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Prophet's Mosque
Prophet's Mosque
Prophet's Mosque
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The Prophet's Mosque (Arabic: ٱلْمَسْجِد ٱلنَّبَوِي‎, romanized: al-Masjid al-Nabawī, lit. 'Mosque of the Prophet') is the second mosque built by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in Medina, after the Quba Mosque, as well as the second largest mosque and holiest site in Islam, after the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, in the Saudi region of the Hejaz.[2] The mosque is located at the heart of Medina, and is a major site of pilgrimage that falls under the purview of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques (a royal style used by the King of Saudi Arabia.)

Key Information

Muhammad himself was involved in the construction of the mosque. At the time, the mosque's land belonged to two young orphans, Sahl and Suhayl, and when they learned that Muhammad wished to acquire their land to erect a mosque, they went to Muhammad and offered the land to him as a gift; Muhammad insisted on paying a price for the land because they were orphaned children. The price agreed upon was paid by Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, who thus became the endower or donor (Arabic: وَاقِف, romanized: wāqif) of the mosque, on behalf or in favor of Muhammad.[citation needed] al-Ansari also accommodated Muhammad upon his arrival at Medina in 622.

Originally an open-air building, the mosque served as a community center, a court of law, and a religious school. It contained a raised platform or pulpit (minbar) for the people who taught the Quran and for Muhammad to give the Friday sermon (khutbah). Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly expanded and decorated the mosque, naming its walls, doors and minarets after themselves and their forefathers. After an expansion during the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715), it now incorporates the final resting place of Muhammad and the first two Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) and Umar (r. 634–644).[3] One of the most notable features of the site is the Green Dome in the south-east corner of the mosque,[4] originally Aisha's house,[3] where the tomb of Muhammad is located. Many pilgrims who perform the Hajj also go to Medina to visit the Green Dome.

In 1909, under the reign of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II, it became the first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be provided with electrical lights.[5] From the 14th century, the mosque was guarded by eunuchs, the last remaining guardians were photographed at the request of then-Prince Faisal bin Salman Al Saud, and in 2015, only five were left.[6][7] It is generally open regardless of date or time, and has only been closed to visitors once in modern times, as Ramadan approached during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.[8]

History

[edit]
Main article: Muhammad in Medina
See also: History of Islam

Under Muhammad and the Rashidun (622–660 CE)

[edit]
A hadith inscribed in the mosque which says "A prayer in this mosque of mine is better than a thousand prayers anywhere else, except for Al-Masjid al-Haram."

The mosque was built by Muhammad in 622 CE after his arrival in Medina.[9] Riding a camel called Qaswa, he arrived at the place where this mosque was built, which was being used as a burial ground.[10] Refusing to accept the land as a gift from the two orphans, Sahl and Suhayl, who owned the land, he bought the land which was paid for by Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, and it took seven months to complete the construction of the mosque. It measured 30.5 m × 35.62 m (100.1 ft × 116.9 ft).[10] The roof which was supported by palm trunks was made of beaten clay and palm leaves. It was at a height of 3.60 m (11.8 ft). The three doors of the mosque were the Bāb ar-Raḥmah (بَاب ٱلرَّحْمَة, "Gate of the Mercy") to the south, Bāb Jibrīl (بَاب جِبْرِيْل, "Gate of Gabriel") to the west, and Bāb an-Nisāʾ (بَاب ٱلنِّسَاء, "Gate of the Women") to the east.[10] At this time point in the history of the mosque, the wall of the qiblah was facing north to Jerusalem, and the Suffah was along the northern wall. In the year 7 AH, after the Battle of Khaybar, the mosque was expanded[11] to 47.32 m (155.2 ft) on each side, and three rows of columns were built beside the west wall, which became the place of praying.[12] The mosque remained unaltered during the reign of Abu Bakr.[12]

Umar demolished all the houses around the mosque, except those of Muhammad's wives, to expand it.[13] The new mosque's dimensions became 57.49 m × 66.14 m (188.6 ft × 217.0 ft). Sun-dried mud bricks were used to construct the walls of the enclosure. Besides strewing pebbles on the floor, the roof's height was increased to 5.6 m (18 ft). Umar constructed three more gates for entrance. He also added Al-Buṭayḥah (ٱلْبُطَيْحَة) for people to recite poetry.[14]

The third Rashidun caliph Uthman demolished the mosque in 649. Ten months were spent in building the new rectangular shaped mosque whose face was turned towards the Kaaba in Mecca. The new mosque measured 81.40 m × 62.58 m (267.1 ft × 205.3 ft). The number of gates as well as their names remained the same.[15] The enclosure was made of stones laid in mortar. The palm trunk columns were replaced by stone columns which were joined by iron clamps. Teakwood was used in reconstructing the ceiling filza.[16]

Under subsequent Islamic states (660–1517)

[edit]
The mosque during the Ottoman Era, in the 19th century

In 706 or 707, the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715) instructed his governor of Medina, the future caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, to significantly enlarge the mosque.[17][18] According to the architectural historian Robert Hillenbrand, the building of a large scale mosque in Medina, the original center of the caliphate, was an "acknowledgement" by al-Walid of "his own roots and those of Islam itself" and possibly an attempt to appease Medinan resentment at the loss of the city's political importance to Syria under the Umayyads.[17]

It took three years for the work to be completed. Raw materials were procured from the Byzantine Empire.[19] Al-Walid lavished large sums for the mosque's reconstruction and supplied mosaics and Greek and Coptic craftsmen.[20] The area of the mosque was increased from the area 5,094 square metres (54,830 sq ft) of Uthman's time, to 8,672 square metres (93,340 sq ft).[21] Its redevelopment entailed the demolition of the living quarters of Muhammad's wives and the expansion of the structure to incorporate the graves of Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar.[22][20][23] The vocal opposition to the demolition of Muhammad's home from local religious circles was dismissed by al-Walid.[17] A wall was built to segregate the mosque and the houses of the wives of Muhammad. The mosque was reconstructed in a trapezoid shape with the length of the longer side being 101.76 metres (333.9 ft). For the first time, porticoes were built in the mosque connecting the northern part of the structure to the sanctuary.[21]

According to the 10th-century writer Ibn Rusta, minarets were also built for the first time during al-Walid's expansion as four towers were added to the mosque's corners.[24] They may be the first minarets in Islamic architecture,[25] though it is not clear exactly what purpose these towers served in this early period.[26] At the time of Ibn Rusta's writing, only one of the original four towers remained standing. The southwest minaret was demolished in 716 on the orders of Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik.[24]

The Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) extended the mosque to the north by 50 metres (160 ft). His name was also inscribed on the walls of the mosque. He also planned to remove six steps to the minbar, but abandoned this idea, fearing damage to the wooden platforms on which they were built.[27] The project required the demolition of the two northern minarets of al-Walid's time but they were replaced by two new towers at the northern corners of the new expansion.[28] According to an inscription of Ibn Qutaybah, the caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) did "unspecified work" on the mosque. Al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) lined the enclosure of Muhammad's tomb with marble.[29]

In 1269, the Mamluk sultan Baybars sent dozens of artisans led by the eunuch Emir Jamal al-Din Muhsin al-Salihi to rebuild the sanctuary, including enclosures around the tombs of Muhammad and of Fatima.[30] The Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri (r. 1501–1516) built a dome of stone over his grave in 1476.[31]

Ottoman period (1517–1805 and 1840–1919)

[edit]
An illustration of the Mosque, 18th century
An illustration of the mosque in the 18th century

Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566) rebuilt the east and west walls of the mosque, and added the northeastern minaret known as Süleymaniyye. He added a new altar called Ahnaf next to Muhammad's altar, Shafi'iyya, and placed a new steel-covered dome on the tomb of Muhammad. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent wrote the names of the Ottoman sultans from Osman Ghazi to himself (Kanuni) and revived the "Gate of Mercy" (Bab ur-Rahme) or the west gate. The pulpit that is used today was built under Sultan Murad III (r. 1574–1595).[citation needed]

In 1817, Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) completed the construction of "the Purified Residence" (Ar-Rawdah Al-Muṭahharah (ٱلرَّوْضَة ٱلْمُطَهَّرَة) in Arabic, and Ravza-i Mutahhara in Turkish) on the southeast side of the mosque, and covered with a new dome. The dome was painted green in 1837, and has been known as the "Green Dome" (Kubbe-i Khadra) ever since.[3] Sultan Mahmud II's successor, Sultan Abdulmecid I (r. 1839–1861), took thirteen years to rebuild the mosque, beginning in 1849.[32] Red stone bricks were used as the main material in reconstruction of the mosque. The floor area of the mosque was increased by 1,293 square metres (13,920 sq ft).[citation needed]

The entire mosque was reorganized except for the tomb of Muhammad, the three altars, the pulpit and the Suleymaniye minaret. On the walls, verses from the Quran were inscribed in Islamic calligraphy. On the northern side of the mosque, a madrasah was built for teaching the Qur'an.[33] An ablution site was added to the north side. The prayer place on the south side was doubled in width, and covered with small domes. The interiors of the domes were decorated with verses from the Qur'an and couplets from the poem Kaside-i Bürde. The qibli wall was covered with polished tiles with lines inscribed from the Qur'an. The places of prayer and courtyard were paved with marble and red stone. The fifth minaret, Mecidiyye, was built to the west of the surrounded area. Following the "Desert Tiger" Fakhri Pasha's arrest by his own officers having resisted for 72 days after the end of the Siege of Medina on 10 January 1919, 550 years of Ottoman rule in the region came to an end.[citation needed]

Saudi insurgency (1805–1811)

[edit]

When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, his followers, the Wahhabis, demolished nearly every tomb and dome in Medina to prevent their veneration,[34] except the Green Dome.[35] As per the sahih hadiths, they considered the veneration of tombs and places, which were thought to possess supernatural powers, as an offence against tawhid, and an act of shirk.[36] Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornaments, but the dome was preserved either because of an unsuccessful attempt to demolish its complex and hardened structure, or because some time ago, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement, wrote that he did not wish to see the dome destroyed.[34]

Saudi rule and modern history (1925–present)

[edit]
View of Gates 21 and 22, as seen from the north. The gate with two minarets is Bāb Al-Malik Fahd (Arabic: بَاب الْمَلِك فَهْد, lit. 'Gate of the King Fahd')

The Saudi takeover was characterized by events similar to those that took place in 1805, when the Prince Mohammed ibn Abdulaziz retook the city on 5 December 1925.[37][38][39][40] After the foundation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, the mosque underwent several major modifications. In 1951, King Abdulaziz (1932–1953) ordered demolitions around the mosque to make way for new wings to the east and west of the prayer hall, which consisted of concrete columns with pointed arches. Older columns were reinforced with concrete and braced with copper rings at the top. The Suleymaniyya and Mecidiyye minarets were replaced with two minarets in Mamluk revival style. Two additional minarets were erected to the northeast and northwest of the mosque. A library was built along the western wall to house historic Qurans and other religious texts.[33][41]

In 1974, King Faisal added 40,440 m2 (435,300 sq ft) to the mosque.[42] The area of the mosque was also expanded during the reign of King Fahd in 1985. Bulldozers were used to demolish buildings around the mosque.[43] In 1992, when it was completed, the mosque took over 160,000 m2 (1,700,000 sq ft) of space. Escalators and 27 courtyards were among the additions to the mosque.[44] A$6 billion project to increase the area of the mosque was announced in September 2012. After completion, the mosque should accommodate between 1.6 million to 2 million worshippers.[42] In March of the following year, the Saudi Gazette reported that demolition work had been mostly complete, including the demolition of ten hotels on the eastern side, in addition to houses and other utilities.[45]

Architecture

[edit]
The Green Dome was given its signature color in 1837

The modern-day mosque is situated on a rectangular plot and is two stories tall. The Ottoman prayer hall, which is the oldest part of the mosque, lies towards the south. It has a flat paved roof topped with 27 sliding domes on square bases.[46] Holes pierced into the base of each dome illuminate the interior when the domes are closed. The sliding roof is closed during the afternoon prayer (Dhuhr) to protect the visitors. When the domes slide out on metal tracks to shade areas of the roof, they create light wells for the prayer hall. At these times, the courtyard of the Ottoman mosque is also shaded with umbrellas affixed to freestanding columns.[47] The roof is accessed by stairs and escalators. The paved area around the mosque is also used for prayer, equipped with umbrella tents.[48] The sliding domes and retractable umbrella-like canopies were designed by the German Muslim architect Mahmoud Bodo Rasch, his firm SL Rasch GmbH, and Buro Happold.[49]

The Green Dome

[edit]
Main article: Green Dome

The chamber adjacent to the Rawdah holds the tombs of Muhammad and two of his companions and fathers-in-law, Abu Bakr and Umar. A fourth grave is reserved for ʿĪsā (Jesus), as Muslims believe that he will return and will be buried at the site. The site is covered by the Green Dome. It was constructed in 1817 CE during the reign of the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and painted green in 1837 CE.[3]

The Rawdah

[edit]
Ar-Rawdah ash-Sharifah is mostly crowded with worshippers, and movement is restricted by policemen at all times

Ar-Rawḍah ash-Sharīfah (Arabic: ٱلرَّوْضَة ٱلشَّرِيْفَة, lit. 'The Noble Garden') is an area between the minbar and the burial-chamber of Muhammad. It is regarded as one of the Riyāḍ al-Jannah (Arabic: رِيَاض ٱلْجَنَّة, lit. 'Gardens of the Paradise').[50][3] A green carpet was used to distinguish the area from the red carpet used in the rest of the mosque, though it is now also green.

Mihrabs

[edit]
The old mihrab constructed by Muhammad. It was remodeled several times over the centuries, and is currently set in marble.

There are two mihrabs or niches indicating the qiblah in the mosque, one was built by Muhammad and another was built by Uthman. The one built by the latter was larger than that of Muhammad's, and it acts as the functional mihrab, whereas Muhammad's mihrab is a "commemorative" mihrab.[51] Besides the mihrab, the mosque also has other niches which act as indicators for praying. This includes the Miḥrāb Fāṭimah (Arabic: مِحْرَاب فَاطِمَة) or Miḥrāb at-Tahajjud (Arabic: مِحْرَاب ٱلتَّهَجُّد), which was built by Muhammad for the late-night prayer.[52][better source needed]

Minbars

[edit]
The minbar commissioned by Sultan Murad III is still in use at the mosque today

The original minbar (مِنـۢبَر) used by Muhammad was a block of date palm wood. This was replaced by him with a tamarisk one, which had dimensions of 50 cm × 125 cm (20 in × 49 in). In 629 CE, a three staired ladder was added to it. Abu Bakr and Umar did not use the third step as a sign of respect to Muhammad, but Uthman placed a fabric dome over it, and the rest of the stairs were covered with ebony. The minbar was replaced by Baybars I, by Shaykh al-Mahmudi in 1417, and by Qaitbay in 1483. In 1590 it was replaced by the Ottoman sultan Murad III with a marble minbar, while Qaytbay's minbar was moved to the Quba Mosque. As of 2013, the Ottoman minbar is still used in the mosque.[52][better source needed]

Minarets

[edit]
Minaret in Prophet's Mosque

The first recorded minarets, four in number, were constructed between 707 and 709 during the reign of al-Walid I.[25] They were 26 feet (7.9 m) high.[52][better source needed] In 1307, a minaret titled Bāb as-Salām (بَاب ٱلسَّلَام, "Gate of the Peace") was added by al-Nasir Muhammad which was renovated by Mehmed IV. After the renovation project of 1994, there were ten minarets which were 104 metres (341 ft) high. The minarets' upper, middle, and bottom portions are cylindrical, octagonal, and square shaped respectively.[52][better source needed]

[edit]
Pictures related to the Prophet's Mosque
  • An 18th century bronze token depicting the original Mamluk era dome, where the Green Dome stands today.
    An 18th century bronze token depicting the original Mamluk era dome, where the Green Dome stands today.
  • The mosque on the reverse side of a 1993 100-riyal paper bill. The Masjid an-Nabawi is used on the reverse of all 100-riyal notes in Saudi Arabia, with the Green Dome on the obverse side.
    The mosque on the reverse side of a 1993 100-riyal paper bill. The Masjid an-Nabawi is used on the reverse of all 100-riyal notes in Saudi Arabia, with the Green Dome on the obverse side.
  • The Green Dome over Muhammad's tomb, and the smaller silver dome next to it.
    The Green Dome over Muhammad's tomb, and the smaller silver dome next to it.
  • Interior of the new section
    Interior of the new section
  • Inner courtyard
    Inner courtyard
  • The umbrellas protect pilgrims from the harsh summer temperatures of Medina. Fans spraying water are also attached to each umbrella pillar, to keep the square and pilgrims alike cool.
    The umbrellas protect pilgrims from the harsh summer temperatures of Medina. Fans spraying water are also attached to each umbrella pillar, to keep the square and pilgrims alike cool.
  • East side of the mosque, with some of the umbrellas partially closed
    East side of the mosque, with some of the umbrellas partially closed
  • "Muhammad the Messenger of God" inscribed on the gates of the mosque.
    "Muhammad the Messenger of God" inscribed on the gates of the mosque.
  • The library at the mosque houses several old manuscripts, books and specializes in the preservation of Islamic history.
    The library at the mosque houses several old manuscripts, books and specializes in the preservation of Islamic history.

List of Imams

[edit]
Main article: List of Imams of the Two Holy Mosques

Source:[53][54]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Prophet's Mosque

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, commonly referred to as the Prophet's Mosque, is a historic mosque in , , originally constructed by the in 622 CE shortly after his migration from . It stands as the second holiest site in after the in , encompassing the tomb of along with those of the first two caliphs, and , and serving as a central that originally functioned as the political and communal hub of the early Muslim community. The mosque's initial structure, built with palm trunks and mud bricks over an area of approximately 1,000 square meters, reflected the modest resources available during its founding, yet it rapidly became a focal point for Islamic , education, and . Subsequent expansions, beginning under Muhammad himself in 628 CE and continuing through caliphal and royal initiatives, transformed the site into the world's second-largest mosque by prayer capacity, accommodating over a million worshippers following modern Saudi-era developments that included air-conditioned enclosures, retractable umbrellas for shade, and extensive courtyards. Key architectural features include the Green Dome marking Muhammad's tomb, the sacred Rawdah garden area between the tomb and mihrab—believed by tradition to be one of the gardens of Paradise—and the historic minbar pulpit used for sermons, underscoring the mosque's enduring role in preserving Islamic heritage amid ongoing preservation efforts. These enhancements, driven by pragmatic needs for accommodating growing pilgrim numbers rather than mere ostentation, highlight causal adaptations to demographic pressures in Medina, a city that draws millions annually for ziyarah visits outside of Hajj obligations.

Historical Development

Founding Under Muhammad (622–632 CE)

Upon his arrival in Medina following the Hijra from in Rabi' al-Awwal of 1 AH (September 622 CE), selected a plot of land for the construction of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, marking the establishment of the first in the city proper after the initial one at . The site, previously used for drying dates, was chosen for its central location amid groves, facilitating communal gatherings. The personally participated in the building process alongside his companions, including carrying bricks and mixing mortar, completing the structure within a few weeks without reliance on hired labor. The original edifice was a simple rectangular enclosure measuring approximately 35 by 30 meters, with foundations of stone, walls of unbaked mud bricks rising to about 2.5 meters, pillars fashioned from palm trunks, a of palm fronds supported by branches, and a floor of packed sand and gravel. Three doors provided entry: one facing the (initially toward ), another toward , and a third for general access. The mosque functioned not only as a place of prayer but also as a multifaceted community hub, serving as Muhammad's residence (with adjacent rooms for his wives), a site for judicial proceedings, military consultations, and religious instruction. In 2 AH (624 CE), following the and divine instruction, the qibla was reoriented toward the in , necessitating the reconfiguration of the southern wall while preserving the structure's core form. No major expansions occurred under Muhammad's lifetime, which ended on 12 11 AH (8 June 632 CE), after which his tomb was incorporated into the adjacent chamber known as the Hujra.

Expansions in Early Caliphates (632–750 CE)

Following Muhammad's death in 632 CE, the Prophet's Mosque initially saw no major structural changes under Caliph (r. 632–634 CE), as resources were directed toward consolidating the nascent Islamic state amid wars. The first post-prophetic expansion commenced under Caliph (r. 634–644 CE) around 17 AH (638–639 CE), prompted by surging attendance from converts and conquests. roughly doubled the mosque's footprint by extending its northern and eastern sides, raised walls to about 3 meters with added buttresses, replaced palm-trunk pillars with carved stone columns sourced from , and increased gates from three to six, including four along the wall. Caliph ibn (r. 644–656 CE) oversaw a subsequent enlargement in 29 AH (649–650 CE), further broadening the prayer hall southward and eastward to address overcrowding, while reinforcing structures with stone and lead-sheathed roofs for durability against Medina's climate. Under the Umayyads (661–750 CE), expansions were limited until Caliph (r. 705–715 CE) initiated the era's most ambitious project circa 707–712 CE, demolishing much of the prior enclosure to quadruple the area, enclose Muhammad's within the expanded complex, erect four corner minarets (each about 30 meters tall with Syrian architectural influences), and install the mosque's inaugural concave mihrab niche. Mosaic inscriptions in script from this phase commemorate al-Walid's oversight, invoking blessings on him as "" and detailing labor from diverse regions. No further substantial alterations occurred through the Umayyad decline to 750 CE, with maintenance focused on repairs rather than enlargement, reflecting stabilized pilgrimage amid empire-wide priorities like frontier campaigns.

Medieval Islamic Periods (750–1517 CE)

During the , Caliph (r. 775–785 CE) ordered a significant northern expansion of the mosque in 161 AH (779 CE), increasing its area and incorporating twenty additional doors to accommodate growing congregations. This work, which included enhancements to the structure's form, marked the last major Abbasid alteration before a period of relative stability, with subsequent caliphs focusing on maintenance rather than enlargement. No substantial expansions occurred under later Abbasids, as political fragmentation limited large-scale projects in . The intervening centuries, spanning the late Abbasid decline, Seljuk influence, and Ayyubid rule (1171–1250 CE), involved primarily restorative efforts amid environmental damage and fires, such as the blaze in 654 AH (1256 CE) that necessitated repairs without documented area increases. Under early sultans, minor architectural additions appeared, including a named Bāb as-Salām constructed in 707 AH (1307 CE) by Sultan (r. 1293–1341 CE), which served signaling and aesthetic purposes. These changes preserved the mosque's layout while adapting to functional needs. The era (1250–1517 CE) culminated in extensive renovations following a devastating fire in 886 AH (1481 CE), triggered by lightning, which damaged much of the structure including walls and the wooden dome over the Prophet's . al-Ashraf Qaytbay (r. 1468–1496 CE) directed the reconstruction, rebuilding the eastern, western, and walls, replacing tomb enclosure walls with ornate railings, and restoring overall integrity to support traffic. These efforts emphasized durability with stone and decorative elements, reflecting patronage of Hijazi sites, though the core dimensions remained largely unchanged from prior eras.

Ottoman Modifications (1517–1918 CE)

Following the Ottoman conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517, the empire assumed custodianship over the Hejaz, including Medina, leading to several architectural interventions at Masjid an-Nabawi aimed at maintenance, expansion, and embellishment. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent initiated significant work around 1540 CE (947 AH), rebuilding the western walls, erecting the northeastern minaret known as al-Suleymaniyyah, and adding a new mihrab designated al-Ahnaf, while also constructing a lead-covered dome over the Prophet's tomb in al-Rawdah al-Mutahharah. Ottoman control faced interruption from 1803 to 1818 during the Wahhabi occupation under the First Saudi State, which demolished certain additions deemed innovations, such as domes and ornate structures, before Ottoman forces under Pasha recaptured in 1812 and fully restored authority by 1818. Upon reassertion of control, Sultan commissioned the construction of the current over the Prophet's tomb in 1818 CE, replacing an earlier structure from 1481 CE, with the dome receiving its distinctive green paint in 1837 CE to differentiate it from adjacent silver domes. The most extensive Ottoman renovations occurred under Sultan Abdülmecid I (r. 1839–1861 CE), spanning approximately 1848 to 1860 CE (1265–1277 AH), prompted by structural deterioration. Engineers and Osman oversaw the project, doubling the southern prayer hall's width and roofing it with around 170 small equal-sized domes, excluding the areas over the , Bab al-Salam, and tomb, which remained unaltered alongside the and Suleymaniyyah . Enhancements included glazed tiles bearing Qur'anic along the qiblah wall, flooring of marble and red stone sourced from the Aqiq Valley, installation of new doors, addition of the fifth al-Majidiyyah, and an educational building later repurposed as a , with total costs estimated at 700,000 gold pieces; craftsmen, required to be huffaz performing and reciting Qur'an, utilized timber from untouched forests. These modifications reflected Ottoman priorities of imperial patronage and architectural grandeur, incorporating Baroque-influenced elements while preserving core sacred spaces, though they introduced features later contested by reformist movements. Ottoman oversight continued until 1918, with minor maintenance but no major expansions post-Abdülmecid, amid declining provincial control leading to the Hejaz's transition under Hashemite and subsequent Saudi rule.

Saudi Reconquest and Modern Expansions (1918–Present)

Following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I and the subsequent Hashemite control over the Hejaz under Sharif Hussein bin Ali, Abdulaziz Al Saud's forces launched campaigns to unify the Arabian Peninsula. The Saudi conquest of the Hejaz progressed from the capture of Mecca in October 1924 to the surrender of Medina on December 9, 1925, thereby placing the Prophet's Mosque under Saudi administration for the first time. This reconquest marked the end of Hashemite rule in the region and integrated Medina into the emerging Sultanate of Nejd, later formalized as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. Initial Saudi oversight emphasized securing the mosque and maintaining its Ottoman-era structures amid growing pilgrimage demands. Under King Abdulaziz Al Saud, the first dedicated expansion commenced in 1949, involving the purchase and demolition of adjacent buildings to add 6,024 square meters, expanding the total area to approximately 16,548 square meters. His successor, King Saud, oversaw further modernization in 1956, demolishing three Ottoman minarets and constructing two new ones for a total of four, while increasing the number of doors to ten and introducing concrete construction with wooden ceilings and marble flooring. King Faisal added a shaded prayer area of 40,550 square meters with 80 canopies in 1975, followed by King Khalid's 1977 project incorporating 43,000 square meters from the former Souq Qamashah, including additional shaded courtyards and parking facilities. These efforts reflected a commitment to accommodating surging numbers of worshippers, driven by improved regional stability and transportation. King Fahd's second major Saudi expansion, initiated in 1985, significantly enlarged the mosque by 82,000 square meters in the eastern, western, and northern sectors, plus surrounding courtyards totaling 23,000 square meters, bringing the overall area to 98,500 square meters and boosting capacity to 650,000 worshippers, with peaks up to one million. This phase introduced 41 entrances and ten minarets, enhancing accessibility and architectural scale. The third expansion, started by King Abdullah in 2012, dramatically increased the total area to over 1,020,500 square meters across multiple phases, adding capacity for up to 1.6 million through new courtyards, 250 retractable canopies covering 143,000 square meters, escalators, elevators, and an additional 82,000 square meters in eastern structures completed under King Salman by 2017. These modern engineering feats, including climate-controlled expansions like misting fans and shaded plazas, have sustained the mosque's role as a central hub for millions of annual visitors while preserving core sacred zones.

Religious Significance

Theological Role in Islam

In Sunni Islamic theology, Masjid an-Nabawi holds a preeminent status as the second holiest after in , designated by prophetic tradition for its multiplied rewards in worship. A narrated by Abu Hurairah states that the Prophet Muhammad declared, "One in my is better than one thousand prayers in any other except Al-Masjid al-Haram." This virtue underscores the mosque's role as a site of exceptional divine favor, where acts of supererogatory yield rewards equivalent to a thousandfold elsewhere, rooted in the Prophet's direct endorsement rather than inherent sanctity of location. The mosque's theological significance extends to specific sacred zones, notably the Rawdah (or Riadh al-Jannah), the area between the Prophet's and his (). According to a reported by Abu Hurairah in and , the Prophet described this space as "one of the gardens of Paradise," indicating that prayers performed there attract particular mercy and elevation, akin to paradisiacal gardens in the descent of blessings. This designation emphasizes the mosque's function as a conduit for spiritual proximity to the divine, tied causally to its historical association with the Prophet's teachings and presence. Furthermore, Islamic doctrine limits recommended travel for mosque visitation to three sites: Masjid al-Haram, Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Aqsa, as per a hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim where the Prophet affirmed, "Journeys should not be made except towards three Mosques: The Sacred Mosque, this mosque of mine, and Al-Masjid-Al-Aqsa." This exclusivity highlights Masjid an-Nabawi's unique theological mandate for pilgrimage-like devotion focused on prayer, distinguishing it from other mosques and reinforcing its role in fostering communal piety and prophetic legacy without elevating it to obligatory ritual beyond Hajj and Umrah contexts. The enclosure of the Prophet's tomb within the mosque's expanded structure amplifies this, serving as a focal point for supplication (salam) upon him, as instructed in hadith to invoke blessings at his grave, though mainstream Sunni scholarship cautions against excess veneration to preserve tawhid (monotheism).

Pilgrimage Practices and Rituals

Visitation to the Prophet's Mosque, termed ziyarah, constitutes a recommended but non-obligatory practice for , often undertaken following the or pilgrimages in , drawing millions annually to for prayer and supplication. The mosque's spiritual merit stems from hadiths attributing multiplied rewards to prayers performed there, equivalent to 1,000 prayers elsewhere, excluding the . Saudi authorities manage access to prevent overcrowding, requiring advance booking via the Nusuk app for entry to the Rawdah al-Mutahharah—a designated area between the Prophet Muhammad's chamber and the — with slots limited to 10–30 minutes and specific timings segregated by gender. Upon arrival, visitors perform an for , enter through a gate with the right foot while reciting a supplicatory such as "Bismillah, was-salaatu was-salaamu 'alaa Rasulillah," followed by two rakats of tahiyyat al-masjid (mosque greeting prayer), preferably reciting al-Kafirun in the first rakat and al-Ikhlas in the second. Modest dress is mandatory, voices must remain low, and prohibited actions include pushing, in sacred zones, or consuming food inside. In the Rawdah, considered part of Paradise per a , pilgrims engage in additional nafl prayers, , and Qur'an recitation to maximize spiritual benefit within the allotted time. Subsequent ziyarah to the Prophet's tomb involves standing at a respectful distance, facing the rather than the grave directly, and reciting salams: "As-salaamu 'alayka ayyuhan-Nabiyyu wa rahmatullahi wa barakaatuhu," followed by supplications to invoking blessings upon the , while avoiding physical contact, , or direct pleas to the deceased to prevent resembling shirk. Similar protocols apply to the adjacent graves of and . These rituals, shaped by Saudi oversight since the mosque's administration under Wahhabi principles, emphasize tawhid and reject grave veneration excesses observed in other traditions, with enforcement including barriers and signage prohibiting unauthorized actions. During peak seasons like Ramadan, expanded courtyard facilities with retractable umbrellas and misting fans accommodate up to 1 million worshippers for tarawih prayers, facilitating mass participation in these practices.

Salafi and Reformist Critiques

Salafi scholars have critiqued the incorporation of the Muhammad's within Masjid an-Nabawi as contrary to prophetic prohibitions against building mosques over graves, which they argue facilitates shirk (associating partners with God) by encouraging veneration and supplication at the site. They cite hadiths in which the cursed those who take graves as places of , asserting that such structures lead to innovations like ritual gatherings and seeking intercession from the deceased, practices deemed (heretical innovations). Prominent Salafi figures, including Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab's followers, have specifically targeted the over the Prophet's tomb, viewing it as an impermissible structure that promotes grave worship and deviates from the simplicity of early Islamic burial practices. Various Wahhabi scholars have issued calls for its demolition, arguing that no dome or edifice should mark graves, in line with hadiths discouraging such adornments to prevent , though Saudi authorities have refrained from acting on these demands due to the site's centrality in Islamic heritage. Regarding rituals, Salafis prohibit traveling specifically to visit the 's , permitting only incidental visitation during stays while forbidding supplications directed to the or his companions as forms of that border on shirk. They further condemn prayers in the mosque's Rawdah (the area between the 's and ) if motivated by beliefs in enhanced spiritual efficacy beyond standard , emphasizing that the mosque's sanctity derives solely from prophetic hadiths on multiplied rewards for prayer there, not from proximity. Reformist critiques, often aligned with Salafi purism but extending to modernist , question pilgrimage practices at the mosque—such as mass visitations and relic-like veneration—as fostering superstition and diverting from rational engagement with Islamic texts, arguing these rituals echo pre-Islamic and undermine (God's oneness) by elevating physical sites over doctrinal adherence. Such views, echoed in broader reformist , prioritize empirical fidelity to over accreted customs, critiquing state-managed expansions that accommodate crowds for these rituals as perpetuating unverified traditions lacking direct Quranic or basis.

Architectural Features

Core Layout and Sacred Spaces

The layout of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi originated as a simple rectangular enclosure measuring approximately 30 meters by 35 meters, constructed with mud-brick walls and supported by palm trunk columns, forming an open-air structure adjacent to the Muhammad's residence. This foundational design included three main entrances—Bab Rahmah, Bab Jibril, and Bab al-Nisa—and served multiple functions as a hall, gathering space, and place for judicial and educational activities. Over centuries, expansions preserved this central axis, with the wall—initially facing before redirection to in 624 CE—defining the southern orientation of the space. Central to the mosque's sacred spaces is the Rawdah Mubarak, the elevated area between the Prophet's tomb and the (pulpit), revered in as one of the gardens of paradise where prayers are particularly answered. This zone, originally part of the expanded courtyard, spans about 10 meters in width and is marked by subtle architectural demarcation rather than physical barriers, allowing structured visitation for supplication. Adjoining it is the Hujra al-Nabawi, the chamber within Aisha's house where died in 632 CE and was buried, now enclosed and topped by the added in later periods. The tomb area also contains the graves of the first caliphs and , integrated into the southeastern section of the original layout without altering the primary prayer orientation. The and represent enduring sacred foci: the , a niche indicating the direction, traces to early reconstructions, while the —a stepped wooden used by for sermons—has been replaced multiple times but remains positioned opposite the tomb to facilitate the Rawdah's spiritual continuum. These elements maintain the mosque's , with the prayer hall's columns—some historically significant, like those denoting sites of —framing pathways to these spaces amid larger modern extensions. Access to the core sacred areas is regulated to preserve sanctity, emphasizing their role as loci for ritual prayer over two rak'ahs equivalent to a thousand elsewhere, per prophetic .

Domes, Minarets, and Mihrabs

The , located over the tomb of , , and , was first constructed as an unpainted wooden in 1279 CE during the era. It underwent rebuilding and was painted green in 1837 CE under Ottoman rule to distinguish it from other silver domes in the complex. An earlier wooden dome had been erected in 1481 CE (881 AH) by Qaytbay over the adjacent structure. The dome's green coloring, applied during the Ottoman period, has persisted, symbolizing its prominence amid subsequent expansions that added multiple smaller domes. The mosque features ten minarets in total, with heights reaching up to 104 meters following modern refurbishments. The earliest minarets, numbering four, were built between 707 and 709 CE under Umayyad Caliph , marking an early architectural enhancement. Additional minarets were added during and Ottoman periods, including replacements in Mamluk revival style, while Saudi expansions from 1406 to 1414 AH (1986–1994 CE) introduced six more to accommodate the enlarged perimeter. These structures, distributed across northern and southern flanks, facilitate the call to prayer and overlook the expanded courtyards. Several , or niches indicating the direction toward , are present, with the Mihrab an-Nabawi being the most significant as it denotes the spot where led . This , situated within the ( of the Pure), preserves the original alignment from the Prophet's time and is used by contemporary imams for leading . Other historical mihrabs, totaling at least five, commemorate expansions and specific traditions, such as those associated with caliphs or later rulers, embedded in the wall. These niches, often ornate with and geometric designs, reflect layered architectural history without altering the core sacred orientation.

Modern Engineering Additions

Saudi expansions since the mid-20th century have incorporated advanced to enhance capacity and comfort in the Prophet's Mosque, addressing Medina's extreme while supporting large pilgrim volumes. The King Fahd expansion, initiated on November 2, 1984, and completed in April 1994, utilized for structural integrity, added escalators for accessibility, and installed comprehensive systems, expanding the usable area to accommodate over 600,000 worshippers. These modifications marked the introduction of modern HVAC , with shaded courtyards and misting systems providing initial cooling augmentation. A hallmark of contemporary is the Piazza shading system, featuring approximately 250 automated retractable umbrellas deployed in the during late 20th- and early 21st-century phases. Each umbrella spans 25.5 by 25.5 meters, weighs 40 tons, and covers 625 square meters when extended, collectively shading up to 143,000 square meters. Designed by SL Rasch GmbH, the system employs a straight-arm mechanism with white PTFE membranes that reflect solar radiation and permit nocturnal heat escape, powered by and controlled via wind sensors rated for gusts up to 155 kilometers per hour. Pillar-mounted fans and water-spraying nozzles further mitigate heat, enabling year-round usability. Ongoing developments under the third Saudi expansion, launched in 2014 during King Salman's era, integrate smart ventilation through light-admitting domes and automated climate regulation, preserving air quality and temperature in expanded halls. Underground facilities and enhanced electrical systems support capacities exceeding one million, prioritizing durability against environmental stresses via engineered materials and monitoring.

Controversies and Debates

Destruction of Adjacent Heritage Sites

In 1925, following the Saudi conquest of Medina, authorities ordered the demolition of domed mausoleums and ornate shrines in Al-Baqi' Cemetery, directly adjacent to the eastern wall of the Prophet's Mosque, on April 21 (8 Shawwal 1345 AH). This action targeted structures over graves of the Prophet Muhammad's companions, family members, and early Islamic figures, including the Imam Hasan ibn Ali, to enforce Wahhabi doctrines prohibiting grave veneration as a form of idolatry (shirk). The demolitions, executed by Wahhabi militias under King Ibn Saud's directive, flattened approximately 300 tombs and domes, leaving the cemetery as a barren expanse of unmarked graves leveled to ground level. Saudi officials justified the measures as restoring monotheistic purity by eliminating sites prone to superstitious practices, though critics, including Shia scholars, condemned it as an erasure of tangible Islamic history. Earlier, in 1806, Wahhabi forces under the First Saudi State razed several historic mosques and structures near the Prophet's Mosque during their occupation of Medina, including the Mosque of Fatima al-Zahra (daughter of the Prophet), the Mosque of al-Manaratain (commemorating two minarets from the original mosque), and Qubbat' al-Thanaya (a domed pavilion linked to early expansions). These sites, dating to the 7th-8th centuries CE and associated with the Prophet's family and companions, were demolished to remove perceived idolatrous elements like domes and shrines, with some rebuilt under Ottoman rule only to face further alterations post-1925. The 1806 campaign also affected parts of Al-Baqi', though structures were partially restored until the 1925 leveling. Subsequent expansions of the Prophet's Mosque from the 1950s onward involved demolishing surrounding buildings, some with historical value, to accommodate growing pilgrim numbers, adding over 6,000 m² in early phases through property acquisitions and razing. By 2012-2013, the third major Saudi expansion demolished around 100 properties on the mosque's periphery, including Ottoman-era structures on the eastern side, prioritizing modern capacity over preservation. These actions align with Saudi policy favoring functional expansion and anti-veneration reforms, amid estimates that over 98% of the kingdom's pre-20th-century religious sites have been destroyed since 1985. Proponents argue this prevents deviation from core Islamic tenets, while opponents highlight the irreversible loss of archaeological and devotional landmarks tied to the Prophet's era.

Green Dome and Grave Veneration Disputes

The (Qubbat al-Khadra) surmounts the chamber housing the tombs of , , and in the southeast corner of Masjid an-Nabawi, originally constructed in 1279 CE during the era under as a white dome over Aisha's house where died in 632 CE. It was repainted green in 1837 by Ottoman , becoming a prominent symbol despite early scholarly opposition for elevating graves above ground level, which contravenes hadiths prohibiting structures over burials to avoid . Salafi and Wahhabi scholars, drawing from ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings, classify such domes and associated practices as (innovation) and potential shirk (), citing prophetic traditions like "Cursed be the and for taking the graves of their prophets as places of worship." Upon the Saudi conquest of Medina in 1805 and again in 1925, Wahhabi forces demolished numerous grave markers and domes across Islamic sites to curb tomb worship, yet the persisted, attributed to its robust build or pragmatic avoidance of widespread Muslim backlash. Prominent Salafi jurists, including Abdul Aziz ibn Baz, issued fatwas advocating its demolition and the leveling of the Prophet's grave to align with (monotheism), arguing that even prophetic tombs must not foster supplication or akin to pre-Islamic practices. These views stem from interpretations emphasizing causal realism in worship—directing all acts solely to —over cultural accretions, though implementation has been deferred, with reports of internal Saudi deliberations in the 2000s to relocate remains to unmarked graves but ultimately shelved due to global repercussions. Disputes over grave intensify around rituals in the adjacent Rawdah and Hujrah , where pilgrims recite salutations and seek (), practices Wahhabis deem impermissible as they mimic cults prohibited in core Sunni hadiths. Saudi mosque management enforces restrictions, such as prohibiting toward the grave or prolonged stays, reflecting Wahhabi influence amid Medina's custodianship, yet the dome's retention underscores tensions between doctrinal purity and historical continuity. Critics from Salafi circles, like those on , maintain that tolerating the structure indirectly sanctions shirk, while empirical observation shows millions annually visit without state-sanctioned excess, highlighting unresolved intra-Sunni debates on permissibility.

Impacts of Expansions on Authenticity

The expansions of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi under Saudi administration, beginning with the first project in 1951–1955 under King Abdulaziz and culminating in major phases completed by 1995 under King Fahd, increased the mosque's prayer area from roughly 10,000 square meters to over 1.6 million square meters, incorporating frames, steel roofing, and extensive air-conditioning systems. These modifications shifted the structure from layered historical accretions—predominantly Ottoman and stone and brick elements—to a predominantly modern framework, where traditional materials are confined to the central nucleus enclosing the Rawdah garden and Prophet's tomb. The original 7th-century palm-trunk and mud-brick form, expanded early under Caliphs and with stone walls and basic roofing, had already diverged significantly by the medieval period, but Saudi-era changes accelerated the replacement of visible historical facades with uniform white marble cladding and geometric tilework optimized for mass capacity rather than stylistic fidelity. Preservation efforts focused on integrating the Ottoman core, including the rebuilt in the 19th century and certain details, allowing the to retain functional sacred zones amid expansions that added 10 new minarets and multiple expandable courtyards. However, the scale—now accommodating up to 2 million worshippers—has homogenized the perimeter , obscuring pre-modern layers and introducing engineering features like retractable umbrellas and escalators that prioritize utility over evoking the 's foundational simplicity as a community enclosure. Architectural analyses highlight a causal : the original design emphasized local, low-impact materials aligned with and egalitarian access, whereas modern additions rely on high-energy , altering the site's experiential authenticity tied to early Islamic praxis. Critics in heritage preservation circles, including reports from Islamic archaeological advocates, contend that these expansions compromised broader site authenticity by necessitating the of adjacent structures, such as three 7th-century mosques in proposed plans, which eroded the historical urban surrounding the mosque without equivalent archaeological . Saudi authorities maintain that such measures safeguard the mosque's primary religious role, with expansions adhering to fatwas permitting enlargement for communal benefit while protecting immutable elements like the enclosure. from pre- and post-expansion surveys indicates no loss to the core layout's spatial geometry, yet the overriding modern aesthetic has prompted debates among reformist scholars on whether amplified grandeur inadvertently distances the structure from the Prophet's model of modesty, though no verified doctrinal consensus deems the changes invalid.

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