Hubbry Logo
Enlightened absolutismEnlightened absolutismMain
Open search
Enlightened absolutism
Community hub
Enlightened absolutism
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Enlightened absolutism
Enlightened absolutism
Enlightened absolutism
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Part of the Politics series
Monarchy
Heraldic royal crown
Central concepts
Types
Philosophy
Philosophers
Works
Politicians
History
Polity
Administration
Related ideologies
National variants
Related topics
icon Politics portal

Enlightened absolutism, also called enlightened despotism, refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, espousing them to enhance their power.[1] The concept originated during the Enlightenment period in the 18th and into the early 19th centuries. An enlightened absolutist is a non-democratic or authoritarian leader who exercises their political power based upon the principles of the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs distinguished themselves from ordinary rulers by claiming to rule for their subjects' well-being. John Stuart Mill stated that despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement.[2]

Enlightened absolutists' beliefs about royal power were typically similar to those of regular despots, both recognizing that they were destined to rule. Enlightened rulers may have played a part in the abolition of serfdom in Europe.[3] The enlightened despotism of Emperor Joseph II of the Holy Roman Empire is summarized as "Everything for the people, nothing by the people".[4]

History

[edit]

Enlightened absolutism is the theme of an essay by Frederick the Great, who ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786, defending this system of government.[5] When the prominent French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire fell out of favor in France, he eagerly accepted Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. He believed that an enlightened monarchy was the only real way for society to advance. Frederick was an enthusiast of French ideas. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."[6]

Enlightened absolutists held that royal power emanated not from divine right but from a social contract whereby a despot was entrusted with the power to govern through a social contract in lieu of any other governments. Monarchs of enlightened absolutism consolidated their authority by implementing reforms aimed at improving the lives of their subjects. However, the monarch’s assumption of responsibility for the welfare of the populace effectively excluded subjects from political participation.[citation needed]

The difference between an absolutist and an enlightened absolutist is based on a broad analysis of the degree to which they embraced the Age of Enlightenment. Historians debate the actual implementation of enlightened absolutism. They distinguish between the "enlightenment" of the ruler personally, versus that of his regime. For example, Frederick the Great was tutored in the ideas of the French Enlightenment in his youth, and maintained those ideas in his private life as an adult, but in many ways was unable or unwilling to effect enlightened reforms in practice.[7] Other rulers such as the Marquis of Pombal, prime minister of Portugal, used the ideas and practices of the Enlightenment not only to achieve reforms but also to enhance autocracy, crush opposition, suppress criticism, advance colonial economic exploitation, and consolidate personal control and profit.[citation needed]

The concept of enlightened absolutism was formally described by the German historian Wilhelm Roscher in 1847[8] and remains controversial among scholars.[9]

Centralized control required the systematic collection of information about the nation. One major development was the gathering, use, and interpretation of numerical and statistical data, including trade statistics, harvest reports, death records, and population censuses. Starting in the 1760s, officials in France and Germany began increasingly to rely on quantitative data for systematic planning, especially regarding long-term economic growth. It combined the utilitarian agenda of "enlightened absolutism" with the new ideas being developed in economics. In Germany and France, the trend was especially strong in Cameralism and Physiocracy.[10]

Major nations

[edit]

Government responses to the Age of Enlightenment varied widely. In several nations with powerful rulers, called "enlightened despots" by historians, leaders of the Enlightenment were welcomed at Court and helped design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states.[11] In France the government was hostile, and the philosophers fought against its censorship. The British government generally ignored the Enlightenment's leaders.

Frederick the Great, who ruled Prussia 1740–1786, was an enthusiast for French ideas[citation needed] (he ridiculed German culture and was unaware of the remarkable advances it was undergoing[citation needed]). Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government,[citation needed] was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace.[citation needed] Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit".[12] He wrote an essay on "Benevolent Despotism" defending this system of government.[13]

Empress Catherine II of Russia sponsored the Russian Enlightenment. She incorporated many ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, especially Montesquieu, in her Nakaz, which was intended to revise Russian law. However, inviting the famous French philosopher Denis Diderot to her court worked out poorly.[14]

Charles III, King of Spain from 1759 to 1788, tried to rescue his empire from decay through far-reaching reforms such as weakening the Church and its monasteries, promoting science and university research, facilitating trade and commerce, modernizing agriculture and avoiding wars. The centralization of power in Madrid angered the local nobility, and challenged the traditional autonomy of cities, and so resistance grew steadily. Consequently, Spain relapsed after his death.[15][16]

Emperor Joseph II, ruler of Austria 1780–1790, was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out, and his regime became a comedy of errors.[17]

In some countries the initiative came not from rulers but from senior officials such as the Marquis of Pombal, who was Joseph I of Portugal's Secretary of State.[18] For a brief period in Denmark Johann Friedrich Struensee attempted to govern in terms of Enlightenment principles. After issuing 1,069 decrees in 13 months covering many major reforms, his enemies overthrew him, and he was executed and quartered.[19]

Modern use

[edit]

Reza Shah Pahlavi, relying upon a coalition of secular constitutionalists, liberal-democratic thinkers, traditional clergy, and the general population, enacted a form of enlightened absolutism, seeking to modernize Iran by combining absolute monarchism with liberal ideas. He reformed the bureaucracy, promoted religious tolerance, and fostered economic growth, all the while restoring a monarchial institution and preserving an authoritarian governance structure. His son continued this until his overthrow in 1979.[20]

Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman, prime minister and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia (an absolute monarchy) has been described as a modern-day enlightened despot. Since assuming power as crown prince in 2017, he has enacted widespread reforms which have reduced the power of Wahhabi clergy and religious police in a theocratic kingdom. However, Saudi Arabia remains an authoritarian state, with a poor human rights record and frequent jailing and political persecution of political dissidents.[21]

Associated rulers

[edit]

In other cultures

[edit]

China

[edit]

Xuezhi Guo contrasts the Confucian ideal of a "humane ruler" (renjun) with the ideal of Chinese legalists, who he says "intended to create a truly 'enlightened ruler' (mingjun) who is able to effectively rule the masses and control his bureaucracy"; this ruler would be a "skillful manipulator and successful politician who uses means or 'technique' in achieving self-protection and political control". Guo quotes Benjamin I. Schwartz as describing the features of "a truly Legalist 'enlightened ruler'":[27]

He must be anything but an arbitrary despot if one means by a despot a tyrant who follows all his impulses, whims and passions. Once the systems which maintain the entire structure are in place, he must not interfere with their operation. He may use the entire system as a means to the achievement of his national and international ambitions, but to do so he must not disrupt its impersonal workings. He must at all times be able to maintain an iron wall between his private life and public role. Concubines, friends, flatterers and charismatic saints must have no influence whatsoever on the course of policy, and he must never relax his suspicions of the motives of those who surround him.[28][27]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Enlightened absolutism

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Enlightened absolutism, alternatively known as enlightened despotism, characterized the rule of select 18th-century European monarchs who exercised unchecked autocratic power while applying rationalist principles derived from Enlightenment thought to pursue administrative, legal, and social reforms aimed at bolstering state efficiency and public welfare. This approach sought to centralize authority under the sovereign as the enlightened arbiter of progress, implementing measures such as judicial codification, religious toleration, and economic liberalization without conceding to representative institutions or diluting monarchical prerogative. Key practitioners included Frederick II of Prussia, who reformed the civil service, abolished torture, and accommodated Protestant dissenters to foster a meritocratic administration and agricultural productivity. Catherine II of engaged with like , established commissions for legal reform, and expanded education, though she upheld and quelled peasant uprisings with force to safeguard imperial stability. Joseph II of the Habsburg domains issued the in 1781 to grant civil rights to non-Catholics, emancipated peasants from feudal dues in crown lands, and restructured ecclesiastical holdings, yet his coercive pace provoked noble revolts and clerical opposition, leading to widespread rescission of edicts after his death in 1790. While these initiatives yielded tangible advances in , , and administrative rationalization—evident in Prussia's and fiscal resilience—their top-down imposition often clashed with entrenched privileges, engendering backlash that underscored the inherent friction between absolutist control and Enlightenment advocacy for incremental, consent-based change. Critics, including contemporaries and later analysts, highlighted selective application, as rulers prioritized dynastic strength over universal liberty, revealing enlightened absolutism's pragmatic adaptation of to sustain rather than supplant .

Conceptual Foundations

Definition and Core Principles

Enlightened absolutism, also termed enlightened despotism, describes a governance model in 18th-century where absolute monarchs retained centralized, undivided authority while integrating select Enlightenment principles—such as rational administration, legal reform, and utilitarian welfare—into state policies, eschewing parliamentary constraints or power-sharing mechanisms. Coined by Wilhelm Roscher, the concept delineates the later phase of absolutism emerging around 1740, characterized by rulers' voluntary adherence to self-imposed laws and recognition of subjects' basic rights, distinguishing it from arbitrary tyranny. This approach prioritized state efficiency and societal progress through top-down initiatives, influenced by intellectual currents like , which advocated enforcing a "" via strong executive direction to secure and . At its core, enlightened absolutism positioned the monarch as a benevolent despot, duty-bound to govern for the public good using reason over divine-right absolutism, with policies targeting religious tolerance, educational expansion, judicial standardization, and economic modernization—such as agrarian improvements and trade liberalization—to elevate living standards, particularly for peasants, and bolster fiscal capacity. Reforms emphasized rationalizing bureaucracy, centralizing control, and mitigating feudal obstacles, often justified by the sovereign's paternalistic claim to serve subjects' happiness, as in Frederick II's assertion that rulers exist for the state's benefit rather than vice versa. Yet these principles inherently conflicted with participatory governance, as implementation relied on monarchical fiat to overcome noble or clerical resistance, yielding inconsistent outcomes without mechanisms for accountability or reversal. The doctrine's intellectual foundations drew from Enlightenment thinkers, who supplied theoretical validation for absolute rule tempered by ethical restraint, though rulers selectively adopted ideas aligning with power consolidation, revealing a pragmatic rather than ideological commitment. This synthesis aimed to harmonize absolutist stability with progressive aims, but its limited broader emancipation, often preserving or hierarchies where they served state interests.

Relation to Enlightenment Ideas and Absolutism

Enlightened absolutism sought to harmonize the unchecked sovereignty of with select tenets of Enlightenment philosophy, particularly the application of reason to , economic efficiency, and social welfare. Under this paradigm, monarchs positioned themselves as rational stewards of the state, implementing reforms such as administrative centralization, religious toleration, and meritocratic bureaucracies without conceding power to representative bodies or . This approach drew on Enlightenment advocacy for enlightened —evident in Voltaire's preference for philosopher-kings over democratic disorder—but retained absolutism's core principle of undivided royal , often justified as essential for decisive, corruption-free rule. A pivotal articulation appeared in Frederick II of Prussia's (1740), co-authored with , which reframed princely duty from Machiavellian pragmatism to moral obligation: the sovereign must act as "the first servant of the state," prioritizing utility and justice derived from reason over personal whim or divine fiat. This text exemplified how absolutist structures enabled top-down enactment of Physiocratic and cameralist ideas, such as agrarian improvements and legal codification, unhindered by feudal intermediaries. Yet, the synthesis was pragmatic rather than ideological; absolutism supplied the coercive apparatus to enforce Enlightenment-inspired policies, distinguishing it from earlier variants by systematic integration of rationalist knowledge into statecraft. Critics, including historians like Alfred Cobban, have highlighted inherent contradictions: Enlightenment emphases on natural rights and clashed with absolutism's rejection of divided powers, rendering "enlightened despotism" an that masked power consolidation as benevolence. Reforms often prioritized state aggrandizement—bolstering military and fiscal capacity—over individual liberties, with ' influence selective and court-sanctioned. This tension underscores enlightened absolutism's role as a transitional mode, leveraging absolutist mechanisms for modernization while forestalling revolutionary challenges to .

Historical Development

Origins in 17th-18th Century Europe

The consolidation of in 17th-century Europe, amid the devastation of conflicts like the (1618–1648), provided the institutional framework for later enlightened reforms by centralizing power in the hands of monarchs and diminishing feudal and ecclesiastical privileges. In France, Cardinal Richelieu's policies from 1624 to 1642 under emphasized state-directed administration, suppression of noble rebellions, and economic rationalization, establishing precedents for despotic intervention in society that prefigured enlightened governance. Similarly, , as controller-general of finances under from 1665 to 1683, implemented mercantilist measures such as royal manufactures, infrastructure projects like the (completed 1681), and tariff protections, prioritizing empirical efficiency and state wealth accumulation over traditional customs. These efforts reflected an early shift toward viewing the state as a mechanism for rational policy, though still rooted in divine-right legitimacy rather than Enlightenment . Transitioning into the early 18th century, Tsar of (r. 1682–1725) applied absolutist authority to aggressive modernization, importing Western technical and administrative knowledge to overcome Russia's perceived backwardness after defeats in the (1700–1721). His reforms included founding St. Petersburg in 1703 as a planned European-style capital, adopting the in 1700, secularizing church lands, and creating the in 1722—a merit-based civil and military hierarchy that bypassed hereditary privilege. While maintaining and autocratic control, Peter's use of unlimited power to enforce innovation marked him as a precursor to enlightened absolutism, blending despotic enforcement with pragmatic adoption of foreign to strengthen the state. In parallel, Prussian developments under Frederick William I (r. 1713–1740) built a disciplined and numbering 80,000 by 1740, funded through rigorous fiscal controls and provincial estates' compliance, creating a efficient absolutist apparatus primed for reformist application. These late 17th- and early 18th-century precedents—characterized by centralized for modernization—evolved as Enlightenment ideas of reason and utility gained traction, enabling mid-century rulers to frame their absolutism as benevolent and progressive without conceding power to representative bodies.

Key Influences from Philosophes and Intellectual Currents

Enlightened absolutists selectively incorporated ideas from Enlightenment to rationalize and legitimize their rule, emphasizing reason, tolerance, and administrative efficiency while preserving monarchical authority. 's advocacy for enlightened monarchy, where rulers governed benevolently through rational principles rather than divine right alone, profoundly shaped figures like Frederick II of Prussia, who viewed the sovereign as the "first servant of the state." This influence manifested in Frederick's 1740 treatise , co-authored with , which critiqued in favor of moral governance guided by . Voltaire's direct engagement with Frederick included an invitation to reside at in starting in July 1750, fostering discussions on and legal reform, though their relationship soured by 1753 amid personal disputes. Despite tensions, the correspondence persisted until Voltaire's death in 1778, influencing Prussian policies on and judicial modernization, albeit pragmatically subordinated to state interests. Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws (1748) provided intellectual scaffolding for separating administrative functions, yet absolutists like Frederick adapted it selectively, rejecting power-sharing to avoid diluting central control. Joseph II of the Habsburg monarchy drew from physiocratic economists like François Quesnay, whose emphasis on agriculture as the wealth source informed Joseph's 1781 land tax reforms aimed at equitable fiscal burdens. This current promoted laissez-faire in production but aligned with absolutist centralization by enabling state oversight of economic output. Joseph's exposure to French Enlightenment via travels and advisors reinforced his utilitarian approach, prioritizing the "greatest good for the greatest number" in edicts like the 1781 Tolerance Patent, though implementation often provoked resistance due to top-down imposition. Catherine II of Russia engaged philosophes through epistolary exchanges with Voltaire beginning in 1763 and a personal audience with Denis Diderot in 1773–1774, during which she purchased his library for 15,000 livres to secure his financial stability. Diderot urged serf emancipation and constitutional limits, but Catherine pragmatically limited reforms to the Nakaz of 1767, a legal code echoing Montesquieu's moderation while entrenching autocracy. These interactions reflect a pattern where philosophes hoped absolutists would disseminate rational governance, yet rulers filtered ideas to enhance state power, as evidenced by Catherine's suppression of radical publications post-Pugachev Rebellion in 1773–1775. Overall, such influences advanced empirical statecraft but rarely extended to dismantling absolutist structures, prioritizing causal efficacy in governance over ideological purity.

Major Exemplars

in (1740-1786)

ascended to the throne of on May 31, 1740, succeeding his father Frederick William I, and ruled until his death on August 17, 1786. His reign embodied enlightened absolutism by centralizing monarchical authority while implementing reforms drawn from rationalist principles to enhance state efficiency, drawing on influences from philosophers like , with whom he corresponded extensively. These efforts prioritized pragmatic state-building over democratic ideals, modernizing administration and economy to bolster 's military capacity amid territorial expansions through wars such as the (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). Early in his rule, Frederick abolished judicial in 1740, signaling commitment to rational legal standards, and reformed the to permit non-nobles to serve as judges and bureaucrats, promoting merit over birthright to improve administrative competence. He streamlined through modernization, introducing indirect taxation and state fire insurance to fund like swamp drainage for , which increased and crop yields, notably by mandating cultivation to combat risks. Religious policies emphasized tolerance to attract skilled immigrants, protecting Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish minorities while favoring , though without extending to full equality or abolishing , which preserved noble privileges essential for . Economically, Frederick pursued mercantilist strategies, establishing state monopolies on commodities like salt, , and , which generated revenue but imposed burdens on subjects; these measures, combined with fiscal reforms, supported a that consumed up to 86% of the budget, enabling Prussia's emergence as a with doubled territory by 1786. Culturally, he patronized the arts and sciences, founding institutions like the Berlin Academy expansions and building as a hub for intellectuals, yet these initiatives served state prestige rather than broad emancipation. Empirical outcomes included administrative rationalization yielding more efficient governance and modest , evidenced by population increases from approximately 2.5 million to over 6 million, though sustained warfare inflicted heavy casualties—Prussia lost about 180,000 soldiers in the Seven Years' War—and entrenched without alleviating peasant obligations.

Habsburg Reforms under Maria Theresa and Joseph II (1740-1790)

, who ascended the throne in 1740 following the , initiated reforms to centralize and strengthen the amid territorial losses from the . Her administrative measures included the establishment of a unified court chancellery in 1749 to streamline governance across diverse provinces, reducing noble privileges and enhancing royal oversight. Military reforms under her direction expanded the to over 100,000 troops by the 1750s through introduction of general in 1748, funded by new taxation systems like the Theresian Cadastre of 1754, which standardized land assessments for equitable revenue collection. These efforts prioritized state efficiency over feudal traditions, reflecting cameralist principles of rational administration. In education, Maria Theresa promulgated the General School Ordinance of 1774, mandating compulsory for children aged 6 to 12 across Habsburg lands, establishing state-funded elementary schools to foster and skilled labor for economic modernization. Public health initiatives included smallpox campaigns from 1768 and hospital regulations, while economic policies promoted through tariffs and projects. Despite these innovations, her reforms preserved Catholic and noble estates, limiting serf to partial labor reductions without full personal freedom. Joseph II, succeeding as sole ruler in 1780 after co-regency, pursued more radical enlightened policies to dismantle feudal barriers and impose uniformity. The Serfdom Patent of August 1, 1781, abolished personal servitude, granting peasants hereditary , , and exemption from arbitrary labor demands, though noble retention of manorial tempered its impact. The Edict of Tolerance issued on October 13, 1781, extended civil to Protestants and , allowing public worship, state offices, and access, justified by utilitarian arguments for societal utility over confessional exclusivity. Further decrees suppressed over 700 contemplative monasteries in 1782 via the Edict on Idle Institutions, reallocating assets to and military funds, aiming to curb ecclesiastical influence and boost productive capacity. Joseph's centralizing edicts mandated German as the administrative language in 1784, dissolved provincial diets in non-German areas, and reformed to prioritize merit over birth, but these provoked widespread resistance. of backlash includes peasant uprisings in (1784) and (1785), noble revolts in the leading to its effective secession by 1790, and clerical opposition culminating in over 200,000 petition signatures against monastic dissolutions. Upon Joseph's death in 1790, his brother Leopold II revoked key measures, including language mandates and serfdom patents in and , restoring provincial to avert collapse, underscoring the causal limits of absolutist imposition without local consent. While short-term state revenues rose—tax yields increased 20% by 1785—these reforms empirically heightened ethnic tensions and fiscal strain from revolts, delaying full serf emancipation until 1848.

Catherine the Great in Russia (1762-1796)

Catherine II ascended to the Russian throne in 1762 following a coup that deposed her husband, Peter III, establishing her rule as an exemplar of enlightened absolutism through selective adoption of Enlightenment principles while maintaining absolute monarchical authority. Influenced by philosophes such as Voltaire and Montesquieu, she corresponded extensively with Voltaire, praising his works and aligning Russia with rational governance ideals, though practical implementation prioritized state stability over radical change. Her Nakaz, or Instruction, issued in 1767 as a guide for legal reform, drew from Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws to advocate against torture, arbitrary punishment, and excessive capital sentences, while explicitly affirming the tsar's absolute power as essential for efficient rule. The Legislative Commission convened in 1767 to draft a new legal code based on the incorporated input from diverse estates, including nobles, townsmen, and non-serf peasants, but excluded serfs to avoid unrest; it debated reforms but achieved no concrete code before dissolution in 1768 amid the Russo-Turkish War. Administrative centralization advanced via the 1775 Statute for the Administration of the Provinces, which reorganized into 50 provinces with uniform governors, treasuries, and courts, aiming to curb corruption and enhance efficiency in a vast spanning over 5 million square miles by 1796. This reform increased local oversight, establishing 500-person assemblies in larger provinces for fiscal and judicial matters, yet retained noble privileges and tsarist veto power. Despite Enlightenment rhetoric, Catherine expanded serfdom, granting nobles over 800,000 crown peasants into private hands between 1762 and 1796, which entrenched bondage affecting 50% of Russia's 20 million peasants and fueled grievances, contradicting the Nakaz's ambiguous calls for humane treatment without abolition. The Pugachev Rebellion (1773-1775), led by Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev claiming to be Peter III, mobilized 100,000 discontented serfs and border peoples against noble oppression and conscription, exposing limits of top-down reform; Catherine's response involved brutal suppression, execution of leaders, and post-revolt centralization, including tighter Cossack control, prioritizing absolutist order over egalitarian ideals. Cultural and educational initiatives reflected enlightened aims, with establishment of the for Noble Girls in 1764 as Russia's first state-funded school for females and expansion of provincial schools to educate 20,000 students by 1796, alongside patronage of academies and importation of Western texts. Yet, extended selectively—favoring Orthodox Church subordination via of church lands in 1764, confiscating 2 million peasants—while suppressing dissent, as in the 1790 arrest of writer for criticizing . These policies strengthened Russia's administrative capacity and cultural prestige, enabling territorial gains like in 1783, but preserved noble dominance and serf exploitation, illustrating enlightened absolutism's pragmatic fusion of reason with autocratic realism.

Other Cases: Spain, Portugal, and Sweden

In Spain, Charles III (r. 1759–1788) pursued reforms characteristic of enlightened absolutism, centralizing administration and promoting economic liberalization while preserving monarchical authority. He introduced intendants to oversee provinces, reducing the influence of traditional councils and the Church, and expelled the Jesuits in 1767 to curb their political power. Economic measures included freeing trade between Spain and its American colonies in 1765, aiming to boost revenue and efficiency without parliamentary consultation. These initiatives drew from Enlightenment rationalism but prioritized state strengthening over broader liberties. In , Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal, served as chief minister under Joseph I (r. 1750–1777), implementing absolutist reforms post the that killed up to 90,000 people. Pombal reorganized the economy by breaking trade monopolies, establishing state companies for wine and cork exports, and expelling the in 1759 for alleged involvement. Educational reforms founded public primary schools and secularized higher education, while modifications reduced clerical dominance. These policies reflected Enlightenment influences like administrative efficiency and , enforced through royal decree without noble or ecclesiastical consent. Sweden under Gustav III (r. 1771–1792) exemplified enlightened absolutism following his 1772 coup against the nobility-dominated , restoring royal power via a new . He abolished judicial in 1772, introduced partial in 1766 (expanded briefly), and granted limited religious to Catholics and in 1781. Agricultural reforms promoted and in grains, while cultural patronage founded the in 1786, fostering literature and theater. Despite these progressive steps, Gustav maintained absolutist control, using reforms to consolidate authority amid noble resistance, until his assassination in 1792.

Reforms and Policies

Enlightened absolutists centralized administrative structures to enhance state efficiency and control, often expanding bureaucracies while subordinating them to royal authority. In , Frederick II bolstered the General Directory, established by his father, as the primary central organ with broad oversight of finances, military logistics, and domain management, prioritizing resource mobilization for warfare and infrastructure. This system emphasized merit in lower ranks but reserved senior positions for , reflecting a pragmatic blend of rationalization and elite privilege. Similarly, Catherine II of enacted the Governorate Reform of 1775, dividing the empire into 50 governorates with uniform administrative hierarchies under appointed governors, aiming to standardize local governance and curb noble autonomy. Legal modernization under these rulers focused on codification, uniformity, and humanitarian adjustments to reduce feudal arbitrariness and torture, though implementation varied by context. Joseph II of the Habsburgs pursued extensive judicial reforms, including redefining as a civil and permitting for non-Catholics, while abolishing serfdom's legal ties in 1781 to promote personal mobility. His 1781 extended civil rights to Protestants and , facilitating legal equality in public office and education. In , Catherine modernized the penal system by establishing pre-trial prisons and houses of correction in 1775, shifting from corporal punishments toward incarceration for minor offenses. under Frederick advanced toward legal rationalization, initiating steps toward the 1794 Allgemeines Landrecht codification, which unified civil, criminal, and administrative laws while preserving monarchical supremacy. These reforms empirically strengthened fiscal extraction and administrative reach—Prussia's grew to support a of 200,000 by 1786, comprising 3% of the —but often provoked resistance from entrenched , as seen in II's partial revocation of Hungarian laws in 1790 amid backlash. Despite rhetorical Enlightenment influences, outcomes prioritized state power over individual liberties, with legal changes selectively applied to avoid undermining absolutism.

Economic and Fiscal Measures

Enlightened absolutist rulers pursued economic policies aimed at enhancing state power through rational administration, often blending mercantilist controls with selective liberalization to boost productivity and revenue. These measures typically emphasized agricultural improvement, trade expansion, and fiscal centralization, while preserving monarchical oversight to prevent market disruptions or noble privileges from undermining state interests. In , Frederick II (r. 1740–1786) modernized the economy by promoting agriculture via , crop diversification including potatoes, and state-supported industries like silk production, which increased output from negligible levels in 1740 to over 20,000 pounds annually by 1786. He reformed finance through indirect taxes on tobacco and other goods, generating additional revenue without broad income levies, and introduced fire insurance mandates to mitigate urban losses. These efforts aligned with cameralist principles, prioritizing state fiscal health over free enterprise. Under the Habsburgs, Joseph II (r. 1780–1790) implemented fiscal reforms to equalize taxation, imposing a on noble lands for the first time and issuing the Urbarial of , which capped aristocratic claims on peasant surpluses at 30% while raising state levies on both nobles and cultivators to fund military and administrative needs. Maria had earlier centralized tax collection, reducing noble exemptions and boosting crown revenue from 20 million florins in 1740 to over 50 million by 1780. Economic policies encouraged and by abolishing internal guilds' monopolies, though persisted, limiting labor mobility. Catherine II of (r. 1762–1796) sought agricultural modernization by settling German colonists along the , providing them tax exemptions for 30 years to introduce advanced techniques, which expanded arable land by millions of acres. She promoted trade through charters granting monopolies to merchants and easy credit for farming innovations, yet entrenched constrained overall growth, with state revenues rising modestly from export duties on and furs. In Spain, (r. 1759–1788) established a commerce council in 1679—wait, error, actually during his reign—to address , fostering textile and mining revivals that doubled silver output from American colonies processed via new mints. Fiscal measures included reducing church tithes and noble fueros to centralize revenue, contributing to a 20% GDP increase over his rule.

Educational, Cultural, and Religious Initiatives

In , issued the General Land School Regulation in 1763, establishing the framework for state-supervised with eight years of instruction funded by the state for both boys and girls, emphasizing reading, writing, arithmetic, and religious knowledge to cultivate disciplined subjects for bureaucratic and military service. These measures built on earlier efforts by educators like Johann Julius Hecker but prioritized practical utility over broad enlightenment, resulting in gradual improvements without universal enforcement due to rural resistance and resource constraints. Under in the Habsburg lands, the 1774 General School Regulation mandated six years of compulsory elementary education for children aged 6 to 12, creating a network of parish-based schools focused on basic literacy, , and moral instruction to produce reliable administrators and soldiers, while integrating secular oversight to counter Jesuit dominance. Her son Joseph II consolidated this system post-1780 by promoting access to secondary schools and universities for non-nobles and non-Catholics, introducing scholarships for talented poor students, and permitting secular curricula like and natural sciences to reduce clerical influence and foster merit-based state service. Catherine the Great established the for Noble Maidens in 1764, Russia's first state institution for female education, modeling it on French precedents to train aristocratic girls in languages, arts, and etiquette, thereby extending limited Enlightenment-inspired schooling to women while reinforcing class hierarchies. In Spain, supported scientific academies and botanical expeditions but deferred major educational restructuring, focusing instead on expelling the in 1767 to wrest control of schools from the church, enabling gradual introduction of practical sciences over theological emphasis. Culturally, these rulers patronized arts and sciences for prestige and utility: Frederick hosted at , composed music, and expanded the Academy of Sciences to advance rational inquiry; Catherine corresponded with , commissioned , and amassed Europe's largest art collection to project Russian sophistication; Joseph II reformed theaters and censored publications to align with moral utility rather than unfettered expression. Religiously, policies emphasized pragmatic toleration to harness diverse populations for state ends, not doctrinal equality. Frederick permitted Catholic and Jewish residence and worship from 1740 onward, attracting skilled immigrants while restricting Jewish economic roles due to personal prejudices. Joseph II's 1781 granted civil rights and public worship to Protestants, with curtailed privileges for , aiming to integrate minorities into the economy and dilute Catholic monopoly without abolishing the state church. Catherine secularized church lands in 1764 and regulated Orthodox institutions to subordinate them fiscally to , tolerating selectively but suppressing dissent to maintain imperial cohesion. These initiatives often provoked clerical backlash, revealing tensions between utilitarian reform and entrenched religious authority.

Achievements and Empirical Outcomes

State Strengthening and Military Efficacy

Enlightened absolutists bolstered state power through centralized administration and resource mobilization, yielding militaries capable of defending and expanding territories against superior foes. In , Frederick II maintained an army of about 85,000 men in the 1740s, supported by rigorous training and fiscal efficiency, which secured during the (1740–1748). This force's discipline enabled to withstand the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), repelling a coalition including , , , and despite being outnumbered, thus preserving gains and elevating 's status among European powers. Habsburg reforms under doubled troop numbers from her predecessor Charles VI's era, targeting a of around 110,000 to address vulnerabilities exposed by Prussian incursions. Administrative overhauls by officials like enhanced recruitment, supply chains, and tax collection, fortifying the monarchy's resilience and enabling offensive actions, such as shares in the Polish partitions (1772, 1793, 1795). II continued these efforts, integrating merit-based promotions and standardized training to improve operational effectiveness amid ongoing conflicts. In Russia, Catherine II's reign saw military expansion underpin territorial acquisitions exceeding 500,000 square kilometers, including victories in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) that granted Black Sea access under the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774). Reforms in governance and conscription swelled the army to Europe's largest, facilitating further successes against the Ottoman Empire, Polish partitions, and Persian campaigns, while administrative centralization ensured sustained funding and logistics. These outcomes demonstrated how absolutist structures, infused with rational reforms, translated into empirical military prowess and state consolidation.

Social and Economic Progress

In , Frederick II's agricultural initiatives, including the promotion of cultivation and marsh drainage projects, enhanced and land productivity, contributing to from approximately 2.2 million in 1740 to over 6 million by 1786. These measures, alongside incentives for silk production and canal construction, fostered modest industrialization and trade expansion, with Prussian exports rising notably in textiles and metals. Socially, Frederick reformed the judicial system to reduce and emphasized merit-based appointments, though noble privileges remained entrenched, limiting broader equality. Under Habsburg rule, II's 1781 Serfdom Patent granted peasants personal and capped hereditary labor obligations at three days per week, aiming to boost agricultural efficiency through Physiocratic land taxation that shifted burdens from labor to output-based assessments. This reform, applied in , , and Austrian duchies, correlated with increased peasant productivity and rural mobility, though enforcement varied and provoked noble resistance. Economic policies emphasized free competition by dismantling guilds and promoting , yielding gains in output and state revenues. Social advancements included in 1782, enabling middle-class economic participation, and expanded welfare provisions for the impoverished. In Spain, Charles III's deregulation of internal trade and promotion of cash crops like indigo and cochineal stimulated colonial exports, with silver remittances from the Americas funding infrastructure that supported agricultural modernization and urban growth. These efforts reduced monopolistic barriers, fostering merchant activity and a 20-30% rise in peninsular grain production during his reign. Socially, reforms curtailed clerical privileges and improved public health via sanitation projects, though peasant conditions improved unevenly due to persistent feudal tenures. Across these cases, enlightened absolutism yielded tangible economic gains through centralized fiscal reforms and infrastructure, often outpacing contemporaneous growth in less reformed absolutist states, but social progress hinged on partial alleviation of and estate privileges, with enduring hierarchies constraining equitable distribution. In , Catherine II's policies modernized elite commerce and expanded territorial revenues, yet intensified serf exploitation undermined peasant welfare, highlighting limits where absolutist priorities favored state power over broad .

Avoidance of Revolutionary Upheaval

Enlightened absolutist regimes in , the Habsburg Empire, and implemented top-down reforms that addressed key sources of social discontent—such as economic inefficiency, religious intolerance, and feudal burdens—while preserving monarchical authority, thereby preempting the kind of widespread revolutionary upheaval that erupted in in 1789. In the Habsburg domains under Joseph II (r. 1780–1790), the 1781 Serfdom Patent established personal freedom for peasants by allowing them to marry, acquire property, and seek employment without lordly approval, alongside the extending civil rights to Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews; these measures mitigated peasant grievances and ethnic-religious tensions in a multi-confessional empire, fostering stability despite initial noble resistance. Localized revolts, such as those in the (1789) and , arose from overzealous centralization but were contained through military suppression and partial reversals by Joseph's successor Leopold II, averting systemic collapse. In Prussia, Frederick II (r. 1740–1786) enhanced administrative efficiency and judicial independence by promoting merit-based bureaucracy and allowing lower-status individuals to serve as judges, while economic policies like draining marshes for agriculture and incentivizing Protestant immigration from (20,000 settlers in 1732–1734) boosted productivity and population loyalty, reducing famine risks and fiscal strains that could fuel unrest. These reforms, coupled with religious and abolition of in most cases, cultivated a disciplined society oriented toward state service rather than political agitation, enabling to withstand the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) without internal dissolution. Catherine II of (r. 1762–1796) similarly forestalled upheaval by convening the Legislative Commission (1767–1768) to codify laws and air grievances, though it dissolved without constitutional concessions, and by expanding serf privileges selectively while crushing (1773–1775), which mobilized 100,000 and peasants but was quelled with 20,000 executions, reinforcing centralized control. Her post-1789 pivot against French revolutionary ideas—banning their texts and exiling sympathizers—positioned as a bulwark of order, with territorial gains like the (1772, 1793, 1795) channeling expansionist energies outward and sustaining elite cohesion. Across these cases, empirical stability is evident: (e.g., Prussia's from 2.5 million in 1740 to 6 million by 1806), reduced peasant revolts compared to pre-reform eras, and absence of regicidal upheavals until external Napoleonic pressures, underscoring how pragmatic reforms diffused causal pressures for radical change without diluting absolutist power.

Criticisms and Limitations

Conflicts with Enlightenment Liberty Ideals

Enlightened absolutism conflicted with Enlightenment ideals of by prioritizing monarchical rationality over individual political rights and participatory governance. Core Enlightenment thinkers such as advocated for government by consent and protection against arbitrary power, while emphasized to safeguard ; yet absolutist rulers implemented reforms unilaterally, viewing subjects as wards requiring benevolent oversight rather than autonomous agents. This paternalistic framework, which assumed the sovereign's superior enlightenment, suppressed public deliberation and representative institutions essential for true , as critiqued in analyses of the era's political thought. Joseph II exemplified these tensions through decrees that advanced and peasant rights but eroded traditional autonomies without consultation. His 1781 granted civil rights to non-Catholics, yet accompanying centralization alienated provinces; in , the 1784 language ordinance mandating German for administration ignited noble resistance and peasant unrest, framing reforms as cultural erasure rather than liberation. Similar impositions in the provoked the 1789 , where locals rebelled against lost privileges, invoking natural rights against absolutist uniformity. By 1790, facing empire-wide revolts, Joseph retracted over 100 edicts, underscoring how top-down bred backlash absent mechanisms for consent. Frederick II of Prussia tolerated diverse faiths and promoted but withheld political , censoring critiques of and bypassing for fiscal exactions. Catherine II of Russia convened a 1767 legislative commission to discuss laws but dissolved it without enacting constitutional limits, instead reinforcing and suppressing dissent like the 1773-1775 Pugachev Rebellion through brutal absolutist measures. These cases reveal enlightened absolutism's selective embrace of reason—favoring efficiency over empowerment—ultimately undermining by conflating the ruler's will with the general good, a dynamic later historiographical debates term a "contradiction" between and democratic aspirations.

Implementation Failures and Backlash

Joseph II's aggressive implementation of reforms in the Habsburg Empire exemplified the practical challenges of enlightened absolutism, as his top-down decrees provoked widespread resistance from nobility, clergy, and peasants alike. Between 1780 and 1790, edicts abolishing serfdom, mandating religious tolerance, and centralizing administration alienated traditional elites, culminating in the of 1784 and broader unrest in . By 1789, opposition escalated into the in the , where provinces rejected Joseph's authority and declared independence, forcing military intervention. These failures stemmed from the disconnect between universalist Enlightenment principles and entrenched local customs, leading to the revocation of over half of Joseph's 6,000 decrees by his successor Leopold II in 1790. In Russia, Catherine II's initial embrace of Enlightenment ideas faltered amid fiscal strains and social upheavals, as her Legislative Commission of 1767-1768 dissolved without enacting serfdom reforms, preserving noble privileges despite rhetorical commitments. The Pugachev Rebellion of 1773-1775, fueled by Cossack and peasant grievances over expanded noble powers and taxation, exposed the limits of her absolutist approach, resulting in brutal suppression that reinforced serfdom rather than alleviating it. Similarly, Frederick II of Prussia advanced administrative efficiency but refrained from dismantling serfdom, citing dependence on Junker landowners for military support, which perpetuated economic inequalities and constrained broader social progress. These backlashes highlighted systemic tensions in enlightened absolutism: reforms imposed without consensual institutions often ignited counter-mobilization from vested interests, undermining state stability and revealing the causal primacy of power structures over ideological intent. Nobles in multiple realms leveraged revolts to reclaim prerogatives, as seen in the partial rollback of Josephinian policies and Catherine's post-rebellion charter to in , which entrenched privileges. Empirical outcomes included heightened administrative costs—Joseph's campaigns against rebels drained treasuries—and a reversion to conservative , delaying until the . Such patterns underscore how absolutist enforcement, absent mechanisms for feedback or negotiation, frequently converted reformist ambitions into catalysts for reactionary entrenchment.

Pragmatism vs. Genuine Enlightenment Motivation

Historians have long debated whether the reforms of enlightened absolutists stemmed from a sincere embrace of Enlightenment principles—such as rational , , and human improvement—or from pragmatic calculations to consolidate monarchical power, enhance state efficiency, and preempt threats. This tension is evident in the rulers' selective application of ideas: while they invoked like and , their policies often prioritized administrative centralization and fiscal extraction over broader liberties. Arguments for genuine Enlightenment motivation highlight personal intellectual engagements and ideological commitments. Frederick II of Prussia (r. 1740–1786) corresponded extensively with , hosting him at from 1750 to 1753, and articulated a view of the monarch as the "first servant of the state," reflecting a rationalist duty to improve subjects' welfare through legal codification and religious tolerance for Protestants and Catholics. Similarly, II of the Habsburg Empire (r. 1780–1790) issued the Tolerance Patent of 1781, granting civil rights to Protestants and Jews, and abolished serfdom in 1781 to elevate peasants' status, driven by a professed "fanaticism for the common weal" rooted in utilitarian Enlightenment ethics. Catherine II of (r. 1762–1796) convened the Legislative Commission in 1767 to codify laws inspired by and corresponded with Diderot, funding institutions like the for girls' education in 1764 and promoting smallpox inoculation from 1768, actions aligned with progressive rationalism. Counterarguments emphasize , portraying reforms as tools for power consolidation rather than ideological purity. Frederick's tolerance excluded and extended only partially to —abolished solely on crown lands—while his regime imposed burdensome taxes and militarized to sustain Prussia's expansion, yielding a of 200,000 by 1786 despite a of 6 million. Joseph's reforms, though sincere in intent, were implemented top-down without consensus, centralizing administration in German and sparking revolts in and the , leading to their partial revocation on his deathbed in 1790 to preserve Habsburg unity. Catherine's of 1767 promised equality but ignored , which she expanded by granting nobles power to exile serfs to ; her suppression of (1773–1775) entrenched gentry privileges, and territorial gains—adding 520,000 square kilometers—served dynastic self-interest over domestic liberalization. Empirical outcomes underscore this duality: reforms boosted state revenues and administrative efficacy, as in Prussia's cameralist policies increasing fiscal yields by 50% under Frederick, yet failed to dismantle absolutist structures or foster participatory , suggesting motivations blended idealism with . Prevailing , wary of retrospective idealization, views enlightened absolutism as a pragmatic adaptation of Enlightenment rhetoric to bolster amid fiscal-military competition, rather than a full ideological shift.

Legacy and Interpretations

Long-Term Historical Impact

Enlightened absolutism facilitated the administrative and military modernization of key European powers, enabling their survival and expansion into the amid revolutionary pressures. In , Frederick II's bureaucratic reforms, including the codification of laws and merit-based civil service appointments, enhanced state efficiency and fiscal capacity, directly informing the Prussian dominance that culminated in German unification under in 1871. These changes increased Prussia's army from approximately 80,000 men in 1740 to over 200,000 by 1786, establishing a template for disciplined, centralized that prioritized state power over feudal privileges. Similarly, in the Habsburg domains, Joseph II's 1781 Edict of Tolerance granted civil rights to Protestants and Jews, numbering over 100,000 affected individuals, while his agrarian decrees reduced serf obligations; though many were rescinded by 1790, they eroded aristocratic dominance and prefigured liberal demands for . The paradigm's emphasis on rational, top-down reform without ceding sovereignty influenced conservative modernization strategies across Europe, contrasting with the chaotic outcomes of the and underscoring the viability of autocratic efficiency in averting immediate upheaval. This legacy persisted in the notion of benevolent strongmen guiding societal progress, as seen in 19th-century Russian and Ottoman attempts at selective Enlightenment-inspired policies, though often diluted by entrenched elites. Empirically, states like achieved sustained —agricultural output rose 20-30% under Frederick's policies—demonstrating causal links between absolutist reforms and long-term state resilience, yet it entrenched that fueled conflicts like the and delayed broader participatory . Historiographically, enlightened absolutism's impact is debated as a bridge to or a reinforcement of ; while it centralized to manage diverse territories effectively, as in Catherine II's Russian expansions adding over 500,000 square miles by 1796, it ultimately yielded to constitutional pressures by the mid-19th century, with surviving elements absorbed into nation-state bureaucracies rather than perpetuating pure absolutism. Its causal role in fostering proto-national identities, particularly through uniform legal codes and mandates, indirectly supported unification movements, though scholars note systemic biases in traditional narratives that overemphasize ideological sincerity over pragmatic power consolidation.

Historiographical Debates and Modern Analogies

The term "enlightened absolutism" was coined by economist Wilhelm Roscher in the mid-19th century to characterize the governance phase commencing around 1740, wherein absolute monarchs purportedly integrated Enlightenment rationality into state administration. Historiographical debates hinge on its conceptual coherence and motivational authenticity, with no scholarly consensus on whether it constituted a meaningful hybrid of absolutism and Enlightenment philosophy or merely pragmatic disguised in rationalist idiom. German historians, such as Fritz Hartung and Fritz Hartung, have largely affirmed its sincerity as an evolution from divine-right rule, positing that rulers like embraced social responsibilities derived from cameralist economics and , yielding verifiable reforms in , jurisprudence, and agrarian productivity—evidenced by Prussia's from 2.5 million in 1740 to over 6 million by 1806 and doubled tax revenues under Frederick. Conversely, Anglo-American and French scholars, including H.M. Scott and E.N. Anderson, contend that reforms primarily served state aggrandizement amid geopolitical competition, as absolute power precluded the participatory mechanisms central to Enlightenment thinkers like ; contradictions abound, such as Joseph II's 1781 Toleration Edict freeing non-Catholics while enforcing that bound 80-90% of rural subjects to noble estates. These divergences partly stem from cultural lenses: German scholarship's affinity for organic state hierarchies versus Western prioritization of individual liberties, potentially biasing assessments of absolutism's compatibility with reason-based governance. Empirical analyses in recent works, such as those by T.C.W. Blanning, credit enlightened absolutism with preempting Jacobin-style upheavals in German principalities through incremental centralization—e.g., Bavaria's 1803 mediatization reducing fragmented estates from 300+ to under 40, enhancing administrative efficiency—yet highlight institutional inertia, like noble privileges, that curbed transformative potential and provoked backlashes such as the 1789-1790 revolts in the . Overall, while debates persist on ideological depth, causal evidence supports its role in fostering proto-modern states via top-down rationalization, distinct from revolutionary alternatives that yielded higher short-term instability, as measured by France's 1790s death toll exceeding 300,000 from Terror and . Modern analogies invoke enlightened absolutism to interpret authoritarian modernizers who deploy centralized authority for rational, secular progress, though such parallels underscore contextual variances in scale, technology, and ideology. In Ottoman successor states, Pasha's (r. 1805-1848) exemplifies this, with absolute decrees establishing 30 modern schools by 1830, a European-modeled of 130,000 troops, and boosting exports tenfold, prioritizing over amid post-Napoleonic imperatives. 's Turkey post-1923 further echoes the model, abolishing the on March 3, 1924, imposing and civil codes by 1926, and secularizing education to achieve 20% literacy rise by 1935, framing rule as enlightened guardianship against traditionalism. Comparable patterns appear in mid-20th-century Arab regimes, as with Gamal Abdel Nasser's (r. 1954-1970), where nationalizations and completion in 1970—irrigating 1.8 million acres—instantiated top-down , yet devolved into cult-of-personality without Enlightenment's universalist restraint. These cases, per analysts like Christopher Caldwell, replicate absolutism's causal logic—strongman-led efficiency yielding infrastructure gains (e.g., 's GDP doubling 1950-1970)—but diverge in lacking philosophical salons or fiscal absolutism's pre-industrial limits, often amplifying via modern and . The archetype's endurance, sustaining "great leader" narratives into the present, invites scrutiny of whether such systems empirically outperform democracies in low-trust societies, as suggested by stability metrics in Atatürk-era versus contemporaneous Balkan democracies' volatility.

References

  1. https://admisiones.unicah.edu/libweb/vOFyGC/5OK101/how__were_european-rulers_guided_by-enlightenment__thought.pdf
  2. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/enlightened-despotism/
  3. https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1508&context=stu_hon_theses
  4. https://fiveable.me/key-terms/ap-euro/frederick-the-great
  5. https://www.thecollector.com/catherine-the-great-enlightened-despot/
  6. https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87907/student/?section=3
  7. https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/joseph-ii-reformist-emperor-or-enlightened-despot
  8. https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87875/student/?section=2
  9. https://preserve.lehigh.edu/_flysystem/fedora/2023-11/preservebp-3100534.pdf
  10. https://history.fsu.edu/article/seniorseminar-cassandra-letat-cest-moi-enlightened-absolutism-and-maupeou-reforms-1771
  11. https://www.adamsmithworks.org/documents/schliesser-smith-tocqueville-foucault-enlightened-despotism
  12. https://www.history.org.uk/files/download/10927/1352474085/Enlightened_Despotism.pdf
  13. https://oll.libertyfund.org/publications/reading-room/2024-03-28-mcgath-enlightened-absolutism
  14. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-20592-9_1
  15. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.4159/harvard.9780674726413.c6/html
  16. https://germanhistorydocs.org/en/the-holy-roman-empire-1648-1815/frederick-ii-anti-machiavel-or-an-examination-of-machiavels-prince%2520-1741
  17. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3141347
  18. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2142344
  19. https://oll.libertyfund.org/publications/reading-room/2023-02-02-donway-russian-enlightenment-absolutist-champions
  20. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/mod/resource/view.php?id=17480
  21. https://journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/720881
  22. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-montesquieu/montesquieu-and-the-enlightenment/5A738B6EFAD1DA71529131C8B976835B
  23. https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/people/history/german/joseph-ii
  24. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/diderot/bio.html
  25. https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/culture/42324/when-diderot-met-catherine
  26. https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/blog/how-did-catherine-the-great-reign-shape-imperial-russian-history/
  27. https://www.electrummagazine.com/2025/03/frederick-the-great-an-enlightened-ruler/
  28. https://historyguild.org/frederick-the-great-and-prussia/
  29. https://www.thecollector.com/how-did-frederick-the-great-transform-prussia/
  30. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/prussia-under-frederick-the-great/
  31. https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/maria-theresa-and-her-reforms
  32. https://pressbooks.nvcc.edu/wcchv2/chapter/volume-2-chapter-8-absolutism/
  33. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb08613.0001.001
  34. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/empress-maria-theresa/
  35. https://germanhistorydocs.org/en/the-holy-roman-empire-1648-1815/allegorical-depiction-of-joseph-ii-s-edict-of-toleration-of-1781-1782
  36. https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/culture_society/joseph-ii-religious-reforms/
  37. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/joseph-ii-and-domestic-reform/
  38. https://www.britannica.com/event/Instruction-of-Catherine-the-Great
  39. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2342/reforms-of-catherine-the-great/
  40. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/catherines-domestic-policies/
  41. https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Government-administration-under-Catherine
  42. https://acstudies.com/2024/11/06/peter-and-catherine-the-great-russias-transformative-monarchs/
  43. https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-reign-of-Catherine-II-the-Great-1762-96
  44. https://www.clas.rutgers.edu/files/180/Digitized-Books-and-Publications/729/Ortiz--Eighteenth-Century-Reforms--1983.pdf
  45. https://dadun.unav.edu/bitstreams/5b5cf372-9105-44a9-b609-84b4b59c701d/download
  46. https://www.academia.edu/11975477/The_Reform_of_the_Spanish_Empire_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment_2015_
  47. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/265080/summary
  48. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5231052.pdf
  49. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/pombal-reforms-inquisition
  50. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320712877_Leading_by_fear_and_by_love_Niccolo_Machiavelli_and_the_enlightened_despotism_of_the_Marquis_of_Pombal_in_the_eighteenth_century_Portugal
  51. http://liamslookathistory.blogspot.com/2017/06/gustav-iii-of-sweden-enlightened.html
  52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3031560
  53. https://www.stockholmmuseum.com/stockholm-unveiled/personalities/gustav-iii.htm
  54. https://www.thecenterforruleoflaw.org/rule-of-law-blog/august-21-1772-king-gustav-iii-completes-his-coup-detat-by-adopting-a-new-constitution-ending-half-a-century-of-parliamentary-rule-in-sweden-and-installing-himself-as-an-enlightened-despot
  55. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-II-king-of-Prussia/Trials-and-lessons
  56. http://www.fiatlux-day.org/euro/period_2/chapter_18/reading_18-2.html
  57. https://www.prlib.ru/en/history/619731
  58. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/joseph-iis-reforms
  59. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-II-king-of-Prussia/Domestic-policies
  60. https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/Late-reign-of-Joseph-II-1785-90
  61. https://germanhistorydocs.org/en/the-holy-roman-empire-1648-1815/emperor-joseph-ii-s-taxation-and-urbarial-patent-1789
  62. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-fiscal-states/financing-an-empire/3FB3FF76D2B9EEC1D1BCB418F3860666
  63. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-III-king-of-Spain
  64. https://germanhistorydocs.org/en/the-holy-roman-empire-1648-1815/friedrich-der-grosse-koeniglich-preussisches-general-land-schul-reglement-1763
  65. https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/First-reforms-1748-56
  66. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-II
  67. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/smolny-institute
  68. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Catherine-the-Great
  69. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edict-of-Toleration
  70. https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/idea-tolerance
  71. https://www.napolun.com/mirror/web2.airmail.net/napoleon/Prussian_army.htm
  72. https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/frederick-the-great
  73. https://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/mariatheres.html
  74. https://ww1.habsburger.net/en/chapters/theresian-reforms-battle-koeniggraetz
  75. https://www.militaer-wissen.de/the-expansion-of-russia-under-catherine-the-great/?lang=en
  76. https://academic.oup.com/book/11102/chapter/159528866
  77. https://www.worldatlas.com/early-modern-era/catherine-the-great-s-expansion-russian-imperial-ambitions.html
  78. https://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/321.html
  79. https://www.inspiredamericahq.com/king-charles-iii-of-spain-the-enlightened-reformer
  80. https://texapedia.info/bourbon-reforms/
  81. https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/useful-emperor-joseph-ii
  82. https://alatinacolonia2013.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/1880014.pdf
  83. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/toleration-in-conflict/enlightenment-for-and-against-toleration/50EE1518192935569220B9CE89D4770A
  84. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-the-age-of-atlantic-revolutions/reform-and-resistance-hungary-and-the-habsburg-monarchy-17801795/52CF0ED3ECA6B2C68F2F209F0CD983A2
  85. https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/people-versus-useful-emperor
  86. https://1440review.com/2024/01/15/the-enlightened-despots/
  87. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01916599.2024.2319387
  88. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Catherine_II_of_Russia
  89. https://www.otherpapers.com/essay/Enlightened-Absolutism-A-Failure-of-Reform/18503.html
  90. https://saberandscroll.scholasticahq.com/api/v1/articles/28558-german-unification-through-the-blueprint-of-prussian-greatness.pdf
  91. https://www.academia.edu/75049534/The_Enlightened_Absolutism_in_Western_Europe_Society
  92. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/243156
  93. https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/enlightened-despots-then-and-now-the-truth-about-an-islamic-enlightenment
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.