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Christian Identity (also known as Identity Christianity[1]) is an interpretation of Christianity which advocates the belief that only Celtic and Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxon, Nordic nations, or the Aryan race and kindred peoples, are the descendants of the ancient Israelites and are therefore God's "chosen people". It is a racial interpretation of Christianity and is not an organized religion, nor is it affiliated with specific Christian denominations. It emerged from British Israelism in the 1920s and developed during the 1940s–1970s. Today it is practiced by independent individuals, independent congregations, and some prison gangs.

No single document expresses the Christian Identity belief system, and some beliefs may vary by group. However, all Identity adherents believe that Adam and his offspring were exclusively White. They also believe in Two House theology, which makes a distinction between the Tribe of Judah and the Ten Lost Tribes, and that ultimately, European people represent the Ten Lost Tribes. This racialist view advocates racial segregation and opposes interracial marriage. Other commonly held beliefs are that usury and banking systems are controlled by Jews, leading to opposition to the Federal Reserve System and use of fiat currency, believing it to be part of "the beast" system. Christian Identity's eschatology is millennialist.

Christian Identity is characterized as racist, antisemitic, and white supremacist by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.[2]

Estimates of the number of adherents in the United States in 2014 ranged from two thousand to fifty thousand.[3]

Origins

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Relationship to British Israelism

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Main article: British Israelism

The Christian Identity movement emerged in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s as an offshoot of British Israelism.[4] Early British Israelites such as Edward Hine and John Wilson were philosemites.[5] The typical form of the British Israelite belief held that modern-day Jews were descended from the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, while the British and other related Northern European peoples were descended from the other ten tribes.[6] Christian Identity emerged in sharp contrast to British Israelism as a strongly antisemitic theology, and by the 1940s to 1970s, it was teaching that contemporary Jews were either descendants of Eurasian Khazars or literal descendants of Satan.[7]

Early influences

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British Israelism can be traced back to Great Britain in the 1600s, but in terms of its relationship to Christian Identity, a key text was Lectures on Our Israelitish Origin by John Wilson (1840).[8] Wilson was the first to formalize a distinction between the northern and southern kingdoms of Israel. Although Wilson's views were not originally antisemitic, they came to have great significance for modern Christian Identity adherents who believe that the northern tribes were carried off by the Assyrians and remained racially pure as they migrated into modern Europe, while the southern kingdom eventually became allied with Satan.[8]

In the 1920s, the writings of Howard Rand (1889–1991) began to have an influence.[9] Considered a transitional figure from British Israelism to Christian Identity rather than its actual founder,[10] Rand is known for coining the term "Christian Identity".[11] Rand's father raised him as a British Israelite, introducing him to J. H. Allen's work Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright (1902) by offering him five dollars ($78.48 in 2024) if he would read it and write a report on it.[12] Around 1924, Rand began to claim that the Jews are descended from Esau or the Canaanites rather than the tribe of Judah, although not going so far as to advocate the "serpent seed" doctrine.[13]

During the late 1920s, Anglo-Israelite writers began to compile research from 19th century writers Dominick McCausland, Alexander Winchell, and Ethel Bristowe, using them to develop five basic beliefs that would become the core tenets of Christian Identity doctrine. These were that Adamites represented Aryans as the chosen, that nonwhites were tainted through race-mixing, that the serpent in the story of the Fall was not a reptile, but the Devil himself, that the seedline of Cain came through a union of Satan (the serpent) and Eve, and that the Jews were descended from this unholy line and thus had a natural propensity for evil.[14]

In 1933, Rand founded the Anglo-Saxon Federation of America, an organization which began to promote the view that the Jews are not descended from Judah. Beginning in May 1937, there were key meetings of British Israelites in the United States who were attracted to this theory, and these meetings provided the catalyst for the eventual emergence of Christian Identity. By the late 1930s, the group's members considered Jews to be the offspring of Satan and demonized them, and they also demonized non-Caucasian races.[15] Rand, however, rejected the satanic origin theories. This doctrine came to confirm the explicit separation between British-Israelism and Christian Identity.[16]

Links between Christian Identity and the Ku Klux Klan were also forged in the late 1930s, but by then, the KKK was past the peak of its early twentieth-century revival.[17]

Emergence as a separate movement

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Christian Identity began to emerge as a separate movement in the 1940s, primarily over issues of racism and antisemitism rather than over issues of Christian theology.[18] Wesley Swift (1913–1970) is considered the father of the movement; so much so that every Anti-Defamation League publication which addresses Christian Identity mentions him.[19] Swift was a minister in the Angelus Temple Foursquare Church during the 1930s and 1940s before he founded his own church in Lancaster, California and named it the Anglo-Saxon Christian Congregation, reflecting the influence of Howard Rand.[20] In the 1950s, he was Gerald L. K. Smith's West Coast representative of the Christian Nationalist Crusade. In addition, he hosted a daily radio broadcast in California during the 1950s and 1960s, through which he was able to proclaim his ideology to a large audience. Due to Swift's efforts, the message of his church spread, leading to the founding of similar churches throughout the country.

Eventually, the name of his church was changed to the Church of Jesus Christ–Christian, today this name is used by Aryan Nations.[18] One of Swift's associates was retired Col. William Potter Gale (1917–1988). Gale became a leading figure in the anti-tax and paramilitary movements of the 1970s and 1980s, beginning with the California Rangers and the Posse Comitatus, and he also helped found the American militia movement.[21]

The future Aryan Nations founder Richard Girnt Butler, who was an admirer of Adolf Hitler and Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy, was introduced to Wesley Swift by William Potter Gale in 1962.[22] Swift quickly converted Butler to Christian Identity. When Swift died in 1971, Butler fought against Gale, James Warner, and Swift's widow for control of the church. Butler eventually gained control of the organization and moved it from California to Hayden Lake, Idaho in 1973.[23]

Lesser figures participated as Christian Identity theology took shape in the 1940s and 1950s, such as San Jacinto Capt, a Baptist minister and California Klansman, who claimed that he had introduced Wesley Swift to Christian Identity;[24] and Bertrand Comparet (1901–1983), a one-time San Diego Deputy City Attorney and associate of Gerald L. K. Smith.[25] Later Identity figures of the 1970s and 1980s include Sheldon Emry, Thomas Robb, and Peter J. Peters.[26]

The Christian Identity movement first received widespread attention from the mainstream media in 1984, when The Order, a neo-Nazi terrorist group, embarked on a murderous crime spree before it was suppressed by the FBI. The movement returned to public attention in 1992 and 1993, in the wake of the deadly Ruby Ridge confrontation, when newspapers discovered that right-wing separatist Randy Weaver had a loose association with Christian Identity believers.[27]

These groups are estimated to have two thousand members in the United States and an unknown number of members in Canada and the rest of the British Commonwealth. Due to the promotion of Christian Identity doctrines through radio and later through the Internet, an additional fifty thousand unaffiliated individuals are thought to hold Christian Identity beliefs.[3]

While most of the Identity groups of the 1960s and 1970s relied on mailing lists, publications, and cassette recordings to disseminate their teachings, later figures promoted their ministries using radio and television.[28] Pete Peters and his Scriptures for America program was considered to be one of the largest white supremacist radio ministries in the United States.[29] Additionally, Peters was an early pioneer in promoting Identity via the Internet.[30] Today, Christian Identity is promoted through the Internet by using blogs, podcasts, and other means. The most prominent Identity teacher today is William Finck.[31]

Beliefs

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Christian Identity theology promotes a racialist interpretation of Christianity.[32] In his book, Gods of the Blood, Swedish historian and scholar of comparative religion Mattias Gardell has noted that "Christian Identity is best understood as an umbrella concept under which a variety of different theologies are found".[33] He points out that there are considerable differences in dogma and religious practice between various ministries and groups.[33] Some Christian Identity churches preach with more violent rhetoric than others, but all of them believe that Celtic and Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxon, Nordic nations, or the Aryan race and kindred peoples are the true Israelites and that modern Jews have dispossessed them of their identity as God's chosen race.[34] Identity beliefs are conspiratorial, believing that all of history represents a great cosmic war between the forces of good and evil. It is all part of a Satanic plot to take control of creation.[35]

Christian Identity beliefs were primarily developed and promoted by two authors who considered Europeans to be the chosen people and considered Jews to be the cursed offspring of Cain, the serpent seed, a belief which is known as the dual-seedline or two-seedline doctrine. Wesley Swift formulated the doctrine which states that non-Caucasian peoples have no souls and therefore they can never earn God's favor or be saved.[36]

No single document expresses the Christian Identity belief system; there is much disagreement over the doctrines which are taught by those who ascribe to Identity beliefs, since there is no central organization or headquarters for the Identity sect. However, all Identity adherents believe that Adam and his offspring were exclusively White and they also believe that all non-white races are pre-Adamite races because they belong to separate species, a doctrinal position which implies that they cannot be equated with or derived from the Adamites.[37] Identity adherents cite passages from the Old Testament, including Ezra 9:2, Ezra 9:12, and Nehemiah 13:27, which they claim contain Yahweh's injunctions against interracial marriages.

Christian Identity adherents assert that the white people of Europe in particular or Caucasians in general are God's servant people, according to the promises that were given to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It further asserts that the early European tribes were really the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel and therefore the rightful heirs to God's promises, and God's chosen people. Colin Kidd wrote that in the United States, Christian Identity exploited "the puzzle of the Ten Lost Tribes to justify an openly anti-Semitic and virulently racist agenda."[38] According to Michael McFarland and Glenn Gottfried, Indentitarians developed their racist interpretation of Christianity because of its status as a traditional religion of the United States, which allowed them to advocate the belief that white Americans have a common identity, and because of the variety of possible interpretations of the Bible in the field of hermeneutics.[39]

While they seek to introduce a state of racial purity in the US, Christian Identitarians do not trust the Congress or the government, allegedly controlled by Jews, to support their agenda. In their view, this means that political changes can only be made through the use of force. However, the failed experience of the terrorist group The Order has forced them to acknowledge the fact that they are currently unable to overthrow the government by staging an armed insurrection against it. Thus, the Christian Identity movement seeks an alternative to violence and government change with the creation of a "White Aryan Bastion" or a White ethnostate, such as the Northwest Territorial Imperative.[40]

Being decentralized with no center of orthodoxy, individual pastors each have their own approach to biblical hermeneutics. However, the teacher-student relationship is how training and ordination occur, and is very important to an Identity congregation.[41]

Adamites and pre-Adamites

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Main article: Pre-Adamite

Much of the racism in Christian Identity is the result of the pre-Adamite hypothesis, which is a cornerstone of Identity theology.[42] Christian Identity adherents believe that Adam and Eve were only the ancestors of white people.[43] In this view, Adam and Eve were preceded by lesser, non-Caucasian races which are often (although not always) identified as "beasts of the field" (Genesis 1:25, Genesis 2:19–20) who took human form as a result of mating with Adamites.[42]

To support their theory on the racial identity of Adam, Christian Identity proponents point out that the Hebrew etymology of the word "Adam" (Aw-Dam) translates as "to show blood in the face, flush or turn rosey. Be dyed, made red (ruddy)", often quoting from James Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, and concluding that proves Adam as the ancestor of the Caucasian race.[44]

An influence on the Christian Identity movement's views on pre-Adamism was Charles Carroll's 1900 book The Negro a Beast or In the Image of God?[45] In his book, Carroll sought to revive the ideas which were previously presented by Buckner H. Payne, he described the Negro as a literal ape rather than a human being.[46] He claimed the pre-Adamite races such as blacks did not have souls and that race mixing was an insult to God because it spoiled his racial plan of creation. According to Carroll, the mixing of races had also led to the errors of atheism and evolutionism.[47]

Serpent seed

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Main article: Serpent seed

Dual Seedline Christian Identity proponents –those who believe that Eve bore children with Satan as well as with Adam – believe that Eve was seduced by the Serpent (Satan), shared her fallen state with Adam by having sex with him, and gave birth to twins with different fathers: Satan's son Cain and Adam's son Abel. This belief is referred to as the serpent seed doctrine. According to the "dual seedline" form of Christian Identity, Cain then became the progenitor of the Jews in his subsequent matings with members of the non-Adamic races.[48]

Seedline theology in Identity circles can take different forms. The most racist form of this belief that modern Jews are literal descendants of Satan. Other groups consider themselves to be authentic Jews and do not proclaim a hatred of Jews, although they are suspicious of them.[49]

Scientific racism

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See also: Curse of Ham and Curse and mark of Cain

Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism or racialism, the pseudoscientific belief that empirical evidence exists to support or justify racism, is the core tenet of Christian Identity, and most CI adherents are white nationalists who advocate racial segregation and the imposition of anti-miscegenation laws.[citation needed] Some CI adherents also believe that Jews are genetically compelled to carry on a conspiracy against the Adamic seedline by their Satanic or Edomite ancestry and they also believe that the Jews of today have achieved almost complete control of the Earth through their claim to hold the white race's status as God's chosen people.[50][non-primary source needed]

Identity adherents also assert that disease, addiction, cancer, and sexually transmitted infections (herpes and HIV/AIDS) are spread by human "rodents" via contact with "unclean" persons, such as "race-mixers". The apocrypha, particularly the first book of Enoch, is used to justify these social theories; the fallen angels of Heaven sexually desired Earth maidens and took them as wives, resulting in the birth of abominations, which God ordered Michael the Archangel to destroy, thus beginning a cosmic war between Light and Darkness. The mixing of separate things (e.g., people of different races) is seen as defiling all of them, and it is also considered a violation of God's law.[51]

Two House theology

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Main article: Two House theology

Like British Israelites, Christian Identity adherents believe in Two House theology, which makes a distinction between the Tribe of Judah and the Ten Lost Tribes. "Israel" was the name given to Jacob after he wrestled with the angel at Penuel as described in Genesis 32:26–32. Israel then had twelve sons which began the Twelve Tribes of Israel. Around 931 BC the unified kingdom was split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north and the Kingdom of Judah in the south. After northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered by Assyria at c. 721 BC, the ten tribes disappeared from the Biblical record.[52]

According to British-Israel doctrine, 2 Esdras 13:39–46 then records the history of the nation of Israel journeying over the Caucasus Mountains, along the Black Sea, to the Ar Sereth tributary of the Danube in Romania ("But they formed this plan for themselves, that they would leave the multitude of the nations and go to a more distant region, where no human beings had ever lived. ... Through that region there was a long way to go, a journey of a year and a half; and that country is called Arzareth"). The tribes prospered, and eventually colonised other European countries. Israel's leading tribe, the Tribe of Dan, is attributed with settling and naming many areas which are today distinguished by place names derived from its name – written ancient Hebrew contains no vowels, and hence "Dan" would be written as DN, but would be pronounced with an intermediate vowel dependent on the local dialect, meaning that Dan, Den, Din, Don, and Dun all have the same meaning. Various modern place names are said to derive from the name of this tribe:[52]

The following peoples and their analogous tribes are believed to be as follows:[53]

While British Israelites believe that modern Jews are descended from the tribe of Judah, Christian Identitarians believe that the true lineal descendants of Judah are not contemporary Jews, but are instead the modern-day Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Germanic, Nordic, and kindred peoples.[43]

Some followers claim that the Identity genealogy of the Davidic line can be traced to the royal rulers of Britain and Queen Elizabeth II.[54] Thus, Anglo-Saxons are the true Israelites, God's chosen people who were given the divine right to rule the world until the Second Coming of Christ.[52]

Identity adherents reject the label "antisemitic" by stating that they cannot be antisemitic because the true Semites "today are the great White Christian nations of the western world", with modern Jews being considered the descendants of the Canaanites.[55]

Views on homosexuality

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See also: Christianity and homosexuality

Identity preachers proclaim that, according to the Bible, "the penalties for race-mixing, homo-sexuality, and usury are death."[56]

Views on racial politics and economics

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The first documents which advocated Christian Identity's views on racial politics and economics were written by Howard Rand and William J. Cameron after the Great Depression. In 1943, Rand published the article "Digest of the Divine Law" which discussed the political and economic challenges which existed at that time. An excerpt from the article states: "We shall not be able to continue in accord with the old order. Certain groups are already planning an economy of regimentation for our nation; but it will only intensify the suffering and want of the past and bring to our peoples all the evils that will result from such planning by a group of men who are failing to take into consideration the fundamental principles underlying the law of the Lord."[57]

While Rand never formally named the groups which he was specifically referring to, his hatred of Jews, racial integration, and the country's economic state at that time made the direction of his comments obvious. Identifying specific economic problems was not the only goal which Rand had in mind. He began to analyze how these changes could be made to happen through legal changes; thus, making strategic plans to integrate the Bible into American law and economics. The first goal was to denounce all man-made laws and replace them with laws from the Bible. The second goal was to create an economic state which would reflect the teachings of the Bible.[58]

While William Cameron agreed with Rand's initial argument, he specifically focused his writings on changing American economics. One of Cameron's articles, "Divine System of Taxation", spoke of the Bible supporting individualism and social justice with regard to economics. He also believed that the government had no right to tax land or other forms of property. In accordance with this doctrine, tax refunds should be applied to family vacation trips or they should be applied to national festivals which are observed by adherents of Christian Identity. Also, for the betterment of the United States' economic future, no interest should be charged on debts which are paid with credit, and no taxes should be collected during the traveling time of goods from a manufacturer to a consumer.[59]

The mutual point which Rand and Cameron both agreed upon, was that while they may have disagreed with how the government was operating, neither of them resisted the government's current tax policies. Gordon Kahl was the first CI believer to study the founding principles of Rand and Cameron, and apply them in order to take action against the government. Kahl believed that they were on the right track with regard to what needed to be accomplished in order to change public policies. However, he felt that if no actions were taken against violators, no real changes would be made. In 1967, he stopped paying taxes because he felt he was paying "tithes to the Synagogue of Satan". Kahl killed two federal marshals in 1983. Before he was caught for the murders, Kahl wrote a note in which he said "our nation has fallen into the hands of alien people. ... These enemies of Christ have taken their Jewish Communist Manifesto and incorporated it into the Statutory Laws of our country and thrown our Constitution and our Christian Common Law into the garbage can."[60]

Opposition to the banking system

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Main article: Economic antisemitism

Identity doctrine asserts that the "root of all evil" is paper money (particularly Federal Reserve Notes), and that both usury and banking systems are controlled by Jews.[61] Exodus 22:25, Leviticus 25:35–37 and Deuteronomy explicitly condemn usury.[62] Ezekiel 18:13 states "He who hath given forth upon usury, and hath taken increase: shall he then live? He shall not live: he hath done all these abominations; he shall surely die; his blood shall be upon him" and it is quoted as a justification for killing Jews.

Christian Identity advocates the belief that the creation of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 shifted the control of money from Congress to private institutions and violated the Constitution and the monetary system encourages the Federal Reserve to take out loans, creating trillions of dollars in government debt, and allowing international bankers to control the United States. Credit/debit cards and computerised bills are seen as the fulfillment of the Biblical scripture which warns against "the beast" (i.e., banking) as quoted in Revelation 13:15–18.[63]

Identity preacher Sheldon Emry stated that "Most of the owners of the largest banks in America are of Eastern European (Jewish) ancestry and connected with the (Jewish) Rothschild European banks", thus, according to Identity doctrine, the global banking conspiracy is led and controlled by Jewish interests.[63] Emry used the radio airwaves to promote his Christian Identity message and his book Billions for the Bankers, Debts for the People. Emry promoted abolishing the banks, which he suggested would solve most of society's ills, including unemployment, divorce, and women working outside the home.[64]

Millenarianism and eschatology

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Further information: Millenarianism and Christian eschatology

Christian Identity is described as millenarian.[65]

Sociology professor James Aho describes Christian Identity eschatology as dispensational premillennialist, which includes a physical return of Christ to earth at the final battle of Armageddon.[66] However, in contrast with dispensationalism and some other millennialist forms of fundamentalist Christianity, Christian Identity adherents reject the notion of a rapture.[67] Identity preacher Sheldon Emry taught that the idea of a rapture is a Jesuit doctrine and John Nelson Darby, who initially formalized this eschatological concept, was an agent of the Jesuits.[68] In addition to rejecting rapture beliefs, Michael Barkun notes that Identity also breaks significantly from the dispensational eschatology of fundamentalism which is centered around Israel, which Christian Identity rejects.[69] For Identitarians who view Jews as the offspring of Satan, this leads them to view proponents of dispensational eschatology as agents of Satan.[70]

Identity predictions vary, and some include a race war or a Jewish-backed United Nations takeover of the US, and that they should wage a physical struggle against individuals and groups which serve the forces of evil.[71] While the Soviet Union has disappeared as a vital threat in their rhetoric, many Christian Identity adherents believe that Communists are secretly involved in international organizations like the United Nations, or the so-called "New World Order", in order to destroy the United States.[40]

Along with teaching that America is the true Israel, some Identity preachers teach that America is the Zion of Bible prophecy and will be the seat of Christ's earthly, millennial kingdom.[72]

Modern Identity proponents such as Mark Downey and William Finck teach a historicist view of eschatology.[73][74]

Organizations

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Rather than being an organized religion, Christian Identity is diverse and decentralized.[75] It is an ideology which is adhered to by a variety of groups. Some of these groups are churches and congregations, such as the Church of Jesus Christ–Christian,[76] Church of Israel,[77] LaPorte Church of Christ,[58] Elohim City,[78] Kingdom Identity Ministries,[79] and The Shepherd's Chapel. Others are activist groups and paramilitary organizations such as Aryan Nations,[80] Aryan Republican Army,[81] Assembly of Christian Soldiers, Christian Defense League,[82] The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord,[83] and White Patriot Party.[84] Other organizations that are not strictly Identity based, but have members who believe in Identity or have affiliations with believers in Identity are the Aryan Freedom Network and the Posse Comitatus.[85] Members of the prison gang Aryan Brotherhood adhere to Identity, but it prioritizes criminal enterprise over ideology.[86]

Hard versus soft Identity

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While most public and scholarly attention to Christian Identity focuses on the concern for possible criminal violence,[87] Swedish historian Mattias Gardell points out in Gods of the Blood that there are two strains of Christian Identity, which he categorizes as hardcore and soft Identity.[33] Similarly, David Brannan, writing in Terrorism and Political Violence, has called these two variations repentant and rebellious Identity.[88] Certain events during the 1980s and 1990s brought a more violent strain of Identity into public attention, contributing to the crystallization of these two schools of thought.[33] Gardell sees a likelihood of polarization continuing, thus resulting in two separate Aryan Israel religions.[89] Jeffrey Kaplan argues that Christian Identity represents revolution within the religious tradition of Christianity, but, using Dan Gayman's Church of Israel as an example, suggests that the typical pattern follows that of earlier millenarian movements in which the dominant motif is societal withdrawal rather than revolutionary violence. The outbursts of violence, per Kaplan, are not the norm and are relatively short.[90]

Hard or rebellious Identity

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Although most Identitarians have lived within the dominant culture, some Christian Identity groups on the fringe of the movement have been associated with revolutionary violence.[91] According to the Center on Terrorism, Extremism and Counterterrorism, "Christian Identity has developed a deep accelerationist current as a result of an active desire among CI adherents to expedite the Battle of Armageddon."[92] James Mason, the inspirational leader of the accelerationist "siege culture", was at one time a Christian Identity minister.[93] Leaders in this strain of Identity have included Richard Girnt Butler, James Wickstrom, 11th Hour Remnant Messenger, and Kingdom Identity Ministries.[89]

Tax resister and militia movement organizer Gordon Kahl had connections to the Christian Identity movement.[94] His death in a 1983 shootout with federal authorities made him the first martyr of the Posse Comitatus.[95] The Order, whose main objective was to start a white supremacist revolution against the United States, was almost entirely made up of individuals who were associated with various Christian Identity groups.[96] Bob Mathews, the founder of The Order, is also considered a martyr in the movement.[97]

Robert Millar's Elohim City, a white separatist community in Oklahoma which is associated with Christian Identity, is also associated with several violent acts. Chevie Kehoe spent time there following the Mueller family murders.[98] Timothy McVeigh called the compound prior to the Oklahoma City bombing and he is linked to community resident Andreas Strassmeir. Richard Wayne Snell is buried there. Midwest Bank bandit Kevin McCarthy was a resident.[99]

The Ozarks-based compound of The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord was the site of an FBI raid, which ultimately ended without shots fired as the result of CSA member Kerry Noble negotiating a surrender by CSA leader James Ellison.[100]

Within Christian Identity circles, the Phineas Priesthood is made up of individuals who have committed a "Phineas action"; a term used to reference a higher law as opposed to rejection of law itself.[101] This term is broadly used in reference to murders of interracial couples, murders of same-sex couples, antisemitic acts, and violent acts against members of other non-white ethnic groups.[102] According to Houston-area writer John Craig, mass shooter Larry Gene Ashbrook had ties to the Phineas Priesthood.[103] Byron De La Beckwith, the assassin of NAACP and Civil rights movement leader Medgar Evers, was also linked to the Phineas Priesthood.[104] Immediately prior to entering prison, De La Beckwith was ordained as a minister in the Temple Memorial Baptist Church, a Christian Identity congregation in Knoxville, Tennessee by Reverend Dewey "Buddy" Tucker.[105]

Soft or repentant Identity

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Soft Identity sees the concept of serpent seed theology as allegory. It dismisses National Socialism as secular diversion and ungodly occultism. It further rejects the vigilante concept of the Phineas Priesthood adopted by hardcore Identity, seeing it as misguided. The claim is that while they should be prepared for the final battle, the start button for the battle should be left to God, thus rejecting an accelerationist belief.[33]

Although they are not considered pacifists, leaders within "soft" Identity reject the violence of the more militant side, complaining that it has resulted in all of Identity being "painted with the same brush, thereby transforming Identity into an icon of evil in the public mind".[33] Leaders within this strain have sought to distance themselves from more militant strains by rejecting the "Identity" label and adopting terms like "Kingdom Israel" or "Covenant People".[33] The soft Identity school includes Pete Peters, Ted Weiland, Jack Mohr, and Dan Gayman.[89]

Brannan points out that most academic writing on Gayman focuses on the ideology of the greater Identity movement, glossing over his theology, as an agenda-driven polemic; further stating that although Gayman's theology is problematic, overstating the position and lumping all Identity together is dangerous.[106] Gayman takes a traditional view of Romans 13 and rejects the militia movement as illegitimate, drawing a firm distinction between repentant Identity and the rebellious forms.[107] Brannan concludes that repentant Identity has a more coherent presentation of theology, despite its academic or scholastic flaws. Thus, it is more theologically driven than the ideologically driven rebellious Identity.[108]

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Christian Identity

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from Grokipedia

Christian Identity is a fringe religious ideology within certain Protestant circles that asserts white Europeans of Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, and related descent constitute the true biblical , the lost tribes scattered after the Assyrian conquest, while denying this heritage to modern and identifying them instead as descendants of Cain through Eve's seduction by the serpent, per the dual seedline doctrine. This belief system, which developed primarily in the United States after , reframes around racial purity and separation, positing creation for non-white peoples and a divine mandate for as fulfillment of covenants. Its origins trace to 19th-century , a theory advanced by figures like John Wilson positing Anglo-Israelite lineage without the virulent anti-Semitism that later characterized American variants. Postwar proponents, including Wesley Swift, radicalized these ideas by incorporating theology, claiming as satanic progeny inimical to God's elect, thus providing pseudo-biblical justification for and opposition to . Organizations like the and embodied this fusion, promoting armed resistance against perceived Zionist conspiracies and federal overreach. Christian Identity has been linked to notable violence, including the 1980s crimes of The Order, a splinter group that robbed banks and assassinated a radio host to fund a white homeland, drawing directly from Identity teachings on impending racial holy war (RAHOWA). Though numerically small, with adherents estimated in the thousands rather than millions, its influence persists in decentralized online communities and overlaps with broader white nationalist networks, adapting to digital platforms despite scrutiny. Critics from academic and counter- perspectives, often institutionally aligned against conservative ideologies, highlight its role in , yet primary doctrinal texts reveal a consistent emphasis on literalist biblical twisted toward ethnocentric ends.

Historical Origins

Roots in British Israelism

British Israelism, a theological and pseudo-historical movement that gained prominence in 19th-century Britain, asserted that the Anglo-Saxon peoples were the direct descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel dispersed after the Assyrian conquest around 722 BCE. This identification stemmed from interpretations of biblical prophecies, such as those in 2 Kings 17 and , combined with claims of linguistic, cultural, and migratory parallels between ancient and Celtic or Germanic tribes, as articulated by early proponents like John Wilson in his 1840 publication Our Israelitish Origin. Originally philo-Semitic in tone, British Israelism viewed contemporary Jews as descendants of the while positioning the as the fulfillment of Israel's covenant blessings under the British monarchy as a continuation of King David's line. The movement's core tenet—that a distinct Israelite lineage persisted among Northern European peoples—laid the groundwork for 's racial , though lacked the latter's explicit and dual-seedline doctrines. Transmitted to the by the late through immigrants and publications, such as J.H. Allen's Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright (1902), it appealed to Protestant audiences seeking to reconcile with and . Organizations like the Anglo-Saxon Federation of America, founded by Howard B. Rand in 1933, disseminated these ideas, emphasizing empirical claims of origins from (Genesis 28:18) and heraldic symbols linking British insignia to Israelite tribes, while increasingly promoting the view that Jews were not descended from Judah. Christian Identity diverged from in the mid-20th century amid American socio-economic shifts, incorporating apocalyptic and separatist elements that recast Jews not as kin but as adversaries. A pivotal figure in this evolution was Wesley Swift (1913–1970), who encountered through Pentecostal circles in the early 1930s and reframed it via radio broadcasts starting in 1946, founding the to propagate the notion of white Europeans as God's elect . Swift's teachings, influenced by earlier American British Israelists like Howard B. Rand—who coined the term "Christian Identity" and shifted toward viewing Jews as descended from Esau or Canaanites—this transformation reflected not a rejection of 's foundational migrations and tribal identifications but an intensification, driven by figures who prioritized literalist over the original movement's ecumenical leanings.

Key Early Influences and Proponents

The transition from to Christian Identity in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s was significantly advanced by Howard B. Rand (1889–1991), raised in a British Israelite tradition and introduced to J.H. Allen's Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright (1902) by his father, who popularized the notion of "Identity" as a framework identifying Anglo-Saxon peoples with the biblical while increasingly questioning Jewish claims to Israelite descent, claiming around 1924 that Jews descended from Esau or Canaanites rather than Judah. Rand disseminated these ideas through his Kingdom Message newsletter starting in 1928 and the Anglo-Saxon Federation of America, laying groundwork for the racialized theology that distinguished Christian Identity from its philo-Semitic precursor, with early antisemitic shifts viewing Jews as non-Israelite or even satanic offspring. A pivotal proponent emerged in Wesley Swift (1913–1970), a California-based minister and former organizer who, starting in the mid-1940s, fused with explicit antisemitic doctrines, preaching that white Europeans constituted the true while portraying as satanic impostors. Swift founded the in , in 1957, where he developed core Identity tenets including the pre-Adamite theory and serpent seed doctrine, influencing subsequent white supremacist groups through radio broadcasts and printed materials that reached thousands. His ministry explicitly rejected mainstream interpretations, emphasizing racial purity as divine mandate, and by the 1960s, Swift's church served as a hub for early Identity adherents. Gerald L.K. Smith (1898–1976), a populist preacher and political activist, further propelled Identity ideas during this era by integrating them into antisemitic platforms, arguing in writings and speeches from the 1930s onward that America's covenantal blessings derived from Anglo-Saxon Israelite heritage rather than inclusive biblical universalism. Smith's alliances with isolationist and segregationist causes amplified these views among mid-20th-century audiences, bridging theological Identity with political extremism, though his influence waned post-World War II amid broader repudiations of overt racism. These figures collectively shifted British Israelism toward a militant, racially exclusive ideology by the 1950s, setting the stage for later organizations like the Aryan Nations.

Emergence as a Distinct Ideology

Christian Identity crystallized as a distinct in the United States during the and , primarily through the innovations of Wesley Swift (1913–1970), who radicalized by infusing it with virulent anti-Semitism and racial separatism. Swift, initially a Methodist minister influenced by earlier Anglo-Israelist figures, relocated to around 1944 and began preaching that white Europeans represented the true biblical , while were satanic impostors descended from via Eve's seduction by the serpent—a departure from 's view of as fellow Semites or lost tribesmen. This "dual-seedline" framework, absent in mainstream , positioned racial purity as a divine imperative and non-whites as inferiors, transforming a speculative into an explicitly supremacist . Swift formalized these teachings by establishing the Church of Jesus Christ–Christian in Lancaster, California, on October 5, 1957, which became a nexus for disseminating Identity doctrine via weekly radio broadcasts reaching up to 15,000 listeners and recordings of over 600 sermons. His emphasis on Jews as "synagogue of Satan" (Revelation 2:9) and architects of global conspiracies, coupled with calls for armed white resistance against perceived racial dilution, marked a sharp divergence from British Israelism's non-confrontational focus on British exceptionalism. Swift's ministry attracted Klansmen, neo-Nazis, and disaffected veterans, blending biblical literalism with post-World War II anxieties over desegregation and communism, which he equated with Jewish influence. Following Swift's death on March 1, 1970, his protégé Richard Girnt Butler perpetuated and amplified the ideology, founding the Aryan Nations compound in Hayden Lake, Idaho, in 1974 as a Christian Identity headquarters that hosted annual congresses drawing hundreds of adherents. By this period, the movement had fully separated from British Israelism's ecumenical strains, prioritizing eschatological warfare where whites, as God's elect, would triumph over satanic forces in an impending race war—a synthesis of theology and militancy that propelled its growth amid 1960s civil rights upheavals.

Core Theological Doctrines

Identification of Israel and the Lost Tribes

Christian Identity adherents maintain that the ten northern tribes of ancient , comprising , , Dan, , Gad, Asher, , , , and Manasseh, were deported by the Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE and subsequently lost their distinct identity through migration rather than assimilation. This aligns with Two House theology, which distinguishes the Tribe of Judah—often linked to modern Jews in earlier British Israelism—from the Ten Lost Tribes, asserting that European peoples ultimately represent the latter as God's chosen descendants. Proponents assert these tribes traversed the region, intermingled with and Cimmerian groups, and dispersed across , where they formed the ancestral stock of modern white populations, including , , Germans, Scandinavians, and related ethnicities. This identification derives from interpretations of biblical prophecies, such as those in Genesis 48–49 and Deuteronomy 33, which describe Israel's future blessings in terms of national greatness, , and material prosperity—attributes proponents attribute to European nations rather than contemporary Jewish populations. Within this framework, specific tribes are mapped to modern peoples: the is frequently equated with the and Commonwealth, reflecting promises of multitude and fruitfulness; Manasseh with the , embodying a "fullness of nations"; while other tribes correspond to continental European groups, such as Dan to the or Irish, and Asher to Scandinavians. Adherents argue that these descendants, as true , inherit the Abrahamic covenant's spiritual and material promises, including divine favor and separation from other races, evidenced by historical migrations documented in ancient Assyrian records and later European ethnogenesis. This doctrine explicitly distinguishes white Europeans from Jews, whom Christian Identity teaches are not descendants of biblical Israel but rather converts from Khazar or Edomite lineages, lacking genetic or covenantal continuity with the ancient . Such views position white Christians as the sole legitimate heirs to 's identity, with the "lost" tribes' rediscovery serving as fulfillment of prophecies like regarding the regathering of . Critics from organizations monitoring note that these identifications lack empirical support from , , or , relying instead on selective biblical and 19th-century Anglo-Israelist literature.

Pre-Adamites and Racial Origins

The hypothesis posits that human-like beings existed prior to the biblical , often interpreted as non-white races created by separately from the Adamic line, which adherents claim represents the white European peoples. All Christian Identity adherents believe that Adam and his offspring were exclusively white, with non-white races regarded as pre-Adamites belonging to separate species that cannot be equated with or derived from Adamites. In Christian Identity theology, this doctrine serves as a foundational racial origin narrative, distinguishing —descended from , formed in 's image (Genesis 1:26–27)—from pre-Adamites, depicted as soulless "beasts of the field" (Genesis 1:25) or "mud people" lacking divine spiritual endowment. This interpretation diverges from mainstream biblical , which views as the of all humanity (Acts 17:26), but aligns with Christian Identity's emphasis on racial covenantal exclusivity. Proponents assert that pre-Adamites were formed earlier in the Genesis creation account, possibly from base elements like mud, as inferior creations not possessing the "breath of life" that imparts eternal souls to . Such views reinforce the ideology's claim that only whites fulfill the divine mandate to subdue the earth (Genesis 1:28), portraying non-whites as eternal servants or adversaries outside God's redemptive plan. Historically, traces to 17th-century theologian Isaac La Peyrère's Prae-Adamitae (1655), which reconciled scriptural timelines with ethnographic evidence of diverse peoples by suggesting Gentiles as pre-Adamite descendants of earlier creations; Christian Identity adapts this framework in the to underpin white supremacist , where pre-Adamites embody chaos or satanic influence predating the ordered Adamic covenant. While empirical contradicts racial soul distinctions—demonstrating shared human ancestry via tracing to African origins around 150,000–200,000 years ago—the doctrine persists in Identity circles as a literalist bulwark against egalitarian interpretations of scripture.

Serpent Seed Interpretation

The Serpent Seed interpretation, also termed the dual-seedline or two-seedline doctrine, posits that the serpent in Genesis 3 physically seduced , resulting in the birth of as the offspring of rather than . Adherents interpret the enmity described in Genesis 3:15—"I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers"—as establishing two literal, genetic bloodlines: the "" (pure Adamic descendants, identified in Christian Identity as white Europeans or ) and the "seed of the serpent" (Cain's progeny, equated with or other non-white races as inherently satanic). This view contrasts with mainstream Christian , which understands the passage symbolically as spiritual conflict between humanity and evil, without implying literal procreation by the serpent. Within Christian Identity theology, Cain's lineage is traced through the (descendants of Cain mentioned in Genesis 4:17-22 and 1 Chronicles 2:55), portrayed as a subversive, evil race infiltrating and opposing God's . Proponents argue this explains biblical patterns of enmity, such as Cain's of Abel (Genesis 4:8) and the Jews' rejection of Christ, framing Jews as the "" (:9). Abel and subsequent pure lines from (Genesis 4:25) are seen as preserving the Adamic race, which Christian Identity adherents claim migrated to become the lost tribes of among peoples. The doctrine reinforces racial separation, asserting that intermixing with the corrupts the divine covenant bloodline. Not all Christian Identity adherents endorse the literal sexual interpretation; "single-seedline" variants attribute Jewish identity to Esau's intermarriage with Canaanites (Genesis 36) or Edomites, viewing the enmity as adoptive or cultural rather than strictly genetic from Eden, while dual-seedline forms assert modern Jews as literal descendants of Satan through Cain. Dual-seedline proponents, or "seedliners," dominate more extreme factions, using the theory to justify antisemitic narratives and eschatological conflicts where the serpent seed faces divine judgment. This interpretation emerged in its modern form during the 20th century among Identity groups, drawing on earlier fringe biblical readings but adapted to support racialist ideologies, though it lacks support in historical church councils or patristic writings. Critics, including evangelical scholars, reject it as eisegesis—reading preconceived racial biases into the text—unsupported by Hebrew linguistics or archaeological evidence of ancient Israelite genetics.

Divine Covenant and Racial Separation

In Christian Identity theology, the divine covenant—particularly the Abrahamic covenant outlined in Genesis 15 and 17—is interpreted as an unconditional racial pact between God and the white Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, and related peoples, identified as the true descendants of Abraham through the lost tribes of Israel. Adherents maintain that these promises of land, multiplication, and blessings (Genesis 12:1-3; 17:4-8) apply exclusively to this racial lineage, created in God's image as the Adamic race, with other peoples viewed as pre-Adamic or inferior creations lacking the same spiritual capacity. This covenantal exclusivity underscores a predestined role for whites to fulfill God's kingdom-building mandate, superseding any national or ethnic Jewish claims, which are dismissed as fraudulent. Racial separation is framed as a core covenantal obligation, derived from biblical prohibitions against intermarriage and mingling with non-Israelites, such as Deuteronomy 7:3-4, which warns that such unions turn children away from God and provoke divine wrath. Proponents like Wesley Swift, a foundational figure in mid-20th-century Christian Identity, taught that race-mixing corrupts the pure Adamic seed, violating God's separation of kinds at creation (Genesis 1:24-25) and inviting the curses of Deuteronomy 28, including dispersion and subjugation. This posits segregation not as social preference but as essential for preserving racial integrity and covenant blessings, with historical examples like Ezra 9-10 cited as mandates for purging foreign influences to restore Israel's favor. Theological texts within the movement emphasize that obedience to these separation imperatives enables the realization of covenant promises, such as national greatness and victory over enemies, while disobedience leads to racial dilution and eschatological judgment. Swift's sermons, for instance, portrayed the establishment of a white theocracy as the covenant's telos, where racial purity ensures spiritual election and the defeat of satanic (non-white or Jewish) forces. Critics from mainstream Christian perspectives reject this as a heretical distortion, but adherents defend it through literalist exegesis prioritizing racial genealogy over universalist interpretations of New Testament grace.

Social and Political Beliefs

Christian Identity’s racialized theology underpins its social and political views, including white supremacism, opposition to racial integration, and exclusion of non-whites from civil and religious equality; these positions stem from its belief that white Europeans are the true Israelites and that Jews and non-whites fall outside God’s covenant.

Views on Homosexuality and Morality

Christian Identity proponents regard homosexuality as an abomination explicitly condemned in Scripture, particularly Leviticus 20:13, which prescribes death for men who lie with men as with a woman. Adherents interpret this Mosaic law as binding upon true Israelites—identified as white Europeans—and advocate its enforcement as part of restoring divine order in society, viewing unrepentant homosexual acts as warranting capital punishment alongside race-mixing and usury. This stance extends fundamentalist opposition to sodomy into a theocratic framework, where failure to apply such penalties signals moral decay orchestrated by adversarial forces like Jews, whom they deem non-human offspring of Satan. Broader moral teachings emphasize strict adherence to Biblical , prioritizing patriarchal authority, racial , and procreation within heterosexual as divine mandates for preserving Israelite seedlines. , , and are decried as violations eroding structures essential to covenant identity, with proponents like Dan Gayman asserting that , , and Christ exemplified white racial purity incompatible with sexual deviance. and are similarly rejected as genocidal threats to white birthrates, framed as Satanic inversions of God's creational order in Genesis, where male headship and reflect cosmic hierarchy. These views derive from a dual-covenant theology distinguishing Israelites' ongoing obligation to Torah from Gentiles' grace, rejecting New Testament antinomianism as a Jewish ploy to undermine law-keeping. While internal variants differ on immediate implementation—soft strains favoring personal repentance over vigilantism—hardline factions, influenced by figures like Wesley Swift, integrate moral absolutism into militant eschatology, anticipating divine judgment on societal perversions as prelude to apocalyptic victory. Critics from organizations like the Southern Poverty Law Center highlight these positions as fueling hate, though such sources exhibit institutional biases favoring progressive norms over literalist exegesis. Empirical data on CI groups show consistent preaching against LGBTQ+ acceptance, with no recorded doctrinal evolution toward tolerance as of 2023 surveys of extremist ideologies.

Racial Politics and Intermarriage

Christian Identity adherents maintain that racial politics must prioritize the preservation of white European-descended peoples as the true , advocating for segregation or separation to uphold divine mandates against integration, which they interpret as a mechanism to erode God's covenantal lineage. This perspective gained traction amid opposition to the of the 1950s and 1960s, with proponents like Wesley Swift framing desegregation policies as orchestrated assaults on racial integrity by Jewish influences within a "Zionist Occupied Government" (ZOG). Such views align Christian Identity with broader white nationalist ideologies, emphasizing ethno-religious homogeneity over civic equality and rejecting as antithetical to biblical . Intermarriage between whites and non-whites is categorically prohibited within Christian Identity doctrine, regarded as a violation of God's creational order in Genesis 1:24-25 ("kind after kind") and explicit Old Testament commands against marrying foreigners, such as Deuteronomy 7:3, which they extend racially to prevent the corruption of Adamic bloodlines. Proponents assert that interracial unions constitute miscegenation leading to "race suicide" and divine retribution, mirroring the biblical judgments on ancient Israel for similar infractions, as non-whites are deemed pre-Adamite creations or serpent seed lacking full humanity. Wesley Swift, a foundational figure, preached that God forbade intermarriage with non-Israelites to avoid idolatry and genetic defilement, warning that such mixing invites satanic influence and societal collapse. Richard Butler, leader of the Aryan Nations (a Christian Identity-affiliated group founded in 1974), echoed this by enforcing racial purity oaths among followers, viewing intermarriage as treason against the divine racial hierarchy. These teachings underscore a causal link between racial intermingling and eschatological downfall, urging political activism to criminalize or socially stigmatize such unions.

Economic Critiques and Opposition to Usury

Christian Identity proponents interpret , particularly Deuteronomy 23:19-20, as prohibiting —defined as charging interest on loans—among fellow , whom they identify as white Europeans and their descendants, while permitting it toward foreigners. This scriptural stance underpins their advocacy for "biblical economics," which rejects interest-bearing as exploitative and contrary to God's covenant with . A key figure in articulating these views was Sheldon Emry, a Christian Identity who, in works like Billions for the Bankers, Debts for the People (), argued that enslaves producers through artificial debt creation, contrasting it with a debt-free, asset-backed aligned with principles such as the year debt forgiveness in Leviticus 25. Emry's framework, disseminated through Identity-affiliated networks, positioned as a mechanism of economic control that burdens farmers and workers, appealing to rural constituencies amid the U.S. farm crisis where foreclosures rose sharply, with over 200,000 farms lost between 1980 and 1985. Critiques extend to modern capitalism, viewed as predicated on and fiat currency, exemplified by the System, which Identity literature accuses of enabling perpetual debt cycles that transfer wealth from producers to financiers. Organizations like have published tracts such as The Temple of Imaginary Money: The Story of and Banking, framing central banking as a fraudulent scheme rooted in non-Israelite (implicitly Jewish) influence, advocating instead for self-sufficient, agrarian economies free from interest and speculation. This opposition intertwines with racial , positing as a tool for subjugating true under alien dominion, though proponents like Emry emphasized scriptural restoration over explicit violence. In practice, these economics manifest in calls for abolishing the —established in and blamed for inflating currency and eroding , with U.S. (M2) expanding from $3.6 billion in to over $20 trillion by 2023—and returning to like silver or , as referenced in biblical weights and measures. Such views gained traction among debt-burdened farmers, with Identity factions distributing materials promising liberation through covenantal finance, though mainstream economic analyses attribute farm distress primarily to market volatility and policy shifts rather than conspiratorial .

Eschatology and End-Times Prophecy

Christian Identity eschatology draws on premillennial dispensationalism but reinterprets biblical prophecies through a racial prism, positing that the end times will feature a divinely ordained conflict between white descendants of ancient Israel and their adversaries. Adherents anticipate a period of tribulation preceding Christ's Second Coming, during which societal collapse and racial strife will intensify, fulfilling prophecies in Revelation and Ezekiel as a struggle against Satanic forces embodied in Jews and non-whites. This view frames current events—such as perceived moral decay, immigration, and Jewish influence in global affairs—as signs of the approaching apocalypse, urging believers to prepare for spiritual and physical warfare. Central to this theology is the concept of a "racial holy war" (RAHOWA), popularized by figures like Richard Butler of the , where whites, as God's elect, triumph over the "seed of Satan" derived from the doctrine. are cast as the primary antagonists, controlling institutions to subjugate (whites) until divine intervention exposes and destroys them, as interpreted from passages like :9 and 3:9 regarding "those who say they are and are not." Non-whites are seen as tools or participants in this satanic opposition, with the tribulation culminating in their elimination or subjugation to restore racial purity. This apocalyptic narrative justifies militant preparation, with some groups viewing acts of violence as accelerating prophecy fulfillment. Post-tribulation, Christ returns to establish a millennial kingdom centered in , where redeemed white rule under , inheriting the as promised in Genesis 28:14 and Psalm 2:8. This era excludes or subordinates other races, aligning with Identity's covenantal theology that ties salvation and inheritance to racial lineage rather than individual alone. Proponents like Wesley emphasized this as the consummation of , with the often identified as a Jewish figure leading the final deception. While variants exist—some emphasizing passive waiting, others active resistance—the core reinforces separation and supremacy as eschatological imperatives.

Organizations and Leadership

Major Historical Groups

The , established by Wesley Swift in during the 1940s, represented an early institutionalization of Christian Identity doctrines, transforming British-Israelism into a that identified white as the lost tribes of while portraying as satanic impostors. Swift, who had prior involvement with the , used the church to broadcast radio sermons and distribute literature that fused with racial , attracting followers amid opposition to civil advancements. The laid groundwork for later Identity networks by emphasizing armed and apocalyptic prophecies tailored to white racial preservation. After Swift's death in 1970, his associate Richard Girnt Butler assumed leadership and relocated the church to Hayden Lake, Idaho, in 1974, renaming it the Aryan Nations and integrating it with neo-Nazi symbolism while retaining core Christian Identity tenets. The compound served as a gathering point for annual "World Congresses" starting in the late 1970s, where adherents coordinated strategies against perceived federal overreach and interracial integration, often blending Identity theology with paramilitary training. Butler's group influenced splinter factions through its publications and alliances, though internal disputes and legal challenges fragmented it by the 1990s. The Covenant, Sword, and Arm of the Lord (CSA), founded by James Ellison in 1971 near , , embodied a hardline, survivalist variant of Christian Identity, constructing a fortified compound that hosted Identity believers and trained in guerrilla tactics under the banner of defending the "covenant people" against end-times threats. Ellison, influenced by Butler's teachings, promoted a of imminent racial holy war, leading to alliances with groups like The Order, which carried out robberies and murders in the 1980s to fund Identity-inspired resistance. Federal raids in 1985 dismantled the CSA after discoveries of weapons caches and plots, marking a significant early crackdown on Identity formations. Posse Comitatus, initiated by William Potter Gale in the early 1970s in California, incorporated Christian Identity views into an anti-tax and anti-federal framework, positing that true Israelites (whites) held inherent sovereignty at the county level, unbound by higher authorities seen as tools of Jewish influence. Gale, a Swift contemporary and military veteran, organized chapters that distributed Identity literature and advocated "sheriff's posses" for law enforcement, influencing later militia ideologies despite lacking formal church structure. The group's emphasis on constitutional literalism intertwined with racial covenant theology waned after Gale's death in 1988, but its ideas persisted in sovereign citizen circles. The Christian Defense League, formed in the mid-20th century by figures including and James K. Warner, functioned as a segregationist vanguard with Identity undertones, mobilizing against desegregation through units like the and promoting white . Though short-lived, it bridged Swift's ecclesiastical efforts with broader right-wing mobilization, foreshadowing the fusion of and in subsequent groups.

Prominent Figures and Their Contributions

Wesley Swift (1913–1970), a former Methodist minister and U.S. Navy chaplain during , founded the in , in 1946, establishing it as a central hub for early Christian Identity propagation through weekly radio broadcasts and sermons attended by up to 1,000 people. Swift's key contributions included synthesizing with the "" doctrine, asserting that Eve's seduction by the serpent produced a satanic lineage embodied in modern as Edomites, while white represented the true of biblical covenant. His teachings, disseminated via recorded sermons sold nationwide, influenced subsequent leaders by framing racial separation as divine mandate and portraying as inherent enemies of God's elect. Richard Girnt Butler (1918–2004), an aeronautical engineer who joined Swift's ministry in the 1950s, advanced Christian Identity's organizational reach by relocating to , in 1973 and establishing the compound on 20 acres, which served as headquarters for the . Butler's contributions centered on convening annual World Congresses starting in the late , gatherings that drew hundreds of white supremacists, neo-Nazis, and Identity adherents to network, recruit, and reinforce doctrines of white racial purity as fulfillment of biblical prophecy. Under his leadership until 2004, the group promoted armed resistance against perceived ZOG (Zionist Occupied Government) threats, though Butler emphasized theological framing over direct violence. William Potter Gale (1916–1988), a retired U.S. Army lieutenant colonel and World War II veteran, contributed to Christian Identity's militant and anti-government dimensions by co-founding the Posse Comitatus organization in 1971, which rejected federal authority in favor of county-level sovereignty rooted in Identity's view of whites as God's chosen under common law. Gale established paramilitary training camps through his Ministry of Christ Church in California during the 1960s and 1970s, training adherents in survivalism and vigilante tactics while preaching that non-whites and Jews posed existential threats to Israelite identity. His writings and speeches linked Identity theology to practical opposition against usury, taxation, and integration, influencing the growth of tax protestor and sovereign citizen movements infused with racial eschatology.

Internal Variants and Debates

Soft Identity: Repentant and Dual-Covenant Approaches

Soft Identity within the Christian Identity movement represents theological variants that interpret key doctrines, such as theory, allegorically rather than literally, thereby softening racial dualism and emphasizing spiritual renewal over confrontation. Adherents reject the "hard" seedline view positing as literal descendants of through Eve's seduction, instead framing as products of racial intermixing resulting in cursed lineages, which allows for less virulent rhetoric aimed at broader recruitment within patriot circles. Repentant approaches prioritize non-violence, obedience to civil authority as per , and collective by white Europeans—viewed as lost tribes of —to restore divine covenant blessings through adherence to . This strain, exemplified by figures like Dan Gayman of the , evolved from earlier rebellious emphases to focus on personal and communal moral reformation, portraying whites' historical as the cause of modern woes rather than external conspiracies alone. Proponents argue that true restoration comes via humility and law-keeping, not armed resistance, distinguishing themselves from militant factions by denying hate group labels and seeking legitimacy through toned-down publications like The Jubilee. Dual-covenant interpretations in these soft variants adapt standard covenant theology to racial identity by stressing the conditional Old Covenant demands on Israel (whites) for blessings, alongside the New Covenant's grace, but without extending salvific paths to non-Israelites or affirming separate Jewish covenants. This framework underscores repentance as fulfilling covenant obligations, viewing intermarriage or moral lapse as breaches forfeiting prosperity, yet allowing for allegorical flexibility that mitigates calls for separation or supremacy. Such positions, while retaining Anglo-Israelite core tenets, critique secular ideologies like National Socialism as distractions from scriptural fidelity. Overall, these approaches aim to preserve Identity beliefs through inward transformation, contrasting with rebellious strains' eschatological justifications for upheaval.

Hard Identity: Militant and Rebellious Strains

The hard identity variant within Christian Identity theology emphasizes militant resistance and rebellion against what adherents perceive as satanic Jewish control of governments and societies, often invoking biblical mandates for violent purification and apocalyptic warfare. This strain contrasts with softer interpretations by rejecting pacifism in favor of proactive "Phineas actions," drawing from the figure who speared an interracial couple to halt divine wrath, as interpreted in Richard Kelly Hoskins' 1990 book Vigilantes of Christendom. Adherents view such acts as divinely sanctioned lone-wolf operations against interracial mixing, abortion providers, and perceived enemies, promoting to evade infiltration. Prominent organizations embodying this militant ethos include the Aryan Nations, founded in the 1970s by Richard Girnt Butler as an extension of Wesley Swift's Church of Jesus Christ–Christian, which hosted annual Aryan World Congresses starting in 1981 at its Hayden Lake, Idaho compound to coordinate white supremacist activities and paramilitary training. Butler's dual-seedline doctrine—positing Jews as literal offspring of Satan via Eve's seduction—framed rebellion as a holy war against "Zionist Occupied Government" (ZOG), inspiring plots like the 1983 assassination attempt on Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center. Similarly, The Order (also known as the Silent Brotherhood), formed in September 1983 by Robert Jay Mathews in Washington state, comprised Christian Identity believers who conducted armed robberies netting over $250,000 from banks and armored cars between 1983 and 1984 to finance a revolutionary overthrow, culminating in the June 18, 1984 murder of Jewish radio host Alan Berg in Denver. These strains' rebellious theology often merges eschatological with immediate action, interpreting end-times battles as requiring white Israelite against non-white "pre-Adamic" races and Jewish "Edomites," as articulated in Swift's sermons from the onward. While core texts like the Bible's Numbers 25 justify , empirical outcomes include federal convictions: Mathews died in a 1984 FBI , and Order members received life sentences in 1985 trials. Post-1980s, Priesthood-inspired attacks persisted, such as Larry Steven McQuilliams' 2014 Austin rampage targeting synagogues and black churches before his death in a police . Despite mainstream Christian denominations' unanimous rejection of these interpretations as heretical distortions, hard identity proponents maintain their scriptural literalism necessitates to preserve racial purity for Christ's return.

Criticisms, Rebuttals, and Mainstream Rejection

Theological Critiques from Orthodox Christianity

Orthodox Christian theology rejects Christian Identity's core premise that white Europeans constitute the true physical descendants of biblical Israel, viewing it as a distortion of Scripture unsupported by historical or biblical evidence. The doctrine of British Israelism, upon which Christian Identity builds, posits a migration of the "lost tribes" to Europe, but biblical accounts indicate that following the Assyrian deportation in 721 BC, significant populations of northern kingdom Israelites remained in the region or integrated into Judah, with post-exilic texts referring to the collective as Jews or Israel without denoting permanent loss (Ezra 2:70; Nehemiah 7:73). Archaeological evidence, such as the population growth in Jerusalem from approximately 7,500 to 24,000 inhabitants around this period, further suggests refugee influx rather than wholesale disappearance or transcontinental migration. Linguistically, claimed etymological links—like "Saxon" from Hebrew "Isaac's sons" or "British" from "berit ish" (covenant man)—fail scrutiny, as "Saxon" derives from Germanic roots meaning knife-wielders, and "British" from Celtic and Latin precursors unrelated to Hebrew. Christian Identity's racial covenantalism, which limits God's redemptive promises to a putative Israelite lineage, contradicts the New Testament's emphasis on spiritual election over ethnic descent. Orthodox interpreters affirm that Abrahamic blessings extend through , not bloodline, as Paul articulates in Romans 9:6-8, distinguishing true by promise rather than physical progeny, and in Galatians 3:28-29, declaring no racial barriers in Christ. The movement's distinction between general for non-Israelites and exclusive "redemption" or kingdom inheritance for whites inverts orthodox , where encompasses full restoration by grace alone, without ethnic qualifiers (Ephesians 2:11-22). This racial exclusivity echoes Gnostic dualism more than apostolic teaching, prioritizing carnal descent over the church as the multinational (Revelation 7:9). The doctrine, positing as literal descendants of through and , represents a particular in Christian Identity , lacking any direct scriptural warrant and fostering ethnic enmity incompatible with . Genesis 3 describes temptation, not copulation, and 's lineage traces patrilineally to (Genesis 4:1; 5:1-5); claims of satanic impregnation rely on , ignoring humanity's unified origin "from one man" (Acts 17:26). Orthodox Christianity condemns this as a revival of ancient errors akin to or Cainite , which demoted to irredeemable foes, whereas Romans 11:17-24 portrays Gentiles as grafted into Israel's olive tree, with potential for Jewish restoration. Such views undermine the gospel's universality, as Christ ransoms "from every tribe and and and nation" (:9). Mainstream denominations, including evangelical and Reformed bodies, classify Christian Identity as a of fringe racialism with , not authentic , due to its subversion of core doctrines like Dei across races and the irrespective of ethnicity. Critics from ministries argue it promotes a false of ethnocentric works , alienating adherents from the ecumenical witness of the historic church creeds, which affirm one holy catholic and apostolic faith without racial provisos. While Christian Identity adherents cite Old Testament blessings on , orthodox exegesis relocates these typologically to the community, fulfilling promises in Christ for all nations (:19; Acts 10:34-35).

Charges of Racism, Antisemitism, and Supremacism

Critics, including the (ADL), have characterized Christian Identity (CI) as inherently , , and supremacist due to its core doctrinal assertions that assign racial hierarchies based on biblical interpretations. CI theology posits that white Europeans descend from the ancient , positioning them as God's elect race with a divine covenant, while portraying as impostors and eternal adversaries. This framework, derived from and elaborated in the U.S., explicitly rejects Jewish claims to biblical heritage, framing non-whites as "beasts of the field" or inferior creations lacking souls, thereby justifying racial separation and dominance. Central to charges of is the "two-seedline" doctrine, prevalent in "hard" CI variants, which alleges that Eve's seduction by the serpent produced as the progenitor of , described as literal offspring of destined for destruction. Proponents like Wesley Swift, founder of the in 1946, propagated this view, blending it with claims of Jewish conspiracies controlling global finance and media, echoing historical antisemitic tropes. The ADL documents how such teachings merge racism and antisemitism, inculcating believers with a that views as irredeemable enemies responsible for societal ills, including denial implicit in denying their Israelite identity. Academic analyses, such as those in Michael Barkun's Religion and the Racist Right (1997), trace these ideas to 19th-century origins but highlight their weaponization in 20th-century U.S. , where they rationalize violence against perceived racial threats. Racism charges arise from CI's depiction of racial mixing as an unpardonable sin akin to against God's chosen, with leaders like Richard Butler of (founded 1974) preaching that non-whites are subhuman "mud races" unfit for intermarriage or equality. The (SPLC) reports CI's influence on white supremacist groups, including networks, where biblical supports segregationist policies and opposition to civil rights advancements post-1960s. Supremacism is evident in eschatological predictions of a racial holy war (RAHOWA), where whites triumph over inferiors, as articulated in CI literature from the 1980s onward, framing white dominance as providential mandate rather than mere preference. While CI adherents counter that their views reflect scriptural literalism without hatred, critics from organizations like the ADL and academic observers argue the doctrines' practical effects foster exclusionary violence, as seen in associations with events like the 1983 sedition trial.

Empirical and Historical Counterarguments

Genetic studies of from Bronze and remains in the demonstrate that modern Jewish populations, including , retain substantial ancestry from Canaanite and ancient Israelite forebears, with analyses of 93 individuals showing that Jewish groups derive at least 50% of their genetic heritage from these populations. Y-chromosome haplogroups among Jewish males, such as J1 and J2, align with Middle Eastern origins predating the Assyrian exile, indicating patrilineal continuity from ancient Israelite communities rather than wholesale replacement by non-Semitic groups. In contrast, European populations exhibit predominant Indo-European genetic markers from steppe migrations around 3000–2500 BCE, with no significant influx of Levantine Semitic lineages corresponding to the purported migration of the Ten Lost Tribes circa 722 BCE. Archaeological records from the Assyrian provide no evidence of mass deportation or survival of distinct Israelite tribal identities en route to ; instead, tablets document resettlement of exiles in northern , where assimilation into local Aramean and societies occurred over subsequent centuries. Excavations in Britain and northern reveal Celtic and Germanic material cultures from the onward, lacking Semitic artifacts, inscriptions, or burial practices akin to those of the , such as Philistine pottery or Israelite four-room houses. Linguistic evidence further undermines claims of Israelite descent, as spoken by Anglo-Saxon peoples show no Semitic substrate influences traceable to Hebrew or Phoenician, unlike the and Persian loanwords evident in post-exilic Jewish texts. Historical analyses of , a precursor to Christian Identity doctrines, highlight the absence of primary sources linking European monarchies or tribes to Davidic lineages; proponents rely on speculative etymologies (e.g., "Saxon" from "Isaac's sons") dismissed by philologists for ignoring established Germanic roots. Post-exilic biblical accounts, including and (circa 458–445 BCE), describe returnees from identifying as Judahites and Benjaminites, with no mention of northern tribal remnants reemerging from , contradicting expectations of a separate Israelite in the . Refugee absorption into Judah after 722 BCE, evidenced by shifts in Judean styles incorporating northern motifs, suggests demographic continuity in the south rather than transcontinental dispersal.

Influence, Impact, and Current Status

Historical Role in Extremist Movements

Christian Identity theology provided a religious framework for several white supremacist organizations in the United States during the 1970s and 1980s, emphasizing racial separatism, anti-Semitism, and apocalyptic conflict as divinely ordained within its millennialist eschatology. The Aryan Nations, founded in 1974 by Richard Girnt Butler in Hayden Lake, Idaho, explicitly centered its ideology on Christian Identity teachings, portraying white Anglo-Saxons as God's chosen people in a cosmic struggle against Jews and non-whites. Annual Aryan Nations "World Congresses," beginning in the late 1970s, functioned as ideological hubs that united disparate extremists, including neo-Nazis and Ku Klux Klan members, fostering alliances and plans for racial holy war. These gatherings, attended by hundreds at their peak, amplified Identity's dual-seedline doctrine—claiming Jews as satanic offspring—directly influencing subsequent violent actions. In the early 1980s, The Order (also known as the Silent Brotherhood), established in September 1983 by Robert Mathews in Washington state, integrated Christian Identity elements into its neo-Nazi program of revolutionary violence. Inspired by Identity's portrayal of a Zionist Occupied Government (ZOG) oppressing true Israelites, the group conducted armed robberies netting over $3.6 million, counterfeited currency, and bombed a synagogue before assassinating Jewish radio host Alan Berg on June 18, 1984, in Denver, Colorado, viewing him as a symbol of Jewish media control. The Order's 14-month campaign, which ended with Mathews's death in a FBI shootout on Whidbey Island in December 1984, demonstrated Identity's appeal in mobilizing small cells for terrorism, with members declaring their acts as fulfilling biblical mandates for racial purification. Convictions of 10 members in federal court highlighted the group's fusion of religious zeal with paramilitary tactics. The movement, emerging in the late 1960s under —a former military officer and early Christian Identity proponent—wove Identity theology into its anti-government, county-sovereignty ideology, rejecting federal authority as illegitimate Jewish tyranny, including opposition to usury and the Federal Reserve system as mechanisms of economic control. Active through the 1970s and 1980s, Posse chapters promoted armed resistance, , and tactics, with Gale's Ministry of Christ Church explicitly teaching Identity doctrines like non-white origins. A pivotal event was the February 1983 shootout in Medina, , where Posse adherent , convicted of , killed two federal marshals and wounded three others before dying in a subsequent firefight; Kahl's cited Identity-inspired grievances against ZOG. Such incidents, numbering over a dozen violent confrontations by the mid-1980s, underscored Posse's role in bridging Identity with sovereign citizen extremism, influencing later formations. By the 1990s, Christian Identity's extremist strain gained traction amid anti-government sentiments following the 1992 —where , influenced by Identity contacts, resisted federal agents, resulting in the deaths of his wife and son—and the 1993 , which killed 76 . These events radicalized militia groups, with Identity providing theological justification for viewing the federal government as satanic and arming for impending race war; estimates placed Identity adherents in up to 20% of militia units by mid-decade. While not monolithic, Identity's narrative of divine racial destiny fueled recruitment and rhetoric in organizations like the , contributing to a surge in domestic plots, though direct causation varied by group. Federal monitoring intensified post-Oklahoma City bombing in 1995, revealing Identity's undercurrent in broader right-wing networks despite its fringe status. In 1998, Victoria Keenan and her son were fired upon by security guards at the Aryan Nations compound in Hayden Lake, Idaho, after their vehicle backfired, prompting a civil lawsuit against the group and its leader, Richard Girnt Butler, who promoted Christian Identity doctrines. The Southern Poverty Law Center represented the plaintiffs, securing a $6.3 million judgment in September 2000 after a federal jury found the organization negligent in supervising its armed guards, leading to the forfeiture of the 20-acre compound and the effective dissolution of the Aryan Nations as Butler could not pay. This case marked a significant civil strategy to dismantle white supremacist infrastructure tied to Christian Identity theology, though critics of the SPLC, including some legal scholars, have questioned its tactics as potentially overreaching in targeting ideological groups rather than solely criminal acts. Criminal prosecutions have targeted individuals and cells drawing on Christian Identity for justification of violence, notably The Order (also known as the Silent Brotherhood), founded by Robert Jay Mathews in 1983. Influenced by Identity beliefs in a coming racial holy war, the group assassinated Jewish radio host Alan Berg in Denver on June 18, 1984, and conducted armored car robberies yielding over $3.6 million to fund insurgent activities. Mathews died in a December 8, 1984, shootout with FBI agents on Whidbey Island, Washington, after which 15 members were convicted in 1985 under racketeering statutes, with sentences including life imprisonment for key figures like David Lane. These convictions, upheld on appeal, highlighted federal use of RICO laws against Identity-linked militancy, disrupting networks that viewed non-whites and Jews as biblical adversaries. Societal backlash has included sustained monitoring by law enforcement, with the FBI classifying Christian Identity as a domestic in assessments due to its role in motivating , as detailed in declassified files from the onward. Mainstream Christian denominations, such as evangelicals and mainline Protestants, have issued theological repudiations, with organizations like the Christian Research Institute labeling it a heretical distortion promoting racism over scriptural orthodoxy. Advocacy groups like the and have tracked and publicized its associations with hate crimes, contributing to efforts, though such monitoring has faced accusations of conflating belief with inevitable violence. Post-9/11 counterterrorism shifts further marginalized overt Identity expressions, reducing visible gatherings while driving adaptations online.

Contemporary Presence and Adaptations

In the 2020s, Christian Identity maintains a marginal presence primarily through decentralized online networks rather than large organized churches or compounds, reflecting a shift from its peak in the late . Estimates of the number of adherents in the United States around 2014 ranged from two thousand to fifty thousand, with the ideology practiced by independent individuals, independent congregations, and some prison gangs. Traditional congregations have largely declined due to leadership deaths, internal fractures, and legal pressures, leaving remnants such as in and isolated study groups. Its presence remains concentrated in the United States, with limited international footprint beyond historical British-Israelism echoes. This reduced physical footprint is offset by digital dissemination via websites like Christogenea and Telegram channels, where approximately 15 dedicated CI-focused groups operate, attracting subscribers in the hundreds to low thousands each. Adaptations in propagation strategies emphasize ideological into broader white nationalist and neofascist circles, using CI tenets to provide theological justification for accelerationist and antisemitic mobilization. Key figures such as William Finck and Billy Roper promote these ideas through podcasts, forums, and affiliations with groups like the Shieldwall Network and Proud Goys, blending CI's racial with contemporary narratives. This co-optive approach targets militant Christian nationalists, embedding concepts like the "" and numeric codes (e.g., "83" for racial holy war) into over 30 Telegram channels to radicalize audiences indirectly. Such tactics represent an from overt formations to subtler influence within the far-right ecosystem, sustaining CI's core beliefs amid mainstream rejection. Empirical indicators of persistence include sporadic rhetorical appearances in domestic extremist incidents, though direct CI attribution remains rare compared to its historical role in events like the 1980s Order activities. No significant institutional growth or doctrinal reforms have emerged to broaden appeal beyond fringe audiences, underscoring its adaptation as a radicalizing undercurrent rather than a standalone movement.

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