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Bread
Loaves of bread in a basket
Various leavened breads
Main ingredientsFlour, water
  • Cookbook: Bread
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Bread is a baked food product made from water, flour, and often yeast. It is a staple food across the world, particularly in Europe and the Middle East. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diets. It is one of the oldest human-made foods, having been of significance since the dawn of agriculture, and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture.

Bread may be leavened by naturally occurring microbes (e.g. sourdough), chemicals (e.g. baking soda), industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration, which creates the gas bubbles that fluff up bread. Bread may also be unleavened. In many countries, mass-produced bread often contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, nutrition, and ease of production.

Etymology

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The Old English word for bread was hlaf (hlaifs in Gothic: modern English loaf) which appears to be the oldest Teutonic name.[1] Old High German hleib[2] and modern German Laib derive from this Proto-Germanic word, which was borrowed into some Slavic (Czech: chléb, Polish: bochen chleba, Russian: khleb) and Finnic (Finnish: leipä, Estonian: leib) languages as well.

The Middle and Modern English word bread appears in other Germanic languages, such as West Frisian: brea, Dutch: brood, German: Brot, Swedish: bröd, and Norwegian and Danish: brød; it may be related to brew or perhaps to break, originally meaning "broken piece", "morsel".[3][better source needed]

Fraud

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Bread has been subject to food fraud and adulteration with fillers. In medieval times, sand was used as a filler.[4] The Russo-Ukrainian War has made sourcing wheat flour more challenging and raised concerns of bread flour fraud.[5]

History

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Main article: History of bread

Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods.[citation needed] Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe and Australia revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants.[6][7] It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked into a primitive form of flatbread. The oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in a 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert.[8][9] Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally.[10]

Woman baking bread (c. 2200 BC); Louvre

An early leavened bread was baked as early as 6000 BC in southern Mesopotamia, cradle of the Sumerian civilization, who may have passed on the knowledge to the Egyptians around 3000 BC. The Egyptians refined the process and started adding yeast to the flour. The Sumerians were already using ash to supplement the dough as it was baked.[11]

There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread. Airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer, called barm, to produce "a lighter kind of bread than other peoples" such as barm cake. Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast. The most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day to use as a form of sourdough starter, as Pliny also reported.[12][13]

The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans all considered the degree of refinement in the bakery arts as a sign of civilization.[11]

The Chorleywood bread process was developed in 1961; it uses the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf. The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of grain with a lower protein content, is now widely used around the world in large factories. As a result, bread can be produced very quickly and at low costs to the manufacturer and the consumer. However, there has been some criticism of the effect on nutritional value.[14][15][16]

Types

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Main article: List of breads
Brown bread (left) and whole grain bread
Dark sprouted bread
Ruisreikäleipä, a flat rye flour loaf with a hole

Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe, and in European-derived cultures such as those in the Americas, Australia, and Southern Africa. This is in contrast to parts of South and East Asia, where rice or noodles are the staple. Bread is usually made from a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and baked in an oven. Carbon dioxide and ethanol vapors produced during yeast fermentation result in bread's air pockets.[17] Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), common or bread wheat is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, which makes the largest single contribution to the world's food supply of any food.[18]

Bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including spelt, emmer, einkorn and kamut).[19] Non-wheat cereals including rye, barley, maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millet and rice have been used to make bread, but, with the exception of rye, usually in combination with wheat flour as they have less gluten.[20]

Gluten-free breads are made using flours from a variety of ingredients such as almonds, rice, sorghum, corn, legumes such as beans, and tubers such as cassava. Since these foods lack gluten, dough made from them may not hold its shape as the loaves rise, and their crumb may be dense with little aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are used to compensate for the lack of gluten.[21][better source needed][22][23][24]

  • Sangak, an Iranian flatbread
    Sangak, an Iranian flatbread
  • Strucia — a type of European sweet bread
    Strucia — a type of European sweet bread

Properties

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Physical-chemical composition

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In wheat, phenolic compounds are mainly found in hulls in the form of insoluble bound ferulic acid, where it is relevant to wheat resistance to fungal diseases.[25]

Rye bread contains phenolic acids and ferulic acid dehydrodimers.[26]

Three natural phenolic glucosides, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside and ferulic acid glucoside, can be found in commercial breads containing flaxseed.[27]

Small homemade bread with pumpkin and sunflower seeds

Glutenin and gliadin are functional proteins found in wheat bread that contribute to the structure of bread. Glutenin forms interconnected gluten networks within bread through interchain disulfide bonds.[28] Gliadin binds weakly to the gluten network established by glutenin via intrachain disulfide bonds.[28] Structurally, bread can be defined as an elastic-plastic foam (same as styrofoam). The glutenin protein contributes to its elastic nature, as it is able to regain its initial shape after deformation. The gliadin protein contributes to its plastic nature, because it demonstrates non-reversible structural change after a certain amount of applied force. Because air pockets within this gluten network result from carbon dioxide production during leavening, bread can be defined as a foam, or a gas-in-solid solution.[29]

Acrylamide, like in other starchy foods that have been heated higher than 120 °C (248 °F), has been found in recent years to occur in bread. Acrylamide is neurotoxic, has adverse effects on male reproduction and developmental toxicity and is carcinogenic. A study has found that more than 99 percent of the acrylamide in bread is found in the crust.[30]

A study by the University of Hohenheim found that industrially produced bread typically has a high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates due to a short rising time (often only one hour). The high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates in such bread then causes flatulence. This is particularly problematic in intestinal diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome. While in traditional bread making the dough rises for several hours, industrial breads rise for a much shorter time, usually only one hour. However, a sufficiently long rising time is important to break down the indigestible FODMAP carbohydrates. Some flours (for example, spelt, emmer and einkorn) contain fewer FODMAPs, but the difference between grain types is relatively small (between 1 and 2 percent by weight). Instead, 90% of the FODMAPs that cause discomfort can be broken down during a rising time of four hours. In the study, whole-grain yeast doughs were examined after different rising times; the highest level of FODMAPs was present after one hour in each case and decreased thereafter. The study thus shows that it is essentially the baking technique and not the type of grain that determines whether a bread is well tolerated or not. A better tolerance of bread made from original cereals can therefore not be explained by the original cereal itself, but rather by the fact that traditional, artisanal baking techniques are generally used when baking original cereals, which include a long dough process. The study also showed that a long rising time also breaks down undesirable phytates more effectively, flavors develop better, and the finished bread contains more biologically accessible trace elements.[31][32]

Culinary uses

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Bread pudding

Bread can be served at many temperatures; once baked, it can subsequently be toasted. It is most commonly eaten with the hands, either by itself or as a carrier for other foods. Bread can be spread with butter, dipped into liquids such as gravy, olive oil, or soup;[33] it can be topped with various sweet and savory spreads, or used to make sandwiches containing meats, cheeses, vegetables, and condiments.[34]

Bread is used as an ingredient in other culinary preparations, such as the use of breadcrumbs to provide crunchy crusts or thicken sauces; toasted cubes of bread, called croutons, are used as a salad topping; seasoned bread is used as stuffing inside roasted turkey; sweet or savoury bread puddings are made with bread and various liquids; egg and milk-soaked bread is fried as French toast; and bread is used as a binding agent in sausages, meatballs and other ground meat products.[35]

Nutritional significance

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Bread is a good source of carbohydrates and micronutrients such as magnesium, iron, selenium, and B vitamins. Whole grain bread is a good source of dietary fiber and all breads are a common source of protein in the diet, though not a rich one.[36][37]

Crust and crumb

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Bread with crust crack (half left at the top) and (lighter) crumb inside

The mass of bread consists of two primary components: the crust and crumb.[38]

Bread crust is formed from surface dough during the cooking process. It is hardened and browned through the Maillard reaction using the sugars and amino acids due to the intense heat at the bread surface. The crust of most breads is harder, and more complexly and intensely flavored, than the rest. Old wives' tales suggest that eating the bread crust makes a person's hair curlier.[39] Additionally, the crust is rumored to be healthier than the remainder of the bread. Some studies have shown that this is true as the crust has more dietary fiber and antioxidants such as pronyl-lysine.[40]

Bread crumb is the internal porous material consisting of bubbles with elastic walls. As the bread ages (becomes stale), the crumb becomes more firm.[38]

Preparation

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Steps in bread making, here for an unleavened Chilean tortilla

Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g., mantou), fried (e.g., puri), or baked on an unoiled frying pan (e.g., tortillas). It may be leavened or unleavened (e.g. matzo). Salt, fat and leavening agents such as yeast and baking soda are common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients, such as milk, egg, sugar, spice, fruit (such as raisins), vegetables (such as onion), nuts (such as walnut) or seeds (such as poppy).[41]

Methods of processing dough into bread include the straight dough process, the sourdough process, the Chorleywood bread process and the sponge and dough process.

Formulation

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Baking bread in East Timor

Professional bread recipes are stated using the baker's percentage notation. The amount of flour is denoted to be 100%, and the other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of that amount by weight. Measurement by weight is more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, particularly for dry ingredients. The proportion of water to flour is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture and crumb the most. Hard wheat flours absorb about 62% water, while softer wheat flours absorb about 56%.[42] Common table breads made from these doughs result in a finely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles and a coarser crumb.

Dough recipes commonly call for 500 grams (about 1.1 pounds) of flour, which yields a single loaf of bread or two baguettes.

Calcium propanoate is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard the growth of molds.[43]

Flour

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Main article: Flour

Flour is grain ground into a powder. Flour provides the primary structure, starch and protein to the final baked bread. The protein content of the flour is the best indicator of the quality of the bread dough and the finished bread. While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, a specialty bread flour, containing more protein (12–14%), is recommended for high-quality bread. If one uses a flour with a lower protein content (9–11%) to produce bread, a shorter mixing time is required to develop gluten strength properly. An extended mixing time leads to oxidization of the dough, which gives the finished product a whiter crumb, instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers.[44]

Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin, and proteoses) and two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread), the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as gluten. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to autolyse.[45]

Fortification

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Processing of flours usually involves removal of the outer layers, which contain important nutrients. Such flours, and bread made from them, may be fortified by adding nutrients. Fortification with added calcium, iron, thiamine (Vitamin B1) and niacin (Vitamin B3) is a legal requirement in the UK (wholemeal flours, from which the nutrients have not been stripped, are exempt).[46] The unregulated term "wheatmeal" is used to describe flour containing some but not all of the outer covering and central part of the wheat grain.[47]

Liquids

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Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The weight or ratio of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ratio of three parts liquid to five parts flour is common for yeast breads.[48] Recipes that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of one part liquid to one part flour. Instead of water, recipes may use liquids such as milk or other dairy products (including buttermilk or yogurt), fruit juice, or eggs. These contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water.[49]

Fats or shortenings

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Fats, such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in eggs, affect the development of gluten in breads by coating and lubricating the individual strands of protein. They also help to hold the structure together. If too much fat is included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect causes the protein structures to divide. A fat content of approximately 3% by weight is the concentration that produces the greatest leavening action.[50] In addition to their effects on leavening, fats also serve to tenderize breads and preserve freshness.

Bread improvers

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Main article: Dough conditioner

Bread improvers and dough conditioners are often used in producing commercial breads to reduce the time needed for rising and to improve texture and volume and to give antistaling effects. The substances used may be oxidising agents to strengthen the dough or reducing agents to develop gluten and reduce mixing time, emulsifiers to strengthen the dough or to provide other properties such as making slicing easier, or enzymes to increase gas production.[51]

Salt

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Salt (sodium chloride) is very often added to enhance flavor and restrict yeast activity. It also affects the crumb and the overall texture by stabilizing and strengthening[52] the gluten. Some artisan bakers forego early addition of salt to the dough, whether wholemeal or refined, and wait until after a 20-minute rest to allow the dough to autolyse.[53]

Mixtures of salts are sometimes employed, such as employing potassium chloride to reduce the sodium level, and monosodium glutamate to give flavor (umami).

Leavening

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See also: Unleavened bread
A dough trough, located in Aberdour Castle, once used for leavening bread

Leavening is the process of adding gas to a dough before or during baking to produce a lighter, more easily chewed bread. Most bread eaten in the West is leavened.[54]

Chemicals

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A simple technique for leavening bread is the use of gas-producing chemicals. There are two common methods. The first is to use baking powder or a self-raising flour that includes baking powder. The second is to include an acidic ingredient such as buttermilk and add baking soda; the reaction of the acid with the soda produces gas.[54] Chemically leavened breads are called quick breads and soda breads. This method is commonly used to make muffins, pancakes, American-style biscuits, and quick breads such as banana bread.

Yeast

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Main article: Baker's yeast
Compressed fresh yeast

Many breads are leavened by yeast. The yeast most commonly used for leavening bread is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the same species used for brewing cereal-based alcoholic beverages. This yeast ferments some of the sugars producing carbon dioxide. Commercial bakers often leaven their dough with commercially produced baker's yeast. Baker's yeast has the advantage of producing uniform, quick, and reliable results, because it is obtained from a pure culture.[54] Many artisan bakers produce their own yeast with a growth culture. If kept in the right conditions, it provides leavening for many years.[55]

The baker's yeast and sourdough methods follow the same pattern. Water is mixed with flour, salt and the leavening agent. Other additions (spices, herbs, fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not needed to bake bread, but are often used. The mixed dough is then allowed to rise one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often "punch down" the dough and let it rise again), loaves are formed, and (after an optional final rising time) the bread is baked in an oven.[54]

Many breads are made from a "straight dough", which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one step, and the dough is baked after the rising time;[54] others are made from a "pre-ferment" in which the leavening agent is combined with some of the flour and water a day or so ahead of baking and allowed to ferment overnight. On the day of baking, the rest of the ingredients are added, and the process continues as with straight dough. This produces a more flavorful bread with better texture. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the reliable results of baker's yeast and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available. Most yeasted pre-ferments fall into one of three categories: "poolish" or "pouliche", a loose-textured mixture composed of roughly equal amounts of flour and water (by weight); "biga", a stiff mixture with a higher proportion of flour; and "pâte fermentée", which is a portion of dough reserved from a previous batch.[56][57]

  • Before first rising
    Before first rising
  • After first rising
    After first rising
  • After proofing, ready to bake
    After proofing, ready to bake

Sourdough

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Main article: Sourdough
Sourdough loaves

Sourdough is a type of bread produced by a long fermentation of dough using naturally occurring yeasts and lactobacilli. It usually has a mildly sour taste because of the lactic acid produced during anaerobic fermentation by the lactobacilli. Longer fermented sourdoughs can also contain acetic acid, the main non-water component of vinegar.[58][59][60]

Sourdough breads are made with a sourdough starter. The starter cultivates yeast and lactobacilli in a mixture of flour and water, making use of the microorganisms already present on flour; it does not need any added yeast. A starter may be maintained indefinitely by regular additions of flour and water. Some bakers have starters many generations old, which are said to have a special taste or texture.[58] At one time, all yeast-leavened breads were sourdoughs. Recently there has been a revival of sourdough bread in artisan bakeries.[61]

Traditionally, peasant families throughout Europe baked on a fixed schedule, perhaps once a week. The starter was saved from the previous week's dough. The starter was mixed with the new ingredients, the dough was left to rise, and then a piece of it was saved to be the starter for next week's bread.[54]

Steam

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The rapid expansion of steam produced during baking leavens the bread, which is as simple as it is unpredictable. Steam-leavening is unpredictable since the steam is not produced until the bread is baked. Steam leavening happens regardless of the raising agents (baking soda, yeast, baking powder, sour dough, beaten egg white) included in the mix. The leavening agent either contains air bubbles or generates carbon dioxide. The heat vaporises the water from the inner surface of the bubbles within the dough. The steam expands and makes the bread rise. This is the main factor in the rising of bread once it has been put in the oven.[62] CO2 generation, on its own, is too small to account for the rise. Heat kills bacteria or yeast at an early stage, so the CO2 generation is stopped.

Bacteria

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Salt-rising bread does not use yeast. Instead, it is leavened by Clostridium perfringens, one of the most common sources of food-borne illness.[63][64]

Aeration

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Aerated bread is leavened by carbon dioxide being forced into dough under pressure. From the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries, bread made this way was somewhat popular in the United Kingdom, made by the Aerated Bread Company and sold in its high-street tearooms. The company was founded in 1862, and ceased independent operations in 1955.[65]

The Pressure-Vacuum mixer was later developed by the Flour Milling and Baking Research Association for the Chorleywood bread process. It manipulates the gas bubble size and optionally the composition of gases in the dough via the gas applied to the headspace.[66]

Cultural significance

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Main article: Bread in culture
A Ukrainian woman in national dress welcoming with bread and salt

Bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition in many cultures because of its history and contemporary importance. Bread is also significant in Christianity as one of the elements (alongside wine) of the Eucharist,[67] and in other religions including Paganism.[68]

In many cultures, bread is a metaphor for basic necessities and living conditions in general. For example, a "bread-winner" is a household's main economic contributor and has little to do with actual bread-provision. This is also seen in the phrase "putting bread on the table". The Roman poet Juvenal satirized superficial politicians and the public as caring only for "panem et circenses" (bread and circuses).[69] In Russia in 1917, the Bolsheviks promised "peace, land, and bread."[70][71] The term "breadbasket" denotes an agriculturally productive region. In parts of Northern, Central, Southern and Eastern Europe bread and salt is offered as a welcome to guests.[72] In India, life's basic necessities are often referred to as "roti, kapra aur makan" (bread, clothes, and house).[73]

Words for bread, including "dough" and "bread" itself, are used in English-speaking countries as synonyms for money.[1] A remarkable or revolutionary innovation may be called the best thing since "sliced bread".[74] The expression "to break bread with someone" means "to share a meal with someone".[75] The English word "lord" comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlāfweard, meaning "bread keeper."[76]

Bread is sometimes referred to as "the staff of life", although this term can refer to other staple foods in different cultures: the Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "bread (or similar staple food)".[77][78] This is sometimes thought to be a biblical reference, but the nearest wording is in Leviticus 26 "when I have broken the staff of your bread".[79] The term has been adopted in the names of bakery firms.[80]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Bread

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Bread is a produced by a made from —typically derived from or other grains—mixed with , and frequently leavened by or chemical agents that generate gases to expand the structure during and proofing. The process yields a porous, aerated product whose texture, flavor, and digestibility arise from network formation during , , and surface browning via Maillard reactions in the . Empirical evidence from archaeobotanical analysis of fire-stones and plant remains in northeastern reveals that proto-bread, prepared from wild s like tubers and grains, dates to approximately 14,400 years ago among Natufian hunter-gatherers, predating systematic and by about 4,000 years. This early innovation likely facilitated increased caloric density and storability, contributing causally to and the eventual transition, as bread's efficient conversion of grains into digestible energy supported sedentary lifestyles. Subsequent advancements, including of and the invention of ovens around 6,000 years ago in regions like , scaled production and diversified forms across Eurasian and African civilizations. In modern production, bread's quality hinges on precise control of hydration, , and time across stages of mixing, bulk , dividing, proofing, and , with industrial methods emphasizing uniformity via additives like emulsifiers, while artisanal approaches prioritize natural starters for complex flavors from and wild yeasts. Nutritionally, bread supplies essential carbohydrates for energy, alongside modest proteins, , iron, and magnesium, particularly in whole-grain variants rich in and germ; however, widespread consumption of refined correlates with lower intake and potential glycemic spikes, prompting empirical scrutiny of its role in metabolic . Bread's ubiquity underscores its foundational status in human diets, comprising up to 50% of caloric intake in some agrarian societies, and its versatility manifests in thousands of regional variants—from dense loaves in to flatbreads like in —reflecting adaptations to local grains, climates, and microbial ecologies.

Etymology

Origins and evolution of the term

The English word "bread" derives from brēad, denoting a "bit, crumb, or morsel" of prepared from and baked, evolving by the late to signify sustenance in general. This term traces to Proto-Germanic braudą, meaning "fragment, crumb, or bread," which is linked to the bhreu-, connoting "to boil, bubble, effervesce, or burn," a reference to the and rising process in leavened akin to . In other Germanic languages, cognates reflect similar semantic development from fragments of baked goods to the staple product itself, such as Old High German brôt (modern German Brot), Old Saxon brad, and Dutch brood, all sharing the Proto-Germanic base and emphasizing bread's role as broken or portioned food. These terms highlight a consistent linguistic evolution within the Germanic family, where the word's original connotation of a "piece" expanded to encompass the whole loaf as dietary foundation. Beyond Indo-European branches, the Latin panis for bread influenced (e.g., French pain, Italian pane, Spanish pan), though its precise etymology remains debated among scholars, possibly tied to ancient Italic roots denoting nourishment without direct Germanic parallels. In , semantic shifts underscore bread's staple equivalence to "food" broadly; Hebrew lechem (לָחֶם) primarily means bread but extends to general provisions, as in biblical contexts where it represents essential sustenance earned through labor, reflecting its cultural primacy over other edibles. This broadening illustrates how, in agrarian societies, the term for bread often generalized to denote victuals due to its ubiquity, distinct from the process-oriented roots in Indo-European etymologies.

History

Ancient and prehistoric origins

The earliest archaeological evidence of bread production dates to approximately 14,400 years ago at Shubayqa 1, a Natufian site in northeastern , where analysis of 24 charred plant remains revealed flatbreads made from wild cereals such as club rush tubers, wild , and einkorn wheat. These proto-breads were prepared by parching and grinding the grains into flour, then mixing with water and cooking on heated stones or hearths, demonstrating an early form of starch processing without reliance on domesticated crops or formal agriculture. This predates the agricultural revolution by about 4,000 years, indicating that bread-like foods emerged among societies as a means to enhance caloric density from abundant wild grasses during seasonal gatherings. The transition to in the around 10,000 BCE facilitated more reliable bread production through the of and einkorn wheats, which provided higher yields and easier processing compared to wild varieties. Early farmers used saddle querns and grinding stones to mill these grains into coarse flours for unleavened flatbreads, as evidenced by residues and tool wear patterns at sites like and in modern-day and southeastern . Such methods marked a shift from opportunistic wild harvesting to systematic cultivation, enabling surplus production that supported sedentary communities and population growth in the region. By circa 3000 BCE, bread-making had evolved in , where organized bakeries in urban centers like Memphis produced leavened varieties by incorporating wild yeasts from brewing residues into doughs of wheat flour. Tomb depictions and residue analyses from baking ovens confirm the use of to create risen loaves baked in clay molds or on hot surfaces, distinguishing Egyptian bread from earlier flatbreads through improved texture and digestibility. This innovation spread via trade routes along the and into the , integrating bread as a staple in hierarchical societies where specialized bakers supplied temples, elites, and laborers.

Development through antiquity and Middle Ages

In , the adoption and scaling of for grinding marked a significant technological advancement, enabling efficient production to feed vast urban centers like the city of , which required over 150,000 tons of annually by the 1st century CE. Descriptions by in the late 1st century BCE outline mechanisms, building on Hellenistic precedents but integrated into Roman infrastructure to process into finer flours, reducing labor costs and improving bread consistency compared to manual querns. This hydraulic innovation, exemplified by complexes like Barbegal in the 2nd century CE with up to 16 wheels producing an estimated 4.5 tons of flour daily, causally linked imperial engineering to sustained bread supply for legions and civilians, minimizing risks in densely populated provinces. Roman bakers standardized loaves such as panis quadratus, a dense, wheel-marked bread unearthed in carbonized form from Pompeii's bakeries following the 79 CE eruption of Vesuvius, typically made from whole or hydrated to a stiff with salt and natural leavening for lower-class consumption. These uniform loaves, often baked in large communal ovens and distributed via state-subsidized systems, reflected empire-wide quality controls to prevent shortages, with archaeological evidence showing divided segments for portioning among soldiers and . Following the fall of the , monastic communities from the 6th to 15th centuries preserved and refined fermentation techniques, using wild cultures maintained across generations to leaven and doughs in stone ovens, often supplying bread to feudal estates amid fragmented supplies. In feudal systems, lords enforced monopolies on milling through ban mills, requiring peasants to grind at seigniorial facilities for fees equivalent to 10-20% of the yield, which concentrated control over bread production and limited household to preserve manorial revenues. The pandemic of 1347-1351, killing 30-60% of Europe's population, disrupted labor-intensive baking and milling, initially spiking prices due to harvest shortfalls before depopulation halved demand and drove real prices down by up to 50% in by the 1370s. This scarcity prompted stricter enforcement of pre-existing , such as 's 1266 regulations updated post-plague, mandating fixed loaf weights tied to costs and fining bakers for adulteration with fillers like beans or chalk to combat amid heightened scrutiny from surviving urban authorities.

Industrial Revolution and mass production

The marked a shift from labor-intensive artisanal baking to mechanized factory production, enabling scalability through innovations like steam-powered ovens and automated dough mixers that reduced production times and costs. By the mid-19th century, these technologies allowed urban bakeries to meet rising from growing populations, with output increasing from handmade batches to continuous operations capable of thousands of loaves daily. For example, large-scale mills adopted gradual reduction systems, boosting yields and supporting centralized baking facilities that supplanted small-scale producers. A pivotal advancement came with roller mills developed in the , which used chilled rollers to crush kernels progressively, separating the from and germ to produce finer, whiter on an industrial scale. This method displaced stone milling's coarser whole-grain outputs, yielding uniform that facilitated consistent bread quality and extended , while enabling mills to process harder varieties efficiently for mass distribution. The result was a surge in production, as refiners prioritized the 's higher market value, though this reduced nutritional content compared to unrefined grains. Louis Pasteur's experiments in the 1850s established as the causal agent in , enabling the isolation and standardization of for reliable leavening, which by the late supported commercial yeast cakes and shortened proofing times in factories. Complementing this, Otto Frederick Rohwedder's 1928 bread-slicing machine, first deployed commercially in , automated uniform slicing and wrapping, reducing waste and enhancing convenience to drive per capita consumption upward by making bread easier to portion and store. These efficiencies amplified production scalability, with factories outputting standardized loaves at rates unattainable by hand. World War supply constraints exposed fragilities in mechanized chains reliant on imported grains, prompting adaptations like the UK's in April 1942—a coarse, wholemeal bread mandated to retain and extend supplies while providing higher and vitamins than refined wartime alternatives. Though not formally rationed until 1946, this grayish, dense underscored how industrial uniformity could pivot to nutritional imperatives under scarcity, yet its unpopularity highlighted trade-offs in taste and texture from scaled processing. The , introduced in the in July 1961, revolutionized industrial bread production by employing high-speed mixing, mechanical energy, and chemical oxidants to develop rapidly, reducing time from hours to minutes and enabling the use of lower-protein domestic varieties for affordable, uniform loaves. This method achieved widespread adoption, accounting for over 80% of UK bread by the 1970s, due to its efficiency in yielding soft, voluminous bread at scale, though critics argue it results in denser textures, nutritional deficiencies from shortened , and reliance on additives that may impair digestibility. During the beginning in March , home baking surged globally, with experiencing particular demand as consumers sought long-fermentation alternatives amid and shortages; in the , some cottage bakery sales doubled compared to pre-pandemic levels, while artisan bread categories saw up to 40% year-over-year growth in take-and-bake segments. This trend reflected a shift toward perceived healthier, artisanal methods, with web searches for starters rising over 1,000% in early , sustaining interest into subsequent years. From 2023 to 2025, bread innovation has emphasized health-oriented formulations, including protein-fortified loaves incorporating pea or whey proteins to meet rising consumer demand for higher satiety and muscle support, alongside reduced-sugar variants using natural sweeteners or fiber bulking to align with blood sugar management preferences evidenced in market surveys. Sustainable practices have gained traction, with bakers integrating ancient grains like spelt and einkorn for their nutrient density and lower environmental footprint from heritage farming, driven by data showing 2024 consumer priorities for clean labels and gut health benefits over extended shelf life. These shifts are quantified in industry reports projecting continued growth in high-fiber, low-glycemic breads through 2025, reflecting empirical correlations between ingredient profiles and health metrics like glycemic index reductions.

Ingredients

Grains and flours

serves as the predominant grain in bread production due to its unique protein composition that facilitates development, essential for structure and elasticity. Hard varieties, such as hard red spring with protein contents ranging from 12% to 15%, yield flours suitable for bread because higher protein levels—typically 10% to 14%—enable robust formation upon hydration and . In contrast, soft varieties possess lower protein (under 10%) and produce weaker networks, rendering them less ideal for leavened breads and more appropriate for tender doughs. arises from the interaction of , which imparts extensibility, and glutenin, which provides strength, as these proteins unfold and bond in the presence of to form a viscoelastic matrix capable of trapping gases. Ancient wheat species, including einkorn, , and , represent hulled varieties predating modern hybrids and exhibit distinct dough behaviors due to variations in and quantity. Einkorn and often display superior protein and indices compared to modern bread , though their gluten-forming capacity is generally weaker, necessitating blends with higher-gluten flours for optimal bread handling and . Spelt, while sharing genetic lineage with bread , yields flours with intermediate protein levels that support adequate but less extensible s, influenced by its higher starch-to-protein ratio affecting hydration limits. Rye flour, derived from , diverges from by relying less on and more on non-starch known as pentosans for properties. Rye contains approximately 2.4% water-soluble pentosans and 3.15% total pentosans, which swell upon hydration to increase and water-binding capacity—up to 8-10 times their weight—yielding a sticky, batter-like that retains gases through gelation rather than elastic networks. This pentosan-driven enhances loaf volume in rye breads but limits extensibility compared to wheat-based doughs. Milling techniques profoundly influence flour granularity, nutrient retention, and dough performance by altering starch damage, ash content, and particle size. Stone milling grinds the entire kernel into coarser flours that retain bran and germ, promoting higher extraction rates near 100% for wholemeal varieties, which introduce fiber that can disrupt gluten aggregation and increase dough toughness. Roller milling, employing sequential steel rollers, separates endosperm from bran and germ, enabling refined white flours with extraction rates of 70-80%, where finer particles and reduced bran enhance gluten development and dough extensibility through minimized interference from outer kernel layers. Compositional equivalence holds between stone- and roller-milled flours when all fractions are recombined, but selective extraction in roller processes yields flours with optimized protein-starch ratios for consistent bread dough rheology.

Liquids and hydration

In bread dough, liquids such as water serve as the primary hydrating agent, enabling proteins to absorb moisture and form a cohesive network essential for structure. Hydration levels, calculated as the weight of liquid relative to (typically 50-80%), directly influence dough extensibility; lower ratios yield firmer s with tighter gas retention, while higher ones promote elasticity and openness. For instance, bagels employ 52-58% hydration to achieve dense chewiness through minimal expansion, contrasting with ciabatta's 70-80% hydration, which facilitates irregular hole formation via enhanced extensibility and carbon dioxide trapping. Water also activates flour-borne enzymes, such as amylase, by providing the medium for their mobility and starch hydrolysis into sugars, with higher hydration accelerating this process through improved diffusion. Initial absorption by starch granules and proteins sets the stage for subsequent swelling, though full gelatinization occurs under baking heat; inadequate hydration limits enzyme efficacy and dough workability. Beyond water, contributes hydration alongside milkfat (3-4%) and , which tenderize the dough by coating strands and reducing cross-linking, resulting in softer textures without altering base absorption ratios. Eggs, containing approximately 75% liquid, hydrate similarly while introducing and yolk fats that emulsify and inhibit excessive strength, yielding lighter crumb structure in enriched breads. These alternatives maintain overall hydration targets but modulate protein-water interactions for specific outcomes.

Leavening and fermentation agents


Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the predominant yeast in commercial baking, generates carbon dioxide (CO₂) gas essential for dough leavening through anaerobic alcoholic fermentation of hexose sugars. Glucose undergoes glycolysis to form two molecules of pyruvate, which are decarboxylated by pyruvate decarboxylase to acetaldehyde and CO₂; acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by alcohol dehydrogenase, yielding a net of two CO₂ molecules per glucose. This process thrives in the low-oxygen environment of dough, where ethanol evaporates during baking, leaving trapped CO₂ to expand the gluten matrix.
Industrial strains of S. cerevisiae optimized for baking emerged prominently in the 1920s, with patents for enhanced gassing power and fermentation efficiency filed starting around 1927, enabling reliable mass production over earlier variable brewer's yeasts. In sourdough fermentation, wild yeasts combine with such as Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis to produce CO₂ alongside organic acids. These heterofermentative bacteria metabolize available sugars via the phosphoketolase pathway, yielding , acetic acid, and with CO₂ release, which contributes to tangy flavors and antimicrobial effects by dropping dough pH from an initial 4.5–5.5 to 3.5–4.5. Acetic acid production predominates under aerobic conditions or with higher dough yields, enhancing preservation and taste complexity. Artisanal bakers increasingly capture wild yeasts from natural environments in 2024, seeking terroir-specific flavors and authenticity, though this contrasts with commercial strains' predictability; sourdough-related markets reflect this shift, with global demand for such ferments driving sector growth amid preferences for non-industrial leavening. Chemical leavening agents provide rapid, temperature-activated gas production without microbial activity. Baking soda (, NaHCO₃) decomposes in the presence of , , and : NaHCO₃ + H⁺ → Na⁺ + H₂O + CO₂, often sourced from or in recipes. Baking powder integrates NaHCO₃ with dry acids (e.g., ) and a filler, releasing ~40% CO₂ upon wetting and the balance during heating for double-action leavening; patented the first formulation in 1843 to aid egg-intolerant baking.

Additives, fats, and improvers

Emulsifiers, such as (diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides), function in bread by strengthening the network and enhancing gas retention during proofing and , which results in greater volume and improved crumb structure. These compounds are typically added at dosages of 0.5% to 2% based on weight to achieve optimal stability without excessive stickiness. Enzymatic improvers, including , catalyze the of molecules in into dextrins and simple sugars, supplying fermentable substrates that boost activity and contribute to better extensibility and bread volume. In US commercial bread, these added enzymes are typically derived from microbial sources such as fungi or bacteria, with animal-derived versions rare and limited to some older or niche products; artisanal, homemade, or specialty breads may use no added enzymes. Alpha-s specifically target , preventing excessive liquefaction while promoting consistent . Fats and shortenings tenderize bread by coating particles and strands, thereby inhibiting the development of long, elastic networks and yielding a softer crumb with reduced chewiness. Incorporation levels typically range from 2% to 5% of weight in enriched doughs to balance richness and structure. provides distinct flavor depth and aroma compounds that enhance perceived richness, whereas hydrogenated oils or shortenings offer neutral taste profiles and superior shelf-life extension through minimized oxidation. Fortification agents like iron, thiamin, , and niacin address shortfalls in refined flours by restoring or supplementing lost vitamins and minerals, a practice that gained traction during the 1940s following outbreaks linked to niacin deficiency in maize-heavy diets. By 1942, approximately 75% of white bread was enriched with these compounds, correlating with sharp declines in deficiency-related diseases.

Preparation Methods

Dough formulation and mixing

Dough formulation begins with determining the hydration level, typically expressed as the ratio of to weight, which influences the dough's workability and final bread structure. Bread with protein content of 12-14% absorbs approximately 60-65% by weight, enabling robust formation essential for gas retention during later stages. Higher protein flours bind more through gliadin and interactions, yielding doughs with greater extensibility and strength. An optional autolyse step involves mixing flour and water alone, allowing a rest period of 20-60 minutes to hydrate proteins and initiate gluten bonds without mechanical stress. This process partially develops the gluten network, resulting in a smoother, more extensible dough that requires less subsequent mixing. Mixing follows, where mechanical action aligns and strengthens gluten strands through shear and extension forces. In home settings, hand kneading or low-speed mixers for 10-15 minutes achieves the windowpane test, where a small dough piece stretches thinly to transmit light without tearing, confirming sufficient gluten development. Industrial high-shear mixers, by contrast, apply intense energy input to reduce mixing time significantly compared to manual methods, often completing gluten development in minutes while minimizing oxidation that could degrade dough quality.

Fermentation processes

Fermentation in bread dough involves the metabolic activity of yeasts and , which produce (CO₂) gas that becomes entrapped within the network, leading to volume expansion, alongside the generation of organic acids, alcohols, and esters that contribute to flavor complexity. This phase, occurring after initial mixing, focuses on controlled gas production and retention to achieve structural development without excessive proofing, typically monitored via dough and visual cues like a 50-100% increase in volume for optimal strengthening and even CO₂ distribution. In yeast-leavened doughs, bulk fermentation is commonly conducted at 24–26°C (75–78°F) for 1–3 hours, accelerating yeast activity to generate CO₂ and initial flavors through enzymatic breakdown of starches into fermentable sugars. During this stage, bakers frequently perform gentle stretch-and-folds, such as every 30 minutes for the first hour, to strengthen the gluten network, equalize temperature, and trap air. The dough rises until it becomes pillowy and light, with significant volume increase (often 50–100% or more), a smooth and elastic surface, and a bubbly internal texture. In contrast, retarded fermentation—also known as cold fermentation—involves mixing the dough to approximately 24–25°C, often with reduced yeast (around 1% of flour weight), and immediately refrigerating it at 4–10°C for 12–24 hours or longer. This slows microbial activity, allowing extended development of complex flavor compounds such as diacetyl (imparting buttery notes), while improving dough structure, handling, crumb tenderness, and shelf life by reducing over-fermentation risks. During these processes, periodic manipulations such as stretch-and-folds or punch-downs expel excess CO₂, redistribute yeast cells evenly, and relax the gluten structure to prevent uneven gas pockets, ensuring consistent volume rise before final shaping. After division and shaping, the dough undergoes proofing (the final fermentation stage), during which it is allowed to rise until nearly doubled in volume or until it feels airy and light. Proofing may occur at room temperature or be retarded in the refrigerator for enhanced flavor and structure. Readiness is commonly assessed using the finger poke test: a gentle indent should recover slowly without fully filling in. In sourdough systems, fermentation extends to 12-24 hours at ambient or controlled temperatures, where (LAB) dominate, producing enzymes that hydrolyze —the primary storage form of in grains—reducing it by up to 70% at levels of 4.3-5.5, thereby improving bioavailability (e.g., iron, ) and overall digestibility by mitigating anti-nutritional effects. This prolonged LAB-yeast interaction also yields tangy acids and volatiles, distinguishing sourdough's nuanced profile from shorter yeast-only ferments, with cooler temperatures further amplifying these enzymatic breakdowns for superior nutrient accessibility.

Baking and finishing techniques

Baking bread involves controlled through conduction, , and , which gelatinizes starches in the crumb, denatures proteins for structure setting, and triggers Maillard reactions on the surface above approximately 130°C to produce and flavor compounds. Deck ovens, common in commercial settings, provide radiant heat from stone or decks for even crust development and moisture retention in artisan loaves. Initial at 220–250°C with injection or generation for the first 10–15 minutes maximizes spring by delaying crust formation, allowing gases to expand the up to 30–50% before the sets. condenses on the surface, maintaining elasticity and promoting a thin, glossy initial crust. continues without to dry the crust and achieve Maillard-driven coloration, with internal temperatures reaching 93–99°C to fully gelatinize starches and evaporate excess moisture from the crumb; checking the internal temperature with a thermometer confirms the crumb is set and starches gelatinized, minimizing risks of gummy or underbaked centers, especially in enriched doughs prone to collapse or dense varieties like rye, and is particularly useful for beginners or pan-baked loaves, though it should be combined with visual cues such as a deep golden-brown crust for optimal flavor and texture; recommended doneness temperatures vary by bread type, including 180–190°F (82–88°C) for enriched breads such as brioche and challah, 190–200°F (88–93°C) for standard yeast loaves, 200–210°F (93–99°C) for lean or crusty breads such as baguettes and sourdough, 200–205°F (93–96°C) for quick breads, and 205–210°F (96–99°C) for dense, rye, whole grain, or high-hydration varieties, with an optional increase of 5–10°F (3–6°C) for drier crumb preference. Finishing techniques include rapid cooling on wire racks to prevent sogginess, where the crumb contracts faster than the rigid crust, producing audible crackling from micro-fractures and escape. Par-baking, halting at 80–90% completion and freezing, extends by reducing initial microbial load and precursors, allowing full baking later with minimal quality loss when stored below -18°C. Regional variations employ specialized ovens for distinct textures; clay tandoors reach 480°C via convective heat from walls, enabling rapid baking of flatbreads like in 1–2 minutes for blistered, chewy results, contrasting deck ovens' slower, conductive heat for denser, crackly European-style crusts.

Types of Bread

Unleavened and flatbreads

Unleavened breads, also known as flatbreads, are prepared without leavening agents such as or , relying solely on , water, and minimal additives like salt or . These breads undergo rapid cooking on hot surfaces to prevent any natural from occurring. Archaeological findings place their origins in ancient civilizations of , , and the Indus Valley, with evidence dating to approximately 6000 years ago, predating leavened breads as a staple for early agrarian and nomadic populations. Their simplicity facilitates quick production, often within minutes of dough formation, making them ideal for daily consumption or use where must be strictly avoided. In Jewish , matzo exemplifies this, consisting of wheat flour and water baked in under 18 minutes from mixing to oven entry during to ensure no —any leavened product—forbidden by religious law. Various cultures feature distinct unleavened flatbreads tied to local grains and customs. In , (or ) is a thin, whole disk cooked on a , serving as a ubiquitous accompaniment to meals in North Indian households since ancient times. Mesoamerican tortillas, thin rounds of nixtamalized corn or wheat flour, originated pre-Columbian eras and remain foundational in , cooked on comal griddles without rising. Some unleavened flatbreads develop internal pockets via from inherent moisture when exposed to intense heat, as seen in thin-rolled varieties akin to , where rapid vapor expansion separates layers without chemical or biological leavening. Frequently crafted from whole or minimally , these breads maintain greater density per serving compared to leavened counterparts often using refined flours, contributing to their nutritional profile in traditional diets.

Leavened breads: yeast and sourdough

Leavened breads rely on yeast or sourdough starters to generate carbon dioxide through fermentation, creating a gluten-trapped gas network that yields expanded loaves with irregular or uniform air pockets in the crumb, distinct from the compact density of flatbreads. Commercial yeast breads typically use Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains for rapid, controlled rising, while sourdough employs wild yeasts alongside lactic acid bacteria, extending fermentation for complex flavors. These processes enhance extensibility and volume, enabling shapes like slender rods or rectangular tins unsuitable for unleavened doughs. The French baguette exemplifies yeast-leavened artisan bread, emerging in its modern form during the early amid bakery innovations and legal shifts permitting longer loaves by the 1920s. Often prepared with a —a wet mixture of flour, water, and minimal fermented 10-18 hours—it promotes an open, irregular crumb structure through improved dough extensibility and subtle nutty notes. This contrasts with denser flatbreads by allowing steam expansion during high-heat baking, forming a crisp crust via Maillard reactions. Pan breads, or sandwich loaves, represent industrialized yeast-leavened varieties optimized for uniform slicing, following the 1928 invention of the bread-slicing machine by , with commercial debut on July 7 in . Baked in lidded tins, they develop a fine, even crumb ideal for machine cutting without crumbling, prioritizing consistency over artisanal irregularity. This post-1928 adaptation facilitated and portability, diverging from flatbreads' pliability by emphasizing structural integrity for stacked sandwiches. Sourdough breads derive their characteristic tangy profile from produced by symbiotic bacteria like species during prolonged natural , yielding deeper acidity and flavor complexity absent in commercial loaves. Unlike faster-rising doughs, sourdough's wild microbial culture partially hydrolyzes , often resulting in chewier textures and varied crumb openness depending on hydration and proofing. Global market demand surged in the , valued at approximately USD 3.3 billion in 2023 and projected to exceed USD 5 billion by 2030, driven by artisanal appeal and perceived digestibility.

Quick breads and chemically leavened

Quick breads represent a class of baked goods leavened through chemical reactions rather than biological , enabling preparation in under an hour without proofing. These products typically feature a batter consistency, incorporating leavening agents such as baking soda or that generate via acid-base interactions upon mixing and heating. The advent of in 1843, patented by British chemist as a single-acting formulation combining bicarbonate of soda with , marked a pivotal advancement, allowing consistent lift independent of ambient conditions. Double-acting variants, which release gas in both the wet mixing phase and during oven heat via multiple acid components, emerged in the 1850s through Eben Norton Horsford's work with , enhancing reliability for home bakers by the late . Prominent examples include muffins and , both batter-based staples emphasizing tenderness from minimal development. Muffins, popularized in the United States during the , rely on for uniform rise in individual portions, often incorporating fruits or nuts for flavor variation. , a Southern American with roots in Native American preparations dating to pre-colonial times, uses coarse combined with , for acidity to activate baking soda, and fat for moist crumb; recipes typically yield a dense, slightly crumbly texture baked in a cast-iron skillet at around 425°F (218°C) for 20-25 minutes. The buttermilk- pairing not only drives leavening but also contributes to the bread's characteristic tangy profile and structural integrity, distinguishing it from finer-grained quick breads. From 2023 to 2025, vegan adaptations of quick breads have proliferated amid rising demand for plant-based alternatives, substituting with acidified plant milks like , , or soy varieties to replicate the necessary acidity for leavening and tenderness. These modifications, often involving or juice added to neutral plant milks, maintain the chemical reaction's efficacy while aligning with vegan dietary restrictions and preferences; market analyses project continued growth in vegan ingredients, including such milk proxies, at a compound annual rate exceeding 10% through 2030. This trend reflects empirical shifts in consumer behavior, with sales of plant-based analogs sustaining momentum despite broader category fluctuations.

Specialty and regional varieties

Injera, a staple in and , consists of a fermented batter primarily made from flour, an ancient native to the region that is naturally gluten-free and rich in minerals. The batter undergoes natural for 2-3 days, producing a sour, spongy with bubble-like textures formed during cooking on a hot . Sangak, a traditional Iranian whole wheat flatbread, is baked on a bed of hot pebbles or stones, imparting a distinctive bumpy texture and seed topping in some variants. This leavened bread, dating back centuries, uses whole meal and is stretched triangularly before baking to achieve its characteristic form. Northern European rye breads, prevalent in countries like , , and , utilize dense, whole grain for hearty loaves such as in and in , the latter featuring holes for drying and storage. , originating from in , is a dark, moist baked slowly at low temperatures using coarsely ground , resulting in a sweet, earthy flavor without added sweeteners in traditional recipes. Gluten-free specialty breads have proliferated since the 2010s, driven by increased celiac disease diagnoses, with formulations relying on for lightness or almond flour for nutty moisture and binding, often combined with like xanthan to mimic structure. By 2025, fusion varieties incorporating upcycled ingredients, such as brewery spent grains, and novel flavors like matcha-infused doughs reflect and global taste experimentation in baking.

Physical and Chemical Properties

Composition and structure

The crumb structure of baked bread features a porous network of gas cells embedded in a viscoelastic matrix primarily composed of gelatinized and proteins. Scanning electron reveals this crumb as an open-cell with pore sizes ranging from 0 to 475 μm and typically between 55% and 82%, resulting from the expansion of CO2 bubbles during proofing and , followed by fixation upon cooling. The network, formed by hydration and shearing of proteins ( and glutenin), constitutes the primary structural scaffold, trapping and stabilizing these gas cells against coalescence through and viscoelastic resistance. Flour proteins account for 8-15% of dry flour weight in bread formulations, with representing 70-80% of this protein fraction, enabling the matrix to expand biaxially under internal gas pressures exceeding 100% strain during oven spring. Post-baking, the component—predominantly (linear) and (branched)—undergoes gelatinization above 60°C, where granules swell and leach solubilized polymers that interpenetrate the gluten phase, enhancing cohesion. Staling initiates rapidly after through retrogradation, a recrystallization process where chains reassociate into crystalline domains within several hours, primarily driving crumb firming independent of moisture loss. This molecular ordering, observable via as endothermic melting peaks, contrasts with slower retrogradation over days, and is exacerbated at temperatures (0-4°C). Fresh bread maintains a of 0.90-0.95, sufficient for structural plasticity yet low enough to limit initial bacterial proliferation, though permitting eventual mold growth if uncooled.

Sensory attributes: crust, crumb, flavor

The crust of baked bread forms a brittle, flavorful outer layer primarily through the , where reducing sugars react with from proteins at temperatures of 150–200°C, generating melanoidins for browned coloration and volatile compounds imparting nutty, roasted aromas such as pyrazines and furans. This reaction intensifies with oven conditions like injection, which delays crust hardening to promote even expansion before sealing the loaf's surface. Crispness in the crust arises from low moisture content post-baking (around 10–15%), creating a glassy matrix prone to fracture under shear, as measured by texture analyzers via peak force during puncture tests quantifying crunch as rapid sound-emitting breaks. The crumb, or interior matrix, exhibits alveolation—a foam-like structure of gas cells formed by leavening gases expanding during —yielding sensory qualities of softness and elasticity; open-cell configurations with interconnected pores (mean cell 1–3 mm) result from high hydration (65–75% water relative to ), fostering irregular, voluminous voids for enhanced springiness, while closed cells from lower hydration produce uniform, compact textures with reduced airiness. Texture analyzers evaluate crumb via texture profile , compressing samples to 25–40% strain and deriving parameters like springiness ( of recovery to deformation, often 0.8–0.95 for fresh loaves) and cohesiveness, correlating with perceived tenderness independent of density. Bread flavor emerges from thermally generated volatiles concentrated in the crust, including 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline at trace levels (nanograms per ) responsible for the hallmark roasty, popcorn-like note via Maillard-derived cyclization of and sugars, alongside aldehydes like (E)- for fatty-green undertones and 3-methylbutanal for malty hues. Crumb volatiles, less intense due to milder internal temperatures (peaking at 100°C), include byproducts such as (fruity) and (fusel), but overall profile balances crust-dominant heterocyclics with subtle wheat-derived notes, diminishing rapidly post-baking via oxidation and . Off-flavors such as bitterness typically arise from excess baking soda or powder imparting a strong alkaline taste, rancid or moldy flour, overbaking causing charring, or spoiled yeast, whereas excess active yeast more commonly leads to sour or yeasty notes rather than bitterness. Sensory panels confirm these attributes through aroma extraction techniques like headspace , linking specific compounds to hedonic preferences for freshness.

Nutritional Profile

Macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals

Bread derives most of its energy from carbohydrates, providing 45 to 50 grams per 100 grams, predominantly as from ground . Protein contributes 8 to 10 grams per 100 grams, primarily from formed during mixing. Fat content remains low at around 3 grams per 100 grams, while averages 2 grams in refined varieties but reaches 6 grams in types due to retention of . These macronutrients yield 250 to 300 kilocalories per 100 grams. Enrichment practices in many nations add to refined flour-based bread, supplying thiamin at 0.2 to 0.5 milligrams per 100 grams and niacin at approximately 2 milligrams per 100 grams. Such , implemented widely by the , addressed thiamin shortages that historically caused beriberi by restoring nutrients lost in milling. Minerals include iron at 2 to 4 milligrams per 100 grams from added ferrous compounds and selenium at levels inherent to , typically 10 to 30 micrograms per 100 grams depending on conditions.

Variations by type and processing

Whole-grain breads preserve the and germ layers of the kernel, retaining higher concentrations of , polyphenols, and micronutrients such as magnesium and , whereas refining through milling removes these components, leading to a loss of up to 98% of the kernel's and substantial reductions in concentrated in the . Lab assays confirm that finer particle sizes from milling can increase extractable phenolics in whole grains but diminish overall activity in refined fractions due to the exclusion of bran-bound compounds. Sourdough fermentation processes alter nutrient profiles by enzymatic , notably reducing levels—a key —by 70-92% in breads compared to yeast-leavened equivalents, as demonstrated in controlled studies measuring residual oligosaccharides post-fermentation. This microbial breakdown enhances mineral bioavailability by degrading phytates, with assays showing decreased in products relative to methods. Fortification of refined flours with synthetic nutrients compensates for milling losses; , mandatory folic acid addition to enriched grain products since 1998 has reduced incidence by approximately 20-35%, based on national surveillance data tracking pre- and post-fortification rates. Similar interventions with iron and , initiated post-World War II, addressed deficiencies but primarily targeted macronutrient stability rather than broad polyphenolic retention.

Health Effects

Evidence-based benefits

Consumption of bread has been associated with a reduced of in multiple meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies. For instance, higher intake averaging 2.5 servings per day compared to 0.2 servings was linked to a 21% lower of CVD events. Recent reviews up to 2025 confirm that elevated consumption correlates with decreased CVD incidence, attributing this to components like and phytochemicals that improve profiles and endothelial function. The in bread promotes by slowing gastric emptying and enhancing feelings of fullness, which supports in controlled feeding studies. Additionally, this fiber is fermented by into , fostering beneficial microbial diversity and reducing markers. Meta-analyses indicate no significant association between bread consumption and increased of site-specific cancers, with odds ratios approximating 1.0 across prospective cohorts involving over 550,000 participants. Some evidence suggests varieties may confer a modest protective effect against . Higher intake is also tied to lower all-cause mortality, with inverse associations persisting after adjustments for confounders in large-scale reviews. Historically, bread served as a calorie-dense staple for labor-intensive populations, providing 70-80% of daily in medieval through efficient conversion into digestible carbohydrates that sustained physical work. In modern contexts, emerging protein-enriched bread formulations, incorporating pulses or to boost content by up to 45%, align with 2025 trends emphasizing muscle maintenance alongside traditional benefits.

Potential risks and drawbacks

Refined , with a often exceeding 70, promotes rapid postprandial spikes in blood glucose and insulin, contributing to over time. Longitudinal analyses from large prospective cohorts, such as the and Health Professionals Follow-up Study, indicate that higher intake of like white bread is associated with a 10-20% increased of per additional daily serving, independent of total energy intake and adjusted for confounders like . Prospective cohort studies have linked frequent consumption of to longitudinal and unfavorable BMI changes. In a 2025 analysis of middle-aged adults tracked into late adulthood, individuals consuming two or more portions of daily exhibited steeper BMI increases compared to those consuming one or fewer portions, with associations persisting after adjustment for whole-grain intake and factors. In areas with environmental of crops, bread can serve as a vector for heavy metal exposure, such as lead and , elevating risks. A 2025 study using generalized additive models found that bread contaminated with these metals mediates the pathway from heavy metal intake to CVD incidence, with per-unit increases in exposure via bread correlating to heightened odds of disease onset in exposed populations.

Allergies, intolerances, and sensitivities

Celiac disease, an autoimmune disorder triggered by proteins such as in wheat-based bread, affects approximately 1% of the global population and leads to small intestinal villous atrophy in genetically susceptible individuals carrying or alleles. requires positive for IgA (anti-tTG) antibodies, typically at levels exceeding 10 times the upper limit of normal for high specificity, confirmed by duodenal showing Marsh 3 lesions with villous blunting, crypt hyperplasia, and intraepithelial lymphocytosis. The mechanism involves deamidated peptides binding to HLA-DQ molecules, provoking a T-cell mediated that cross-reacts with , causing chronic and nutrient upon bread consumption. Wheat allergy, distinct from celiac disease, is an IgE-mediated hypersensitivity to wheat proteins like omega-5 gliadin, occurring primarily in children but persisting into adulthood in some cases, with symptoms ranging from urticaria and gastrointestinal distress to rare upon ingesting bread or wheat products. is low, estimated at under 1% in general populations, though higher in regions like parts of and where it manifests as wheat-dependent . involves skin prick testing, serum-specific IgE measurement to components, and confirmatory oral challenges, as cross-reactivity with other grains is limited but possible. Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) describes intestinal and extraintestinal symptoms—such as , , and —triggered by in bread without celiac villous damage or wheat allergy IgE response, diagnosed by exclusion after negative celiac serology/biopsy and allergy tests, followed by symptom resolution on avoidance and recurrence on blinded rechallenge. Prevalence estimates vary widely from 0.6% to 13% due to reliance on self-reported symptoms and lack of biomarkers, with debate over whether itself or co-factors like amylase-trypsin inhibitors cause the response, as double-blind trials show inconsistent gluten-specific effects. Beyond gluten-related issues, wheat bread contains high levels of fructans—a fermentable subclass of FODMAPs—that can induce (IBS) symptoms like and distension in up to 10-15% of adults worldwide via rapid colonic and osmotic effects, independent of immune mechanisms. Low-FODMAP bread variants, achieved through or enzyme treatment reducing fructans by 70-90%, alleviate these symptoms in IBS patients without necessitating gluten elimination, distinguishing this intolerance from true gluten pathologies.

Controversies

Historical fraud and adulteration

In ancient Rome, bakers faced legal penalties for producing short-weight loaves, as bread was a staple subsidized by the state under the annona system, with regulations enforced to prevent fraud against the populace. Around 100 CE, during the reign of Emperor Trajan, edicts reinforced accountability, requiring bakers to mark loaves with personal stamps to trace violations, with punishments including fines or exile for repeated short-weight offenses. Medieval European bakers' , such as the Worshipful Company of Bakers in , rigorously enforced the from the 13th century onward, mandating specific weights and qualities to curb fraud like underweight loaves or inferior . Violations, often detected through public weigh-ins and inspections, resulted in public shaming via the , forfeiture of tools, or fines, reflecting the guilds' role in maintaining trade standards amid grain shortages. In the early , chemical analyses revealed widespread bread adulteration in Britain, including substitutions with to increase bulk and reduce costs, as identified by Frederick Accum's 1820 tests using reagents like iodine to detect starches foreign to . By the mid-, British bakers commonly added to whiten bread and improve its appearance, a practice exposed by the Analytical Sanitary Commission's 1850s investigations, which found the compound in over half of tested samples from vendors. , while not acutely lethal, inhibited nutrient absorption and caused gastrointestinal distress in chronic consumers, prompting parliamentary inquiries into its toxicity despite bakers' claims of necessity for texture. and of were also detected as whiteners, diluting nutritional value and risking lead contamination from impure sources.

Modern debates on additives and processing

, an used to strengthen and improve bread volume, has sparked regulatory disputes due to its potential carcinogenic effects. The prohibited its use in food products in 1990 following evidence of tumor formation in , classifying it as a category 1B under EU regulations. In contrast, the U.S. permits residues up to 75 parts per million in , deeming it safe when fully reacted during , though the International Agency for Research on Cancer lists it as a group 2B possible based on limited evidence in humans and sufficient evidence in animals. Debates over genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in wheat supply chains often involve misconceptions about U.S. production, where no commercially grown GMO varieties exist as of 2025, despite approvals for limited drought-tolerant strains like HB4 pending field trials. Claims of widespread GMO persist, but regulatory data confirm non-GMO status for domestic and exported U.S. , with scientific reviews from 2023 indicating that approved GM crops, including experimental , show no substantiated health differences compared to non-GM counterparts and potential yield benefits under stress conditions without increased risks. The (CBP), introduced in the UK in 1961 for high-speed mechanical mixing and shorter , enables efficient but faces criticism for relying on enzymes and additives that may reduce retention, such as vitamins and minerals degraded by intense mechanical action. Advocates argue it improves consistency and , yet 2025 discussions amid scrutiny highlight calls for mandatory labeling of processing methods and additives to enhance consumer transparency, with campaigns pushing for "Real Bread" standards excluding undisclosed enzymes.

Nutritional myths and public perceptions

A persistent holds that bread consumption inherently leads to , regardless of type or quantity. from prospective cohort studies contradicts this, demonstrating that moderate intake of whole-grain bread is not associated with increased body weight or risk. For instance, analysis of data from over 120,000 participants in the , Health Professionals Follow-up Study, and showed no link between whole-grain bread consumption and from onward, attributing any potential issues to refined varieties' lower rather than bread itself. Similarly, a review of dietary patterns incorporating whole-grain bread found it beneficial for maintaining ponderal status, as the content promotes fullness and reduces overall intake compared to refined alternatives. Excess refined bread may contribute to due to its rapid and glycemic response, but causal factors like total energy balance and determine fat accumulation, not bread per se. Another common perception portrays bread as consisting of "empty calories" with negligible . Whole-grain bread, however, delivers substantial macronutrients and s; a typical 43-gram slice provides approximately 3 grams of (contributing 10-12% of the daily value), 4-5 grams of protein, and key including thiamin (up to 10% DV), niacin (15% DV), and (10% DV), alongside minerals like iron, magnesium, and . These components stem from the intact and germ layers, which refined processing removes, leading to the misconception when applied indiscriminately. Anti-grain narratives, often amplified in advocacy, overlook bread's historical role in averting ; transitions from whole to in the correlated with deficiencies like beriberi and until , while whole grains have sustained populations by providing bioavailable essentials in staple diets. Claims that gluten in bread causes widespread inflammation or digestive harm beyond diagnosed conditions like celiac disease lack substantiation for the general population. Reviews of blinded trials indicate no causal link between gluten and symptoms in non-celiac individuals, with perceived non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) frequently attributable to fermentable oligosaccharides (FODMAPs) in or effects rather than gluten itself; a 2025 Lancet analysis of existing evidence found gluten provocation rarely reproduces symptoms independently. For those without allergies or intolerances, whole-grain bread's enhances and gut without inflammatory repercussions, countering biases in popular low-carb literature that extrapolate rare sensitivities to universal harm. Unnecessarily avoiding grains may even elevate risks like by displacing nutrient-dense whole foods.

Cultural, Economic, and Social Significance

Role in diets and traditions worldwide

Bread serves as a dietary staple in numerous cultures, particularly in and the , where it forms the basis of daily meals alongside vegetables, cheeses, and proteins. In , annual consumption reaches 199.6 kilograms, reflecting its central role in everyday eating habits such as pairing with or kebabs. By contrast, in rice-dominant Asian societies like , consumption averages only 5.83 kilograms annually, underscoring regional preferences for grain-based staples beyond derivatives. In , bread accompanies most meals, often consumed fresh from local bakeries in quantities exceeding 50 kilograms per person yearly, integrated into routines like tartines or sopping up stews. In Mediterranean traditions, bread functions as a versatile utensil and communal element, frequently torn and used to absorb , sauces, or broths during shared family meals, as seen in Italian practices where it pairs with antipasti or secondi but not to avoid mixing starches. Greek variations like paximadia, a hardened rusk, exemplify enduring ethnographic patterns of preserving bread for prolonged use in rural diets. Religiously, bread holds ritual prominence across Abrahamic faiths. In , the employs unleavened bread or wafers symbolizing the , consumed during as a core sacramental act tracing to the . features , a braided egg-enriched loaf blessed and shared on and holidays, with its plaited form evoking biblical or divine provision in ethnographic interpretations. Unleavened commemorates the hasty Exodus in seders, prohibiting to recall haste. These practices embed bread in cycles of observance, reinforcing communal identity through shared preparation and consumption.

Economic importance and global trade

The global bread market is projected to reach a value of US$533.38 billion in 2025, driven primarily by as the staple ingredient, with annual international facilitating supply chains essential for production worldwide. production totaled nearly 793 million metric tons in the 2024/25 marketing year, underscoring bread's dependence on this commodity for scalability. Geopolitical disruptions, such as the 2022 —a major exporter—led to price surges of up to 40% by May 2022, amplifying vulnerabilities in global bread supply and contributing to broader food inflation. These events highlighted the fragility of routes, where even partial halts from key producers can propagate cost increases through milling and stages. Industrial production dominates the sector, enabling mass-scale output to meet daily , while —characterized by handmade processes and premium ingredients—represents a smaller but expanding niche. The market, encompassing specialized bread variants, is growing at a compound annual rate exceeding 5%, fueled by consumer preferences for perceived quality and natural methods amid rising awareness. This shift contrasts with the efficiency of automated facilities, which handle the bulk of volume but face pressures from input volatility, as evidenced by the 2022 price shocks that elevated operational costs globally. Sustainability initiatives are increasingly addressing resource strains in bread production, including the adoption of drought-resistant grains like millet, which require less than traditional varieties, to mitigate environmental impacts and enhance supply resilience. Such trends respond to challenges in cultivation, promoting lower-input alternatives without compromising yield in arid regions, though widespread implementation remains limited by varietal adaptation and market acceptance.

Symbolism and societal impacts

Bread has long symbolized essential sustenance and communal provision, epitomized by the phrase "staff of life," which traces to biblical and proverbial traditions denoting its role as the foundational sustaining existence across civilizations. This underscores bread's causal link to survival, where its availability or absence directly influences societal stability, as scarcity historically triggered grounded in immediate physiological needs rather than abstract . Episodes of bread shortages have repeatedly catalyzed political upheaval, demonstrating causal chains from resource deprivation to . In , poor harvests in 1788-1789 drove wheat prices to unprecedented levels, sparking riots in and culminating in the October 5, 1789, , where demands for affordable bread pressured the monarchy and accelerated revolutionary momentum. Analogously, in Russia, wartime disruptions and hoarding caused acute bread deficits in Petrograd by early 1917, igniting mass protests on February 23 () that evolved into the , toppling Tsar Nicholas II amid broader grievances. These events illustrate bread's role not as mere but as a flashpoint for unrest when supply failures expose systemic fragilities in provisioning. In modern societies, bread embodies tensions between equity and excess. Egypt's baladi bread subsidy program, consuming a significant portion of the national budget, delivers loaves at nominal cost to over 70 million citizens, supplying roughly 40% of caloric needs for low-income households and averting riots that have historically toppled governments. This contrasts with Western contexts, where refined bread abundance—coupled with sedentary lifestyles—correlates with obesity epidemics; studies link high white bread intake to weight gain, as its rapid glycemic impact promotes overconsumption without satiety, contributing to rates exceeding 30% in nations like the United States. Additionally, global wheat monocultures, criticized in anti-globalization discourse for heightening vulnerability to shocks like the 2022 Ukraine conflict disruptions, amplify dependency risks, challenging narratives of agricultural progress by revealing ecological and geopolitical brittleness.

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