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Mediterranean monk seal
Mediterranean monk seal
Mediterranean monk seal
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Mediterranean monk seal
Alonnisos Marine Park, Greece
CITES Appendix I
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Phocidae
Genus: Monachus
Fleming, 1822
Species:
M. monachus
Binomial name
Monachus monachus
(Hermann, 1779)

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) is a monk seal belonging to the family Phocidae. As of 2015, it is estimated that fewer than 700 individuals survive in three or four isolated subpopulations in the Mediterranean, (especially) in the Aegean Sea, the archipelago of Madeira and the Cabo Blanco area in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean.[3] It is believed to be the world's rarest pinniped species.[1] It is the only extant species in the genus Monachus.

Description

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This species of seal grows from approximately 80 centimetres (2.6 ft) long at birth up to an average of 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) as adults, females slightly shorter than males.[4] Males weigh an average of 320 kilograms (710 lb) and females weigh 300 kilograms (660 lb), with overall weight ranging from 240–400 kilograms (530–880 lb).[1][5][6][7] They are thought to live up to 45 years old;[5] the average life span is thought to be 20 to 25 years old and reproductive maturity is reached at around age four.

The monk seals' pups are about 1 metre (3.3 ft) long and weigh around 15–18 kilograms (33–40 lb), their skin being covered by 1–1.5 centimeter-long, dark brown to black hair. On their bellies, there is a white stripe, which differs in color and shape between the two sexes. In females the stripe is usually rectangular in shape whereas in males it is usually butterfly shaped.[8] This hair is replaced after six to eight weeks by the usual short hair adults carry.[5] Adults will continue to molt annually, causing their color vibrancy to change throughout the year.[9]

Pregnant Mediterranean monk seals typically use inaccessible undersea caves while giving birth, though historical descriptions show they used open beaches until the 18th century. There are eight pairs of teeth in both jaws.

Believed to have the shortest hair of any pinniped, the Mediterranean monk seal fur is black (males) or brown to dark grey (females), with a paler belly, which is close to white in males. The snout is short broad and flat, with very pronounced, long nostrils that face upward, unlike their Hawaiian relative, which tend to have more forward nostrils. The flippers are relatively short, with small slender claws. Monk seals have two pairs of retractable abdominal teats, unlike most other pinnipeds.

Reproduction

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A colony on Cabo Blanco in 1945

Very little is known of this seal's reproduction. As of 2020, it is thought that there are roughly 500 pairs of monk seals remaining in the world.[10] Scientists have suggested that they are polygynous, with males being very territorial where they mate with females. Although there is no breeding season since births take place year-round, there is a peak in September, October, and November. Although mating will take place in the water, females will give birth and care for the pups on beaches or underwater caves. The use of underwater caves may have begun in order to make predatory actions almost impossible as these caves are difficult to access. Because they will stay with the pups to nurse and protect, they use their stored fat reserves to nurse.[4] Data analysis indicates that only 29% of pups born between September and January survive. One cause of this low survival rate is the timing of high surf around the areas of breeding, creating a threat to young pups. As well, if a female determines that her environment is not a safe one, she can initiate an abortion, indirectly lowering the population.[10] Because of smaller populations there is an increase in genetic events such as inbreeding and lack of genetic variation. During other months of the year, pups have an estimated survival rate of 71%.[1]

In 2008, lactation was reported in an open beach, the first such record since 1945, which could suggest the seal could begin feeling increasingly safe to return to open beaches for breeding purposes in Cabo Blanco.[11]

Pups make first contact with the water two weeks after their birth and are weaned at around 18 weeks of age; females caring for pups will go off to feed for an average of nine hours.[1] Most female individuals are believed to reach maturity at four years of age, at which point they will begin to breed.[4] Males begin to breed at age six.[9] The gestation period lasts close to a year. However, it is believed to be common among monk seals of the Cabo Blanco colony to have a gestation period lasting slightly longer than a year.[12]

Diet

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Mediterranean monk seals are diurnal and feed on a variety of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, primarily octopus, squid, lobsters, mullets, flatfish, tuna, sardines, and eels, up to 3 kg per day.[13] Although they commonly feed in shallow coastal waters, they are also known to forage at depths up to 250 meters, with an average depth varying between specimens.[1] Monk seals prefer hunting in wide-open spaces, enabling them to use their speed more effectively. They are successful bottom-feeding hunters; some have even been observed lifting slabs of rock in search of prey.

Habitat

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The habitat of this pinniped has changed over the years. In ancient times, and up until the 20th century, Mediterranean monk seals had been known to congregate, give birth, and seek refuge on open beaches. In more recent times, they have left their former habitat and now only use sea caves for these activities. Often these caves are inaccessible to humans. Frequently their caves have underwater entries, and many caves are positioned along remote or rugged coastlines.[14][15][16][17]

Scientists have confirmed this is a recent adaptation, most likely due to the rapid increase in human population, tourism, and industry, which have caused increased disturbance by humans and the destruction of the species' natural habitat. Because of these seals' shy nature and sensitivity to human disturbance, they have slowly adapted to try to avoid contact with humans completely within the last century, and, perhaps, even earlier. The coastal caves are, however, dangerous for newborns, and are causes of major mortality among pups when sea storms hit the caves.[14][18][19][20]

Distribution and status

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The Mediterranean monk seal can be found in the Mediterranean Sea off of Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, and Turkey, as well as the North Atlantic Ocean off of Mauritania and Western Sahara.[1] It may be locally-extinct (extirpated) in and around Albania, Corsica, Egypt, France, Italy, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, southern Spain (and the Balearic Islands), and Tunisia.[1] Its status in Algeria, Israel, Lebanon, Morocco and Syria is unknown.[1]

This earless seal's historical range extended from the northern Atlantic coastline of Western Africa east to the Black Sea, including all offshore islands within the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands, Madeira, Desertas, Porto Santo, and as far west as the Azores. Vagrants could be found as far south as The Gambia and the Cape Verde (Cabo Verde) islands, and as far north as Portugal to Northern Spain and the Bay of Biscay to the coast of Brittany.[1]

Several causes provoked a dramatic population decrease over time: on one hand, commercial hunting (especially during the Roman Empire and Middle Ages) and, during the 20th century, eradication by fishermen, who used to consider it a pest due to the damage the seal causes to fishing nets when it preys on fish caught in them; and, on the other hand, coastal urbanization and pollution.[1]

Some seals have survived in the Sea of Marmara,[21] but the last report of a seal in the Black Sea dates to 1997.[1] Monk seals were present at Snake Island until the 1950s, and several locations such as the Danube Plavni Nature Reserve [ru] and Doğankent were the last known hauling-out sites post-1990.[22]

Nowadays, its entire population is estimated to be less than 700 individuals widely scattered, which qualifies this species as endangered. Its current very sparse population is one more serious threat to the species, as it only has two key sites that can be deemed viable. One is the Aegean Sea (250–300 animals in Greece, with the largest concentration of animals in Gyaros island,[3] and some 100 in Turkey); the other important subpopulation is in the Atlantic Ocean, in the Western Saharan portion of Cabo Blanco (around 270 individuals which may support the small, but growing, nucleus in the Desertas Islands – approximately 30–40 individuals[23]). There may be some individuals using coastal areas among other parts of Western Sahara, such as in Cintra Bay.[24]

These two key sites are virtually in the extreme opposites of the species' distribution range, which makes natural population interchange between them impossible. All the other remaining subpopulations are composed of less than 50 mature individuals, many of them being only loose groups of extremely reduced size – often less than five individuals.[1]

Other remaining populations are in southwestern Turkey and the Ionian Sea (both in the eastern Mediterranean). The species status is virtually moribund in the western Mediterranean, which still holds tiny Moroccan and Algerian populations, associated with rare sightings of vagrants in the Balearic Islands,[25] Sardinia, and other western Mediterranean locations, including Gibraltar.

In Sardinia the Mediterranean monk seal was last sighted in May 2007 and April 2010. The increase of sightings in Sardinia suggests that the seal occasionally inhabits the Central Eastern Sardinian coasts, preserved since 1998 by the National Park of Golfo of Orosei.[26][27][28]

Colonies on the Pelagie Islands (Linosa and Lampedusa) were destroyed by fishermen, which likely resulted in local extinction.[29]

Cabo Blanco 1997 die off and recovery

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Cabo Blanco, in the Atlantic Ocean, is the largest surviving single population of the species, and the only remaining site that still seems to preserve a colony structure.[1] In the summer of 1997, more than 200 animals[1] or two-thirds of its seal population were wiped out within two months, compromising the species' viable population. While opinions on the precise causes of this epidemic remain divided between a morbillivirus or, more likely, a toxic algae bloom,[1] the mass die-off emphasized the precarious status of a species already regarded as critically endangered throughout its range.

Numbers in this all-important location started a slow-paced recovery ever since. A small but incipient (up to 20 animals by 2009) sub-population in the area had started using open beaches. In 2009, for the first time in centuries, a female delivered her pup on the beach (open beaches are the optimal habitat for the survival of pups, but had been abandoned due to human disturbance and persecution in past centuries).[30]

Only by 2016 the colony had recovered to its previous population (about 300 animals). This was made possible by a recovery plan financed by Spain.[23] Also in 2016, a new record of births was set for the colony (83 pups).[23]

However, the threat of a similar incident, which could severely reduce or wipe out the entire population, remains.[31]

Recent sightings

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On Coaling Island in September 2012, possibly the first record in the Strait of Gibraltar
On rocky shore at Serifos, Greece
Group at Lefkada, Greece
Yulia, aka Tugra, female Mediterranean monk seal sleeping in Israel

In June 2009, there was a report of a sighting off the island of Giglio, in Italy.[32] On 7 January 2010, fishermen spotted an injured Mediterranean monk seal off the coasts of Tel Aviv, Israel. When zoo veterinarians arrived to help the seal, it had slipped back into the waters. Members of the Israel Marine Mammal Research and Assistance Center arrived at the scene and tried to locate the injured mammal, but with no success. This was the first sighting of the species in the region since Lebanese authorities claimed to have found a population of 10–20 other seals on their coasts 70 years earlier.[33] In addition, the seal was also sighted a couple of weeks later in the northern kibbutz of Rosh Hanikra.[34]

In April 2010, there was a report of a sighting off the island of Marettimo, in the Egadi Islands off the coast of Italy, in Trapani Province.[35] In November 2010, a Mediterranean monk seal, supposedly aged between 10 and 20, had been spotted in Bodrum, Turkey.[36] On 31 December 2010, the BBC Earth news[37] reported that the MOM Hellenic Society[38] had located a new colony of seals on a remote beach in the Aegean Sea. The exact location was not communicated so as to keep the site protected. The society was appealing to the Greek government to integrate the part of the island on which the seals live into a marine protected area.

On 8 March 2011, the BBC Earth news[39] reported that a pup seal had been spotted on 7 February while monitoring a seal colony on an island in the southwestern Aegean Sea. Soon after, it showed signs of weakness and it was taken to a rehabilitation centre to try to save it. The aim is to release it back into the wild as soon as it is strong enough. In April 2011, a monk seal was spotted near the Egyptian coast after long absence of the species from the nation.[40]

On 24 June 2011, the Blue World Institute of Croatia[41] filmed an adult female underwater in the northern Adriatic, off the island of Cres and a specimen of unverified sex on 29 June 2012.[42] On 2 May 2013 a specimen was seen on the southernmost point of Istrian peninsula near the town of Pula.[43] On 9 September 2013, in Pula a male specimen swam to a busy beach and entertained numerous tourists for five minutes before swimming back to the open sea.[44] In summer 2014 sightings in Pula have occurred almost daily and monk seal stayed multiple times on crowded city beaches, sleeping calm for hours just few meters away from humans.[45][46] To prevent accidents and preserve monk seal, local city council acquired special educational boards and installed on city beaches.[47] Despite clear instructions, an incident occurred with a tourist harassing a seal. The whole event was filmed.[48] Less than a month later on 25 August 2014 this female monk seal was found dead in the Mrtvi Puć bay near Šišan, Croatia. Experts said it was natural death caused by her old age.[49]

  • The monk seal on Mornar Beach, in Pula, Croatia
    The monk seal on Mornar Beach, in Pula, Croatia
  • A few days before she died in the Mrtvi Puć Bay near Šišan, Croatia
    A few days before she died in the Mrtvi Puć Bay near Šišan, Croatia

In 2012, a Mediterranean monk seal, was spotted in Gibraltar on the jetty of the private boat owners club at Coaling Island.[50]

In the week of 22–28 April 2013, what is believed to have been a monk seal was viewed in Tyre, southern Lebanon; photographs have been reported among many local media.[51] A study by the Italian Ministry of the Environment in 2013 confirmed the presence of monk seals in marine protected area in the Egadi Islands.[52] In September and October 2013, there were a number of sightings of an adult pair in waters around RAF Akrotiri in British Sovereign Base waters in Cyprus.

In November 2014, an adult monk seal was reportedly seen inside the port of Limassol, Cyprus. A female monk seal, called Argyro by the locals, was repeatedly seen on beaches of Samos island in 2014 and 2015,[53] and two were reported in April 2016.[54] In 2017, Argyro was shot and killed.[55]

On 7 April 2015, a large floating "fish" was reported near Raouche, Beirut in Lebanon, and collected by a local fisherman. This turned out to be the body of a female monk seal known to have been resident there for some time. Further investigations revealed that she was pregnant with a pup.[56]

On 13 August 2015, ten monk seals were spotted in Governor's Beach, Limassol, Cyprus.[57]

On 6 January 2016, a monk seal climbed aboard a parked boat in Kuşadası.[58]

On 10 April 2016, a monk seal was spotted and photographed by a group of foreign exchange students and local bio-engineers in a creek in Manavgat District in Turkey's southern Antalya Province. According to the scientists involved in local projects to protect the animals, this was the first ever documented sighting of a monk seal swimming in a river. Possible reasons for the animal's appearance included better opportunities for hunting, as well as higher salinity levels due to lower water levels.[59]

On 26 April 2016, two monk seals were spotted at the municipal baths area of Paphos, Cyprus.[54]

On 18 October 2016, a monk seal was captured on video around Gulf of Kuşadası.[60]

On 3 November 2016, a monk seal was spotted at the coast of Gialousa in Cyprus.[61]

On 13 June 2017, a specimen was spotted and photographed by a group of fishermen off the coasts of Tricase in the south of Italy.[62]

In early 2018 a mother and her pup were spotted around Paphos Harbour in Cyprus.[63]

In November 2018, a young monk seal was spotted at the coast of Karavostasi in Cyprus, only to be found dead at the same area a few days later.[64]

On 15 March 2019, a monk seal was spotted and photographed by a group of citizens at a marina in Kuşadası.[65]

On 20 July 2019, a monk seal was spotted in Protaras bay area in Cyprus.[66]

On 27 January 2020, a young monk seal was recovered dead from Torre San Gennaro in Apulia.[67]

On 15 December 2020, a monk seal was spotted and videotaped while seated on a sunlounger in Samos Island, Greece.[68]

On 24 July 2021, a previously rescued and rehabilitated monk seal nicknamed "Kostis" was found dead in the waters of the Cycladic islands. MOm, the Hellenic Society for the Study and Protection of the Monk Seal reported that the seal had been executed at close range with a spear gun. Additionally, MOm pledged a €18,000 bounty for any evidence that "will lead to the arrest of the person(s) responsible for the killing of the seal, known as Kostis."[69]

On 24 April 2023, a large monk seal was spotted at Korakonisi, Zakynthos in Greece. It stayed on the surface for around a minute observing onlookers and then dived and was not seen again on that day.[70]

On 12 May 2023, a healthy adult female monk seal was observed and photographed resting for at least a few hours on the beach in Jaffa near Tel Aviv, Israel.[71] Israel's Nature and Park Authority has been monitoring since then this seal dubbed "Yulia", estimated at twenty years of age, spotted by eastern Mediterranean researchers in recent years in Turkey and Lebanon, where she is known as "Tugra". International consultation assessed that she is in normal molt to shed her winter coat, mostly relaxing on the section of beach that has been fenced off for her, and occasionally going into the water.[72][73][74]

On 5 July 2024, a monk seal was spotted in Malta after an absence of 30 years.[75]

Preservation

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A seal swims at Ras Nouadhibou

Damage inflicted on fishermen's nets and rare attacks on offshore fish farms in Turkey and Greece are known to have pushed local people towards hunting the Mediterranean monk seal, but mostly out of revenge, rather than population control. Preservation efforts have been put forth by civil organizations, foundations, and universities in both countries since as early as the 1970s. For the past 10 years,[76][77] many groups have carried out missions to educate locals on damage control and species preservation. Reports of positive results of such efforts exist throughout the area.[78]

In the Aegean Sea, Greece has allocated a large area for the preservation of the Mediterranean monk seal and its habitat. The Greek Alonissos Marine Park, that extends around the Northern Sporades islands, is the main action ground of the Greek MOm organisation.[79] MOm is greatly involved in raising awareness in the general public, fundraising for the helping of the monk seal preservation cause, in Greece and wherever needed. Greece is currently investigating the possibility of declaring another monk seal breeding site as a national park and also has integrated some sites in the NATURA 2000 protection scheme. The legislation in Greece is very strict towards seal hunting, and in general, the public is very much aware and supportive of the effort for the preservation of the Mediterranean monk seal.[80][81]

The complex politics concerning the covert opposition of the Greek government towards the protection to the monk seals in the eastern Aegean in the late 1970s is described in a book by William Johnson.[82] Oil companies apparently may have been using the monk seal sanctuary project as a stalking horse to encourage greater cooperation between the Greek and Turkish governments as a preliminary to pushing for oil extraction rights in a geopolitically unstable area. According to Johnson, the Greek secret service, the YPEA, were against such moves and sabotaged the project to the detriment of both the seals and conservationists, who, unaware of such covert motivations, sought only to protect the species and its habitat.[82]

One of the largest groups among the foundations concentrating their efforts towards the preservation of the Mediterranean monk seal is the Mediterranean Seal Research Group (Turkish: Akdeniz Foklarını Araştırma Grubu) operating under the Underwater Research Foundation (Turkish: Sualtı Araştırmaları Derneği) in Turkey (also known as SAD-AFAG). The group has taken initiative in joint preservation efforts together with the Foça municipal officials, as well as phone, fax, and email hotlines for sightings.[83]

Preservation of the species requires both the preservation of land and sea, due to the need for terrestrial haul-out sites and caves or caverns for the animal to rest and reproduce. Even though responsible scuba diving instructors hesitate to make trips to known seal caves, the rumor of a seal sighting quickly becomes a tourist attraction for many. Irresponsible scuba diving trips scare the seals away from caves which could become habitation for the species.[84][85]

The Environment and Urbanization Minister of Turkey announced on 18 November 2019 that a plan was proposed to further preserve the species to allow the sub species of Foça, Gökova, Datça and Bozburun to increase in numbers.[86]

Conservation

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Under the auspices of the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) concerning Conservation Measures for the Eastern Atlantic Populations of the Mediterranean Monk Seal was concluded and came into effect on 18 October 2007. The MoU covers four range States (Mauritania, Morocco, Portugal and Spain), all of which have signed, and aims at providing a legal and institutional framework for the implementation of the Action Plan for the Recovery of the Mediterranean Monk Seal in the Eastern Atlantic.

As there are indications of small population increases in the subpopulations, in 2023 the Mediterranean monk seal's IUCN conservation status was updated from endangered to vulnerable in keeping with the IUCN's speed-of-decline criteria.[1]

In culture

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The Mediterranean monk seal occasionally appears in Classical mythology. In Homer's The Odyssey, the sea god Proteus is shown herding monk seals for Poseidon. The mythical hero Phocus of Aegina (with phokos literally translating to seal in Greek) was the son of the nereid Psamathe, and was conceived while she was transformed into a seal. The ancient city of Phocis (and possibly Phocaea) was named after Phocus, and the city of Phocaea took on the monk seal as an emblem. This has been thought to either be due to the myth of Phocus' birth, or monk seals formerly inhabiting the area where Phocaea was established. There is only a single known surviving depiction of the monk seal from antiquity, this being on a Caeretan hydria likely created by Phocaean refugees in Etruria.[87]

Despite its mythological connections and association with certain peoples, the monk seal still seems to have generally been reviled and feared by the ancient Greeks and Romans due to its form and smell, as well as its association with the unknown nature of the ocean. Many Greek and Roman metaphors and idioms portrayed the seal in a negative light. This antipathy may have contributed to its long-term decline in numbers by spurring persecution of the species.[87]

On the other hand, a 2000-year-old grave with a skeleton of a Mediterranean monk seal was found during archaeological excavations in the port of Rhodes in Greece; and the seal was buried with a ritual that was used for human burials. The skeleton is now exhibited in the Aquarium of Rhodes.[88]

In the 11th century BC, the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I was gifted several animals by the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses XI, including a crocodile and an unknown creature known as the "river-man". These animals were displayed in the menagerie of his son Ashur-bel-kala, and are portrayed on several of Ashur's obelisk fragments. A pair of hind flippers on one partial fragment has been identified with the "river-man", and if so indicate that the "river man" was almost certainly a monk seal.[89]

When the 1979 Mediterranean Games were organised in Split, SR Croatia, SFR Yugoslavia the mascot of the event was a Mediterranean monk seal named Adriana.[90]

References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mediterranean monk seal

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The (Monachus monachus) is a phocid seal characterized by its robust body, short dense fur ranging from black in males to brown or in females, blunt , and small external openings. Adults typically reach lengths of 2.4 to 3 meters and weights up to 330 kilograms, with pups born black and featuring a distinctive white ventral patch. Endemic to the coastal regions of the and eastern , particularly around , , , and northwestern , the prefers secluded sea caves and rocky shorelines for resting and pupping. Once abundant across a wider range, M. monachus populations plummeted due to direct through for , oil, and , as well as incidental capture in gear, reducing numbers to critically low levels by the mid-20th century. Current global estimates place the population at 815 to 997 individuals, primarily in three isolated subpopulations, rendering it one of the most endangered pinnipeds. Classified as Endangered by the , ongoing threats include in fisheries, loss from coastal development, , and occasional intentional killings by fishermen viewing seals as competitors. Opportunistic benthic foragers, Mediterranean monk seals primarily consume cephalopods, crustaceans, and bony fishes, diving to depths exceeding 100 meters while exhibiting a shift toward more solitary and cave-dependent behavior in response to historical human pressures. Conservation efforts, including protected areas and monitoring programs in key sites like the and Cabo Blanco, have stabilized some colonies, though recovery remains precarious without addressing root causes like unregulated and expansion.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Scientific classification

The Mediterranean monk seal is classified in the family Phocidae, the true seals, and subfamily , which includes the monk seals as a distinct lineage of southern phocids characterized by tropical affinities and specialized cranial features. Its binomial name is Monachus monachus (Hermann, 1779), originally described from Mediterranean specimens, with the genus name reflecting the species' hooded appearance reminiscent of monastic cowls.
Taxonomic rankClassification
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumChordata
ClassMammalia
Order
FamilyPhocidae
Subfamily
GenusMonachus
SpeciesM. monachus
The genus Monachus formerly included three species: the extant Mediterranean monk seal, the extinct Hawaiian monk seal (M. schauinslandi), and the extinct Caribbean monk seal (M. tropicalis), with mitochondrial and nuclear DNA analyses confirming the of Monachus as a cohesive branching deeply within , distinct from other phocid subfamilies. Historical proposals to split Monachus monachus into (e.g., Atlantic vs. Mediterranean forms) have been refuted by molecular studies revealing low genetic differentiation insufficient for subspecific status, instead indicating panmictic populations shaped by recent bottlenecks rather than long-isolated lineages.

Evolutionary history

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) belongs to an ancient lineage within the Phocidae family, with crown-group phocids originating in the North Atlantic or Mediterranean region during the late to early , approximately 27–20 million years ago, based on distributions and phylogenetic reconstructions. The subfamily , encompassing monk seals, diverged from other phocid subfamilies prior to the middle , over 14.6 million years ago, with estimates placing the monachine split from northern seals () around 12 million years ago. Late s from the North Atlantic and Sea regions document early monachine diversity, including transitional forms with specialized cranial and dental adaptations for benthic foraging, though direct antecedents to Monachus remain sparsely represented in the Mediterranean record. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA position M. monachus as a basal member of Monachinae, distinct from the monophyletic New World monk seals (Hawaiian and extinct Caribbean species, now classified in Neomonachus). Divergence between Mediterranean and New World lineages occurred in the late Miocene, estimated at 6–12 million years ago depending on calibration methods, reflecting vicariant events tied to Tethys Sea closure and Atlantic circulation changes rather than recent gene flow. This deep split underscores the evolutionary isolation of Monachus, with fossil evidence suggesting monachines dispersed across hemispheres by the Pliocene, though Mediterranean populations adapted to coastal, cave-associated niches amid regional tectonic shifts. Genetic surveys reveal exceptionally low diversity in M. monachus (e.g., mitochondrial control region variation comparable to the lowest in mammals), driven by severe historical bottlenecks from human exploitation since antiquity, rather than vicariance or ancient isolation. models indicate effective population sizes plummeted over the last millennium, with levels elevated across remaining subpopulations (e.g., fixation index F_IS >0.2 in loci), contrasting with expectations for an ancient lineage and emphasizing recent anthropogenic causation over phylogenetic antiquity. Compared to the extinct , M. monachus exhibits parallel vulnerabilities—low resilience to overhunting due to philopatric breeding and slow —but without evidence of hybridization or shared recent ancestry, as cytochrome b sequences confirm their separation predates Pleistocene glaciations.

Physical description

Morphology and adaptations

The (Monachus monachus) possesses a streamlined, torpedo-shaped body optimized for aquatic locomotion, with a rounded head and short, broad muzzle. Adults range from 2.3 to 2.8 meters in total length and weigh 240 to 400 kilograms, with males attaining slightly greater dimensions than females. The pelage consists of short, dense fur, typically dark brown to on the dorsal surface in adult males, transitioning to medium to dark gray in females, with paler ventral regions in both sexes; juveniles are born with a unique white abdominal patch that persists variably into adulthood. Foreflippers are proportionally short with the first digit elongated, while hindflippers are slender and rotatable, enabling forward propulsion on land through a galloping motion akin to other phocids. Sensitive vibrissae on the muzzle facilitate prey detection in turbid or dark waters, complementing the seal's reliance on nearshore . Physiological adaptations support haul-out in marine caves, including tolerance for confined, humid environments with limited ventilation, though empirical data on hypoxia thresholds specific to this species remain limited; diving capabilities extend to shallow coastal depths, typically under 100 meters, with extended apnea durations facilitated by elevated stores in muscle tissue.

Reproduction and life history

Mediterranean monk seals exhibit a polygynous mating system, with dominant males defending territories and mating with multiple females, while in size remains limited. Mating takes place in the water, often near breeding caves. lasts 9 to 11 months, after which females give birth to a single pup on land, typically in secluded sea caves. Births occur year-round across the species' range but peak in autumn, from September to November, with October showing the highest incidence in monitored populations such as those in . Females can breed in consecutive years, though overall fecundity remains low at one pup annually. Pups, born at lengths of about 1 meter and weights of 15-18 kg, are for 4 to 7 weeks, after which occurs, marking a transition to independent . Some field observations indicate potential extensions in nursing duration up to 16-17 weeks, an atypically prolonged pattern among phocid seals. is attained at 4 to 5 years for females and 5 to 6 years for males, with variations noted across subpopulations; for instance, females in the Cabo Blanco colony reach maturity as early as 3 years. Wild lifespan averages 20 to 30 years, though many individuals succumb earlier due to environmental pressures. Pup mortality is empirically high, with mark-recapture studies estimating first-year survival at approximately 46% in the Cabo Blanco population, primarily from , storm-induced displacement in habitats, or abandonment rather than predation. These rates underscore the ' vulnerability during early life stages, as documented through long-term monitoring of tagged and observed individuals.

Ecology and behavior

Diet and foraging

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) exhibits an opportunistic diet dominated by benthic and , as evidenced by stomach content analyses of stranded individuals. Cephalopods, particularly octopuses such as Octopus vulgaris (comprising approximately 43% of prey by number) and Eledone cirrhosa (14%), form the bulk of the diet, often exceeding 90% in some regional samples from the . Benthic fish like eels, mullets, , and from the family are consumed secondarily, with occasional crustaceans such as lobsters and rare pelagic items like sardines or . Dietary composition varies regionally, reflecting local prey availability in coastal habitats, though cephalopods consistently predominate across Aegean and western Mediterranean samples. Stable of seal hair and tissues further corroborates a primary reliance on coastal, benthic resources, showing limited trophic overlap with pelagic targeted by commercial fisheries. Foraging occurs solitarily and targets shallow reefs and seabeds near shorelines, employing bottom-oriented dives to pursue prey in crevices or along currents. Observational and tagging indicate average foraging dive depths of 26 m for shallow bouts and 102 m for deeper benthic excursions, with maximum depths recorded up to 200 m in rehabilitated or free-ranging adults. Pups initiate independent toward the end of (around 4-5 months), starting with shallower U-shaped dives averaging 11 m and progressing to longer bottom times suggestive of active prey pursuit. Seals display flexibility in foraging timing, with patterns including diurnal "spot feeding" in fixed nearshore locations or nocturnal adaptations tied to prey activity, supported by a low that minimizes energy demands during extended bottom phases.

Social behavior and habitat use

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) typically exhibits solitary behavior, with individuals most often observed alone or in small groups of two to three, such as mother-pup pairs or transient aggregations near haul-out sites. This shift from historically more gregarious colonial formations—documented in ancient accounts and early 20th-century photographs of groups numbering dozens—to current solitary tendencies is attributed to chronic human disturbance, which has reduced inter-individual interactions and aggression levels remain low outside of brief mating contexts influenced by moderate . Vocalizations play a key role in , particularly for mother-pup contact; recent acoustic monitoring in the Inner confirmed underwater vocal activity, including pulsed sounds used in pup recognition and bonding, with aerial barks and squawks emitted by pups during nursing interactions. Habitat use centers on secluded coastal environments for resting, pupping, and molting, with a strong preference for sea caves featuring submerged or semi-submerged entrances, protective barriers against waves, and interior beaches shielded from predators and storms. Rocky coastlines adjacent to these caves serve as primary haul-out zones, where seals bask diurnally before in nearby shallow waters; and camera-trap data indicate minimal migratory tendencies, with individuals maintaining localized home ranges spanning approximately 15-50 km, as evidenced by repeated use of caves on islands like Kefalonia and in the Greek . While seals demonstrate behavioral flexibility by shifting from open beaches to caves in response to anthropogenic pressures, empirical observations link persistent disturbances—such as or —to site abandonment, reducing suitability and in affected areas.

Distribution and status

Historical range

The historical range of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) encompassed the entire Mediterranean Sea, including its coastal regions, as well as the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, where colonies were established in suitable haul-out sites such as caves and beaches. Evidence from ancient texts, including Aristotle's History of Animals (circa 350 BC), describes the species as living in herds that hauled out on open shores, indicating abundance and widespread distribution across Greek waters during classical antiquity. Pliny the Elder, in Natural History (circa 77 AD), further documented encounters with large groups, corroborating the seal's commonality in Roman-era Mediterranean habitats. Subfossil and archaeological records, including assemblages from prehistoric and ancient sites, confirm the ' presence and utilization by humans across this range, with remains found in Bulgarian coastal deposits dating to the and earlier. In the eastern Atlantic, historical distributions extended from the southward to , supported by subfossil evidence and early explorer accounts of rookeries along northwest African coasts prior to intensive exploitation in the . Roman-era mosaics and writings depict seal colonies near coastal settlements, suggesting naive behavior toward humans and large breeding aggregations on accessible beaches throughout the Mediterranean basin. Empirical estimates derived from find densities and historical narratives indicate pre-exploitation numbered in the thousands across multiple colonies, with genetic studies revealing low historical effective sizes consistent with widespread but structured groups rather than panmictic abundance. These baselines, reconstructed from undiluted archaeological , highlight a once ecologically prominent in coastal ecosystems before systematic hunting reduced rookeries by the late .

Current populations and abundance

The global population of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) is estimated at 600–700 individuals, including 350–450 mature individuals, based on recent surveys and demographic modeling. The species persists in isolated subpopulations, with limited contributing to low and elevated risks, as evidenced by analyses showing reduced haplotypic diversity across groups. The largest core population inhabits the , particularly the Aegean and Ionian Seas, where hosts an estimated 337–450 individuals derived from pup counts multiplied by demographic ratios. In adjacent Turkish waters, abundance along the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts reaches approximately 120 individuals, confirmed through ongoing monitoring. Scattered individuals occur elsewhere in the region, including confirmed presences in and via camera traps and acoustic surveys as of 2024. In the northeastern Atlantic, the Cabo Blanco subpopulation (spanning and ) numbers around 350 individuals, assessed through long-term pup production and survival rate estimates. Smaller, isolated groups persist at sites like (fewer than 30 individuals) and scattered Atlantic islands, with no viable connectivity to mainland populations. These fragmented distributions underscore the ' vulnerability to localized events. In the late , genetic analyses revealed severe population bottlenecks in the Mediterranean monk seal, primarily attributable to intensive during the 19th and early 20th centuries, which drastically reduced across remaining subpopulations rather than environmental factors like variability exerting primacy. These bottlenecks manifested as sharp declines, with effective sizes contracting to levels implying near-extinction risks, evidenced by deficits in heterozygosity and rare alleles in sampled tissues from the onward. A major fluctuation occurred in the summer of 1997 at the Cabo Blanco colony in Mauritania, where approximately two-thirds of the estimated 300 individuals—over 200 seals—died within two months due to saxitoxin poisoning from a toxic dinoflagellate bloom in their prey. This event reduced the colony to roughly 100 survivors, representing a ~67% loss and threatening the subspecies' viability given its status as the largest breeding group. Post-die-off, the population demonstrated natural resilience, rebounding through an intrinsic annual growth rate of approximately 12%, reaching about 200 individuals by the 2020s without reliant translocation efforts. Since the 1990s, overall abundance has exhibited gradual increases, with global estimates rising from fewer than 500 individuals to 600–700 by 2024, driven by diminished direct and localized protections enabling modest . Subpopulations in the , particularly the Aegean, have shown signs of stabilization in recent monitoring, with persistent sightings and vocal detections confirming occupancy amid low but steady numbers around 250–300 scattered individuals as of 2024–2025. This trend contrasts with historical crashes, attributing incremental gains to reduced human-induced mortality rather than abrupt environmental shifts.

Threats and declines

Direct human impacts

Historically, Mediterranean monk seals were extensively hunted for their fur, blubber oil used in lamps and medicines, and meat, contributing significantly to population declines from antiquity through the 20th century. In Greece, deliberate killings by fishermen—often via shooting or explosives in caves—account for approximately 43% of documented adult seal deaths, with incidents persisting into the 2020s despite legal prohibitions. Accidental bycatch in fishing gear, particularly trammel nets, gillnets, and set nets deployed near haul-out sites, remains a direct mortality factor, entangling seals during foraging and leading to drownings. Tourism-related disturbances, including close boat approaches and entries into pupping caves, displace seals from haul-out and breeding sites, with acoustic monitoring in 2025 confirming increased vocal activity correlated to vessel noise in the inner . Coastal development, such as holiday housing and infrastructure expansion, has destroyed over 80% of potential open-beach haul-outs and restricted access to sea caves, prompting empirical observations of site abandonment in and since the 1980s.

Environmental and incidental threats

Disease outbreaks represent a significant environmental threat to Mediterranean monk seals, with the most notable event occurring in 1997 when approximately half of the Cabo Blanco population—estimated at over 100 individuals—succumbed to (CeMV) infection along the coasts of and . Necropsies indicated viral pathology consistent with CeMV, though concurrent factors such as from algal blooms of Gymnodinium catenatum may have exacerbated mortality, as evidenced by toxin detection in seal tissues and good body condition of carcasses ruling out starvation. has also emerged as a persistent risk, with serological evidence in strandings and potential co-infection amplifying susceptibility to pathogens like CeMV. These episodic events highlight seals' vulnerability to infectious agents and biotoxins in coastal ecosystems, independent of direct human intervention. Pollution contributes indirectly through ingestion of and of contaminants, as confirmed by necropsies and non-invasive sampling. Fecal analysis from seals in caves detected 166 microplastic particles across samples, with 75% smaller than 3 mm, alongside plastic additives like that could impair health. Trace elements such as and mercury, measured in tissues from strandings, exceed thresholds potentially disrupting immune and endocrine functions, linking elevated levels to anthropogenic runoff and industrial discharges. Oil spills and persistent organic pollutants further compound exposure risks, though quantitative impacts on or remain understudied relative to acute episodes. Incidental entanglement in abandoned or active gear, including nets and lines, accounts for sporadic mortality across the ' range, often documented via strandings with net marks or embedded materials. This threat arises from interactions with static apparatuses in nearshore habitats, with reports indicating as a primary outcome, though precise annual rates vary by region and are derived from fisher observations rather than comprehensive surveys. Predation pressure remains negligible, as the seals' preference for inaccessible underwater caves effectively mitigates attacks from or other marine predators. While climate-driven changes, such as altering cave accessibility or shifts in prey distribution, are posited as potential stressors, for dominant impacts is limited, with local ecological data emphasizing , , and incidental capture over broader climatic forcings.

Conservation efforts

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) is classified as Vulnerable on the , reflecting a 2023 reassessment that downlisted it from Endangered based on population recovery evidence in key areas. It is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (), which bans international commercial trade in the species and its parts to prevent exploitation-driven declines. Within the , the species receives stringent protection under Annex II and Annex IV of the (Council Directive 92/43/EEC), mandating the designation of Special Areas of Conservation for its habitats—such as marine caves—and prohibiting deliberate capture, killing, or disturbance, with member states required to establish management plans. Under the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean, the monk seal is designated a priority species for conservation, with protocols like the Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity Protocol obligating signatory states to safeguard breeding sites and prohibit harmful activities. Nationally, protections vary but include full legal bans on and ; in , hosting the largest population, the species is safeguarded in marine protected areas such as Island, designated an MPA in 2014 with no-take zones to minimize human-seal conflicts. These frameworks explicitly prohibit killing, capture, and disruption, yet enforcement remains inconsistent, as evidenced by ongoing deliberate killings linked to interactions. Reports document 49 intentional killings in between 1994 and 2014, often involving shootings due to perceived gear depredation, while isolated cases persist elsewhere, such as a shot seal in in 2017, underscoring gaps in compliance monitoring and deterrence. Fisher surveys indicate seals damage gear on 21% of trips in some regions, correlating with retaliatory acts despite legal penalties.

Monitoring and recovery programs

Monitoring programs for the Mediterranean monk seal employ non-invasive techniques such as photographic identification (photo-ID), which utilizes unique pelage patterns on adult males for individual recognition and population estimation through capture-recapture models. In , the Hellenic Society for the Study and Protection of the Monk Seal (MOm) integrates photo-ID with sighting networks like the Rescue and Information Network (RINT), operational since 1991, to track distribution and abundance. Camera traps are deployed in sea caves across , , and to observe breeding and pupping activities with minimal disturbance, as implemented in Turkish caves since the early and Cypriot surveys identifying multiple individuals during pupping seasons. Satellite tagging provides data on home ranges and movements, with telemetry devices attached to rehabilitated juveniles revealing ranges of approximately 466 km² in the eastern . The Specially Protected Areas Regional Activity Centre (SPA/RAC) under UNEP/MAP coordinates standardized protocols, including camera trap adaptations and telemetry guidelines, with training conducted in Kefalonia, , in September 2023 to enhance across beneficiary countries. In Turkey, the Turkish Marine Research Foundation (TUDAV) and SAD-AFAG maintain coastal observation networks for ongoing surveillance, including cave monitoring extended through 2025 in regions like Fethiye-Göcek. Recovery initiatives include rehabilitation centers for orphaned or injured seals. In , SAD-AFAG operates and rehab facilities, releasing pups such as those documented in ongoing coastal interventions near and since the 2010s. In , MOm has rehabilitated and released dozens of seals, incorporating post-release monitoring via tags. campaigns by organizations like TUDAV and MOm target fishers to mitigate incidental entanglement and deliberate killings, distributing educational materials on seal presence and avoidance. SPA/RAC-supported efforts in 2024 include capacity-building for monitoring in southern Mediterranean ranges, with projects extending through 2026 to compile standardized data on movements and use. Translocations remain infrequent due to logistical challenges, with focus instead on in-situ rehab and release protocols.

Effectiveness, challenges, and debates

Conservation efforts have yielded localized successes, particularly in protected areas with strict enforcement. In the Cabo Blanco colony, shared between and , the population demonstrated an intrinsic growth rate of approximately 12% following habitat protections implemented after a 1997 , contributing to a rebound from near collapse. Similarly, in , , monitoring data indicate an increase from 19 individuals in 2013 to 27 in 2021, attributed to reduced human disturbance and fishery regulations. These upticks underscore the efficacy of enforced no-take zones and anti-poaching measures in mitigating direct anthropogenic pressures, though overall abundance remains critically low at 600-700 individuals globally. Persistent challenges include inadequate enforcement across fragmented jurisdictions, ongoing fishery interactions such as in gillnets, and the species' extreme genetic depauperity, which exacerbates evidenced by reduced fertility and skewed sex ratios in remnant populations. Economic disincentives for local fishers, who face income losses from gear damage or restricted access without compensatory programs, hinder compliance and sustain incidental mortality. Coordination deficits among Mediterranean states further undermine transboundary efforts, as past initiatives have faltered due to inconsistent funding and political will. Debates center on threat prioritization, with empirical data emphasizing direct activities—like deliberate killings and encroachment—as proximal causes of decline over secondary factors such as climate-driven prey shifts, which lack causal primacy in models absent human pressures. Conservation strategies face contention between reserve-centric approaches, which yield demographic gains but impose regulatory costs on and fisheries (estimated to generate billions annually in the region), and incentive-based alternatives like gear modifications or compensation, potentially more sustainable per economic analyses of similar marine recoveries. Genetic augmentation via translocations remains controversial; while proposed to counter , analogs in other taxa reveal risks of from admixture with divergent lineages, though intra-Mediterranean exchanges may pose lower threats if genetic distances are minimal.

Human dimensions

Historical exploitation

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) has faced human exploitation since , primarily for its pelts, blubber-derived , , and medicinal substances such as and . Archaeological evidence from sites in the western Mediterranean indicates direct hunting and processing of seals for these resources as early as 10,000 years ago. In antiquity, Roman-era accounts by (ca. 77 AD) highlight the species' docility, which enabled beach-based captures using clubs to target the head or spears and tridents for quick kills, yielding products like fats for treatments and skins valued for their purported tidal sensitivity and protection. Such practices intensified during the Roman period, with seals also captured alive for circus performances—trained to perform tricks or fight bears—and skins emerging as , priced at 1,250–1,500 denarii in the Edict of Diocletian (301 AD). Conflicts with fishers over net damage and fish predation further drove targeted killings, contributing to early regional declines by the 3rd century AD. Medieval commercial sustained pressure on recovering post-Roman populations, but exploitation peaked in the 19th and early 20th centuries through organized slaughters of breeding colonies for oil (used in lamps and treatment) and hides (for and tents), decimating accessible beach-haulouts across the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. Historical records document the eradication of large groups, such as those at Cape Blanco in , where colonies numbering in the thousands were targeted until the 1940s, reducing overall abundance by over 80% from pre-industrial levels. In the Black Sea subpopulation, Soviet-era and post-war persecution—including deliberate shootings by fishermen viewing seals as competitors and captures for zoos and aquaria in the —led to functional extirpation, with no confirmed sightings after 1997 despite occasional unverified reports. These direct harvests, peaking before , shifted thereafter toward incidental as commercial incentives waned, but left fragmented remnants totaling fewer than 1,000 individuals by the 1950s.

Cultural and symbolic roles

In ancient , the Mediterranean monk seal featured prominently in narratives tied to sea deities, such as , the "shepherd of the seals" in Homer's , where seals symbolized prophetic and magical elements but were also derided for their "hideous stench" that repelled humans. Seals appeared as divine agents, including a "great dog-seal" sent by to kill Hippolytus, and were linked to transformations, as in the Psamathe turning into a seal to escape pursuit, giving rise to place names like . Their cries were likened to sirens' ominous calls, reinforcing associations with peril at sea, though ancient texts like those of Aelian and emphasized revulsion, describing seals as "malignant" and "evil-smelling." Artistic representations include a Caeretan hydria dating to circa 520 B.C., depicting a monk seal observing a hero's battle with a sea monster, and seal motifs on Phocaean coins from 625–326 B.C., reflecting regional cultural significance. In Roman-era folklore, sealskin was attributed protective qualities against lightning, as noted by Pliny the Elder, yet seals were generally feared for their foul odor and perceived malignancy, appearing in literature as chaotic flood harbingers in Ovid's Metamorphoses. Compared to more ubiquitous marine mammals like dolphins, the monk seal remained relatively obscure in broader folklore, with depictions grounded in localized Mediterranean traditions rather than widespread symbolism. Post-classically, the species influenced heraldry, such as the Madeiran governor's 15th-century coat of arms featuring a "sea-wolf" emblem, denoting the seal's prominence among early settlers. In modern contexts, it has emerged as an emblematic figure in regional awareness efforts, with social and news media coverage of sightings—such as those mapped in from 2020 onward—amplifying public interest despite persistent biases in reporting. Fisher communities have occasionally perceived the seal negatively as a competitor for resources, viewing it as a nuisance akin to historical Roman-era pests, though legal protections have shifted such attitudes in documented cases.

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