role for disbelievers and sinners, who eat it amid eternal , aligning with Quranic depictions of its torturous effects. These narrations are evaluated for authenticity based on narrator reliability, with many deemed sahih or hasan in major compilations.

Theological and Symbolic Interpretations

Role in

In Islamic eschatology, Zaqqum occupies a central position in as an infernal tree rooted at its lowest depths, serving as the inverted counterpart to paradisiacal trees such as and , which symbolize divine blessings and eternal sustenance in . While provides shade, fruits, and for the righteous, Zaqqum embodies corrupted provision, its branches extending like the heads of devils and yielding bitter, thorny fruits that mock the hunger of the damned. This duality underscores the theological principle of divine justice, where the mirrors earthly choices in inverted form, with hell's barren "sustenance" contrasting heaven's abundance. The primary function of Zaqqum is as a punitive specifically for disbelievers, hypocrites, and major , designed to perpetuate eternal rather than satisfy it, thereby inflicting unrelenting physical and psychological torment. Its fruits, when consumed out of desperation, boil within the eater's like , lacerating internals and causing excruciating agony that exemplifies retributive proportional to one's rejection of . This mechanism ensures no respite, as the tree's produce induces insatiable craving, reinforcing despair and isolation from . Zaqqum integrates into Jahannam's broader system of graduated punishments, complementing elements like the freezing of Zamharir in hell's colder abysses and the pus-like drink of Ghassalin derived from the wounds of its inhabitants, tailoring torments to the severity of sins such as or . These interconnected afflictions—ranging from extremes to repulsive consumables—form a comprehensive framework of , where Zaqqum's role heightens the sensory horrors alongside boiling waters (Hameem) and thorny shrubs (). Theologically, Zaqqum functions as a prophetic warning, vividly illustrating consequences to deter and urge during mortal life, as emphasized in revelations portraying it as a for the unrighteous.

Scholarly Views and Symbolism

Classical Islamic scholars, such as the 13th-century exegete in his comprehensive Al-Jami' li-Ahkam al-Qur'an, interpret the Zaqqum as a literal uniquely created by in the depths of , serving as the exclusive flora for its inhabitants and embodying divine wrath rather than mercy. emphasizes its accursed nature, describing it as a real, fire-nurtured entity whose fruits resemble devils' heads, designed specifically to torment the sinful through boiling and lacerating effects upon consumption. This view underscores the tree's role as a manifestation of 's creative power in executing punishment, distinct from earthly vegetation. In contrast, symbolic interpretations portray Zaqqum as a for the bitter consequences of corrupt deeds and disbelief in the hereafter. Sayyid , in his 20th-century Tafhim al-Qur'an, while acknowledging its literal basis as a bitter, noxious cactus-like tree from the region, extends the imagery to symbolize how evil actions in the world yield poisonous spiritual fruits, leading to eternal distress in Hell. highlights that the tree's consumption fills the bellies of the damned only to be followed by scalding water and fire, representing the inescapable cycle of regret and suffering from misguided worldly pursuits. Salwa Al-A'wa's entry on Zaqqum in the Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān () further elaborates on its status as the quintessential accursed tree, positioned as a of antithetical to the paradisiacal provisions of , drawing implicit parallels to motifs of inversion where infernal elements divine blessings. Al-A'wa's analysis, rooted in lexical and Quranic contrasts with heavenly trees, leans toward a literal depiction but notes its symbolic function as a deterrent, potentially echoing pre-Islamic inversions without delving deeply into metaphorical extensions. Modern scholarly debates continue to explore Zaqqum's connections to broader Near Eastern eschatological traditions. Emran El-Badawi, in Female Divinity in the Qur'an: In Conversation with the and the (2024), ties the tree's hellfire origins—described as sprouting from Hell's core—to ancient mythic motifs of infernal vegetation and , suggesting influences from Canaanite and other regional hellfire concepts that shaped Quranic imagery. Fringe theories, such as those proposing Zaqqum as a of himself due to shared fiery origins and devilish fruit resemblances, remain marginal and lack mainstream scholarly support.

Botanical Identifications

Proposed Plant Species

Scholars and commentators have proposed several real-world as potential inspirations or regional counterparts for the Zaqqum described in Islamic texts, based on botanical characteristics that align with its scriptural attributes of bitterness, thorniness, and unpalatable fruits resembling "devils' heads." These identifications emphasize native to arid regions of the , , and surrounding areas, serving as metaphorical bases for the eschatological without implying literal growth in hellish conditions. The primary criteria include the plant's prevalence in hot, dry environments, its thorny structure, the poisonous or foul-tasting nature of its fruits and , and fruit morphology evoking shapes. Note that these are speculative associations rooted in and , not definitive botanical equivalents. Some Indian scholars, particularly in Urdu-language Quranic commentaries, have identified Euphorbia neriifolia, commonly known as Thohar or Sehund, as a likely candidate for Zaqqum. This succulent or small , native to the arid and semi-arid regions of and , features thorny branches, a bitter milky latex that is toxic and irritating, and small, unappealing fruits that grow in clusters. Its prevalence in desert-like habitats and traditional recognition as a hazardous plant in local support this association, with commentators noting its overall repulsiveness as mirroring the tree's punitive symbolism. "Zaqqum" is listed as a vernacular name for this plant in . Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, in his Tarjuman al-Qur'an, explicitly links Zaqqum to Thohar, highlighting its widespread occurrence and unwholesome qualities. Maulana Abul Ala Maudoodi, in his Tafhim-ul-Qur'an, describes a foul-smelling, bitter from the Tehama region of and the Tihama valleys of the as the basis for Zaqqum, with poisonous and fruits shaped like devils' heads, which locals avoid due to its toxicity. This description aligns with species in the genus , such as , a spiny succulent native to arid Moroccan and North African deserts, with similar species occurring in the Arabian context (e.g., E. arabica). These are adapted to extreme heat, produce hazardous fruits and caustic that cause severe distress when ingested, fitting the criteria of regional availability and repulsive traits. Various thorny desert shrubs in the Euphorbia genus, including E. caducifolia, E. antiquorum, and E. nivulia, have also been suggested due to their poisonous qualities, spiny nature, and abundance in the Near East and South Asia, where they produce bitter fruits and latex evoking aversion. These proposals prioritize plants with verifiable toxicity and morphological parallels to the described "devils' heads," grounded in observable botanical evidence rather than speculative eschatology.

Comparisons with Real Plants

In some regions, , commonly known as the desert date, is called Zaqqum, such as in and parts of , linking it etymologically to the Quranic term. This tree exhibits features that parallel aspects of the scriptural depiction, including its adaptation to arid desert environments and thorny branches contributing to a harsh appearance. Its fruits are elongated drupes, measuring 2.5 to 7 cm in length, with a hard, brittle outer coat. The sensory properties of B. aegyptiaca include a pungent, bitter in the pulp due to the presence of , rendering it largely unpalatable in large quantities and capable of inducing gastrointestinal distress, such as stomach upset. This bitterness aligns with the Quran's portrayal of Zaqqum's fruits as loathsome sustenance (44:43-46). However, the pulp is sometimes consumed in moderation for its , including sugars and fatty acids, which tempers the notion of complete inedibility but underscores its unpalatable qualities. In comparison, certain species, such as E. resinifera, offer sensory matches through their milky latex sap, which exudes a caustic irritant causing intense burning sensations on skin contact or ingestion, evoking the scalding effects attributed to Zaqqum (37:64-65). These species are widespread across the and , thriving in harsh desert conditions with succulent, thorny stems. Local names like "Zaqqum" are applied to some Euphorbia variants in Arabic-speaking regions, with the sap's leading to blistering and pain that echoes the tree's punitive role. The fruits are small and unremarkable, but the overall plant's inedibility due to the sap's bitterness and irritancy provides a parallel to Zaqqum's repugnant qualities. Despite these alignments, no real plant fully embodies Zaqqum's described infernal origins, such as roots in the abyss of hell (37:63), suggesting that the scriptural imagery draws inspirational elements from regional flora rather than identical botanical matches. The desert adaptations and sensory harshness of B. aegyptiaca and Euphorbia species—bitter tastes, irritant effects, and thorny, arid resilience—offer conceptual bridges to the hellish environment, but the supernatural aspects remain beyond natural replication.
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