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Paramatman (Sanskrit: परमात्मन्, IAST: Paramātman) or Paramātmā is the absolute Atman, or supreme Self, in various philosophies such as the Vedanta and Yoga schools in Hindu theology, as well as other Indian religions such as Sikhism. Paramatman is the "Primordial Self" or the "Self Beyond" who is spiritually identical with the absolute and ultimate reality. Selflessness is the attribute of Paramatman, where all personality/individuality vanishes.[1]

Etymology

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The word stem paramātman ([pɐɾɐmaːtmɐn], its nominative singular being paramātmā — परमात्मा, pronounced [pɐɾɐmaːtmaː]) is formed from two words, parama, meaning "supreme" or "highest", and ātman, which means individual self.

The word Ātman generally denotes the Individual Self, but by the word Paramatman which word also expresses Boundless Life, Boundless Consciousness, Boundless Substance in Boundless Space, is meant the Atman of all atmans or the Supreme Self or the Universal Self. The word Ātman (Atma, आत्मा, आत्मन्) is a Sanskrit word that refers to "essence, breath.",[web 1][web 2][2] is often equated with Brahman, the subtlest indestructible Divine existence.[3][4][5] The word Paramatman refers to the Creator of all.[citation needed]

Jainism

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Main article: Jīva (Jainism)

In Jain mysticism, each atman or individual self is a potential Paramatman or God; both are essentially the same. It remains an atman only because of its binding karmic limitations, until such time as those limitations are removed. As Paramatman, the atman represents the ultimate point of spiritual evolution.[6]

Even though Jain mysticism centers on Atman and Paramatman because it affirms the existence of the soul, in Jainism, which does not accept the Vedic notion of Paramatman, all enlightened souls are referred to as Paramatman and regarded as gods, while it honours the soul of each person as its own strictly eternally distinct saviour.[7] Because the Jain paramātman neither creates nor governs the cosmos, Jainism has no place for a creator deity, and is thus classified as a heterodox (nāstika) school in the Indian philosophical tradition.[8]

Hinduism

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Hindus believe in one God, who is known variously as Paramatman, Parameshwar, Parabrahman, Purushottam and so on.[9][10] Even though God is one, He manifests in infinite forms, but this should not to be confused with the belief that there are multiple Gods.[10]

Hindus conceptualize Parabrahman in diverse ways. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, Nirguna Brahman (Brahman without attributes) is Parabrahman. In Dvaita and Vishistadvaita Vedanta traditions, Saguna Brahman (Brahman with qualities) is Parabrahman. In Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism, Vishnu, Shiva and Adi Shakti respectively are Parabrahman. Mahaganapati is considered as Parabrahman by the Ganapatya sect. Kartikeya is considered as Parabrahman by the Kartikeya sect.

Description in the Upanishads

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The sage of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad IV.4.2, although not using the word Paramatman, explains that at the time of release the portion (aspect) of the Paramatman and the portion (aspect) of the Jiva presiding in the right eye become unified with the Paramatman and the Jiva presiding in the heart, then the Jiva does not see, smell, taste, speak, hear, feel, touch and know; when Paramatman goes out, the Chief Prana goes out after him, followed by the Lower Prana. Paramatman goes out riding on the Jiva following consciousness and work, knowledge of former life or natural capacity. In the Prashna Upanishad IV.11 the word Atman cannot refer to Jiva because the Jiva cannot of its own accord throw off its body or understand avidya, therefore, it refers to Paramatman.[11] The Jiva attains Moksha when he actually knows the Paramatman, the Asarira Prajnatman, to be thousand-headed, to be the governor of all and to be superior to all.[12] Thus, Paramatman is one of the many aspects of Brahman and has all attributes of Brahman.[13] Atman (Spirit) and Paramatman (God) are one, some say they are distinct as well as one, they are one with reference to Shakti but distinct with reference to that power.[14][clarification needed]

Parable of the two birds

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Further information: Tree of Jiva and Atman

The word Paramatman is not to be found in the Rig Veda but through allusion referring to Paramatman as Isha. This distinction is made because all of its mantras which in the form of prayers are addressed to gods. In its great Riddle Hymn (Sukta I.164) is the famous mantra - R.V.I.164.20, that was revealed to Rishi Deergatamaah Auchathyah and borrowed by Mundaka Upanishad III.1.1-3, which belongs to Atharva Veda, to weave the parable of the Two Birds:-Two birds.

Two birds, beautiful of wings, close companions, cling to one common tree: of the two one eats the sweet fruit of that tree; the other eats not but watches his companion. The self is the bird that sits immersed on the common tree; but because he is not lord he is bewildered and has sorrow. But when he sees that other who is the Lord and the beloved, he knows that all is His greatness and his sorrow passes away from him. When, a seer, he sees the Golden-hued, the maker, the Lord, the Spirit who is the source of Brahman, then he becomes the knower and shakes from his wings sin and virtue; pure of all stains he reaches the supreme identity.

— Translation of Verses 1-3 of Third Mundaka Upanishad by Sri Aurobindo.

Aurobindo makes the Spirit or Purusha the Source of everything, including Brahman. He makes Purusha more fundamental. Thus, he does not have to say Brahman to be the source of inferior Brahman, and he also dismisses the sense of Reality revealed in imaginative and emotional build-up.[15]

Concept of two souls

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The Dualistic school of philosophy initiated by Anandatirtha draws its support from the afore-cited passage as well as from the passage of Katha Upanishad I.3.1 of an earlier Upanishad that speaks about two souls which taste the fruits of action, both of which are lodged in the recess of the human heart, and which are different from each other as light and shade, that carried the flaw—how could the Universal soul be regarded as enjoying the fruits of action? The followers of Madhva draw their support from the Bhagavad Gita XV.16 that speaks about two persons in this world, the Mutable and the Immutable; the Mutable is all these things, while the Immutable is the one who exists at the top of them, one is the Jivatman and the other, Paramatman.[16] Jivatman is chit, the sentient, and Paramatman is Isvara, both have the same attributes; they are inseparably present together on the tree which is achit, the insentient, or the gross Avidya component of existence. Jivatman and Paramatman are both seated in the heart, the former is driven by the three modes of nature and acts, the latter simply witnesses as though approving the former's activities.[17] The relationship between Paramātmā, the Universal Self, and 'ātma, the Individual Self, is likened to the indwelling God and the soul within one's heart. Paramatman is one of the many aspects of Brahman. Paramatman is situated at the core of every individual jiva in the macrocosm. The Upanishads do compare Atman and Paramatman to two birds sitting like friends on the branch of a tree (body) where the Atman eats its fruits (karma), and the Paramatman only observes the Atman as a witness (sākṣin) of His friend's actions.

Advaita

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In Advaita philosophy, individual souls are called Jīvātman, and the Highest Brahman is called Paramātman. The Jivatman and the Paramatman are known to be one and the same when the Jivatman attains the true knowledge of the Brahman (Sanskrit Brahmajñāna). In the context of Advaita, the word Paramatman is invariably used to refer to Nirguna Brahman, with Ishvara and Bhagavan being terms used to refer to Brahman with qualities, or Saguna Brahman. However, there is still a tendency in Shankara to use interchangeably the terms Paramatman and Ishvara, even when he is referring to personal names of Ishvara like Narayana and Vishnu.[18]

Brahman and Isvara are not synonymous words, the apparent similarity is on account of similar looking attributes imagined with regard to the impressions these two words activate. According to Advaita, Isvara is Brahman associated with maya in its excellent aspect, as the empirical reality it is the determinate Brahman; Isvara has no reality apart from Brahman. The Svetasvatara Upanishad developed the conception of a personal God. The Katha Upanishad states that never has any man been able to visualise Paramatman by means of sight, heart, imagination or mind. The Anandamaya-kosha is the Isvara of the Upanishads. Gaudapada called duality maya, and non-duality, the only reality. Maya is the Cosmic Nescience that has in it the plurality of subject and object and therefore, Isvara is organically bound with the world. Beyond the Prana or Isvara is the state of the Infinite limitless Brahman[19] which is why in the Bhagavad Gita VII.24, Krishna tells Arjuna—"not knowing My unsurpassable and undecaying supreme nature the ignorant believe Me to have assumed a finite form through birth."

With regard to the cause of samsāra, as to where it resides and the means of its removal, Adi Shankara in his Vivekachudamani.49. instructs that the individual self is the Paramatman in reality, the association of the individual self with ajnana i.e. with avidya, which he terms as anatmabandhah, bondage by the anatman or non-atman, makes it to identify itself with gross, subtle and causal bodies and from that arises samsāra, which is of the form of superimposition of qualities of sukha, dukkha etc., on itself, the atman.[20]

Vaishnavism

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Paramatman is beyond knowledge and ignorance, devoid of all material attributes (upadhi). In Chapter 13 of the Bhagavad Gita, Paramatman is described as Krishna residing in the hearts of all beings and in every atom of matter. Paramatman is also described in the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 9) as worthy of the bhakti (devotion) of the individual selves:

For I am actually both the one who receives and the Lord over all acts of worship. ...Whoever offers even a leaf, a flower, fruit, or water to Me in devotion, That is a meaningful offering I accept from those whose souls are truly devoted.[21]

He is the overseer and the permitter of their actions.[22][23] Paramatman is different from five elements (pancha mahabhutas), the senses, mind, pradhana and jiva.[24]

Vaishnava sects maintain that attaining knowledge of Brahman and identification of atman with Brahman is an intermediate stage of self-realization, and only Bhakti Yoga can lead to the next step of Paramatman realization as the indwelling God, ultimately leading up to liberation (Mukti) by God-realization.

The Viṣṇu or the deity of the quality of goodness in the material world is the puruṣa-avatāra known as Kṣīrodakaśāyī Viṣṇu or Paramātmā.[1]

In Bengal, Vaishnava Krishna is viewed as one endowed with his essential svarupa-shakti; he is Bhagawat in full manifestation endowed with Jivasakti and Mayasakti, he the Paramatman and Brahman. Brahman, Paramatman and Bhagavan are 3 gradations of the ultimate reality.[25]

Jiva Goswami, Gaudiya Vaishnava scholar, distinguishes between Brahman, Paramatman, and Bhagavan, citing a passage from the Bhagavata Purana (1.2.11): "The knowers of the Absolute Reality call that Reality advaya-jnana, 'nondual consciousness,' which is designated as Brahman, Paramatma or Bhagavan." He asserts that the one absolute reality is conceived with different terms depending on who is doing the conceiving: the Advaitins conceive of it as an "all-pervasive Brahman"; the yogis conceive of it as Paramatman; and the Vaishnavas conceive of it as Bhagavan who possesses a transcendent and immaterial form. Goswami contends that Bhagavan is the most complete conception or manifestation of the Absolute Reality, and the other two are dependent and based on it, Brahman (who is undifferentiated) and Paramatman (as the Supreme soul) are thus understood to be included in Bhagavan.[26]

Time

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Time is described in the Bhagavata Purana:

My Lord, I consider Your Lordship to be eternal time, the supreme controller, without beginning and end, the all-pervasive one. ... Eternal time is the witness of all our actions, good and bad, and thus resultant reactions are destined by Him. It is no use saying that we do not know why and for what we are suffering. We may forget the misdeed for which we may suffer at this present moment, but we must remember that Paramātmā is our constant companion, and therefore He knows everything, past, present and future. And because the Paramātmā feature of Lord Kṛṣṇa destines all actions and reactions, He is the supreme controller also. Without His sanction not a blade of grass can move.[2]

See also

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Notes

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References

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Sources

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Paramatman

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Paramātman (Sanskrit: परमात्मन्, paramātmā), meaning "supreme self" or "highest soul," is a central concept in Hindu philosophy referring to the universal, divine consciousness that pervades all existence and serves as the inner controller of individual souls. It represents the absolute reality, often identified with Brahman, the infinite and unchanging essence of the universe, characterized by eternal truth (sat), consciousness (chit), and bliss (ānanda). In non-dualistic traditions such as Advaita Vedanta, Paramātman is synonymous with Brahman and identical to the individual self (ātman), emphasizing the unity of all existence where the distinction between the personal soul (jīvātman) and the supreme soul is illusory, arising from māyā (cosmic illusion). This realization of oneness, affirmed in Upanishadic mahāvākyas like "Tat Tvam Asi" ("Thou art that") from the Chāndogya Upanishad (6.8.7), leads to mokṣa (liberation) through knowledge (jñāna). In theistic schools like Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedanta, Paramātman is understood as the personal supreme being (īśvara), the creator and lord who indwells all beings as their supporter and witness, while maintaining a qualified non-duality with the world. This perspective aligns with descriptions in texts like the Bhagavad Gītā, where the supreme self is portrayed as the overseer and experiencer within the body, as in Chapter 13, Verse 23, which explains the supreme puruṣa (person) as the witness, permitter, and ultimate enjoyer beyond material qualities.

Overview and Etymology

Definition and Core Concept

Paramatman, often translated as the "Supreme Self" or "Highest Soul," represents the in , particularly within , where it is often synonymous with —especially in non-dualistic traditions like , as the impersonal absolute. This concept embodies the indwelling divine essence present in all beings, serving as the foundational that underlies the and individual existence. Central to the spiritual pursuit in Vedanta is the realization of Paramatman's unity with the individual self, known as jivatman or atman, which leads to moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Through this realization, the practitioner overcomes ignorance and identifies the personal self as identical to the supreme, achieving eternal freedom and bliss. This process emphasizes self-knowledge as the path to transcending worldly attachments and illusions. The concept of Paramatman emerged in ancient during the period of the , approximately 800-200 BCE, marking a shift toward metaphysical inquiry. Its core attributes include , as it permeates all existence; , as pure ; , being beyond time and change; and transcendence, existing apart from material illusions such as maya. These qualities underscore Paramatman's role as the unchanging source of all reality.

Linguistic Origins

The term Paramatman derives from roots, where parama signifies "supreme," "highest," or "ultimate," and ātman denotes "," "," or "," yielding the compound translation "Supreme Self" or "Highest Soul." This etymological structure emphasizes a hierarchical elevation of the self beyond ordinary individuality, with ātman itself tracing back to the Vedic root an meaning "to breathe," originally connoting vital breath or life force in early texts. Historically, Paramatman emerges in the transition from Vedic to Upanishadic literature, with its conceptual precursors in the where ātman appears approximately 30 times, often as an individual essence or intelligent principle, but without the explicit supreme qualifier. The term gains prominence in the , such as the (IV.11), marking its early articulations as the universal self, evolving from Vedic ritualistic contexts to philosophical . Semantically, Paramatman distinguishes the universal, eternal from lower forms like jīvatman, the individual bound by personal attributes and karma, underscoring its all-encompassing as the summit of selfhood. Synonyms in Vedic-Upanishadic usage include Parabrahman (Supreme ) and Puruṣa (cosmic ), reflecting interchangeable expressions for this transcendent essence. In Jain contexts, the term influences adaptations, such as Paramappapayasu in texts like the Paramātmaprakāśa, where it denotes the liberated soul's ultimate state, evolving from to signify spiritual perfection in non-theistic frameworks.

Paramatman in

Upanishadic Foundations

The , composed between approximately 800 and 500 BCE, provide the earliest scriptural foundations for the concept of Paramatman in , portraying it as the supreme, all-encompassing reality synonymous with . These texts mark a shift from Vedic ritualism to introspective inquiry into the nature of the self and , influencing subsequent Vedantic thought. In the , Paramatman is depicted as the inner controller (antaryamin), an immortal presence that pervades and governs all elements of existence without being known by them. For instance, it is described as dwelling within the , the sun, the , and all beings, ruling them from within while remaining distinct and unseen: "He who dwells in the , yet is different from the , whom the does not know, whose body the is, who controls the from within—He is your own self, the inner controller, the immortal one." This all-encompassing nature underscores Paramatman's identity with , possessing attributes of infinite knowledge (jnana) and bliss (ananda), as the ultimate source and sustainer of the cosmos. The further elaborates on Paramatman as the supreme self achievable through unification with the individual soul (), leading to . It explains that the , composed of sixteen parts (such as the senses and vital forces), merges into Paramatman upon realization, much like rivers losing their names and forms upon reaching the : "Just as these flowing rivers... disappear into the ... so do these sixteen parts... disappear [into the supreme person], and... are spoken of as the person only. That one becomes partless, ." This unification is attained through knowledge (jnana) of the vital breath () and the inner self, emphasizing as the path to recognizing Paramatman's eternal, imperishable essence. These Upanishadic descriptions establish Paramatman as the inner ruler endowed with infinite knowledge and bliss, transcending individual existence while being immanent in all. Realization of this identity dissolves the illusion of separateness, granting liberation and immortality, and lays the groundwork for later explorations in Vedanta.

Symbolic Parables

One of the most prominent symbolic parables illustrating the relationship between the individual soul (jivatman) and the supreme self (Paramatman) is the metaphor of the two birds, drawn from the Mundaka Upanishad. In this imagery, two birds of golden plumage, inseparable companions, perch on the branches of the same tree; the first bird tastes the sweet and bitter fruits of the tree, representing the jivatman engaged in worldly actions and experiences, while the second bird observes calmly without partaking, embodying the Paramatman as the detached witness consciousness. This parable highlights the eternal proximity and unity of the two selves, with the tree symbolizing the body or the cycle of existence (samsara), where the jivatman's involvement leads to bondage, contrasted by the Paramatman's impassive oversight that invites realization of their oneness. Extending the arboreal motif, the employ the broader metaphor of the to depict the relational dynamics, portraying the individual atman as the branches extending into the material world and Paramatman as the unseen root sustaining all, underscoring the supreme self's foundational role in the illusory multiplicity of . Another evocative image is that of salt dissolved in from the , where a lump of salt thrown into water becomes imperceptible yet permeates every portion, tasted universally; this illustrates the dissolution of individuality into Paramatman, where the supreme self is the subtle, all-pervading essence beyond sensory grasp, affirming non-separation. In this parable, the inability to retrieve the salt intact mirrors the path to , where apparent distinctions fade into unity. These parables serve a crucial interpretive role in Upanishadic thought, providing vivid visualizations of non-duality (advaita) by contrasting active engagement with serene observation, thereby guiding the seeker toward detachment from worldly fruits and ultimate union with Paramatman as the path to . They transform abstract philosophical concepts into accessible narratives, emphasizing that recognition of Paramatman's witnessing presence dissolves the illusion of separation. Their enduring cultural impact is evident in medieval poetry and artistic depictions, where such imagery recurs to evoke devotional surrender and divine intimacy, as seen in the devotional traditions drawing from Upanishadic symbolism.

Interpretations in Vedantic Schools

In , as systematized by , Paramatman is understood as , the attributeless absolute reality that is eternal, immutable, and beyond all dualistic distinctions. This supreme self is identical to the individual jivatman in essence, with the apparent separation arising solely from (avidya) or maya, which superimposes illusory distinctions upon the non-dual reality. Upon the removal of ignorance through (jnana), the jivatman realizes its oneness with Paramatman, dissolving all perceived differences in a state of pure consciousness (saccidananda). In , propounded by , Paramatman is interpreted as , the qualified absolute endowed with infinite auspicious qualities such as truth, knowledge, infinity, purity, and bliss, while serving as the inner controller (antaryamin) of all s and . Here, Paramatman, often identified with , maintains a non-dual unity with the world and individual souls through an organic body-soul (sarira-saririn) relationship, where souls (cit) and (acit) are inseparable modes or attributes of without merging into it. This indwelling presence of Paramatman sustains and guides jivas toward liberation, emphasizing its role as the supreme soul that pervades yet transcends creation. Dvaita Vedanta, founded by Madhva, posits Paramatman as the eternally distinct supreme controller, identified with , who is the independent (svatantra), omniscient, and all-powerful reality governing all dependent entities. Unlike the non-dual schools, Dvaita maintains an eternal, insurmountable distinction (pancha-bheda) between Paramatman and jivatman, even in the liberated state, with jivatmans existing as finite, real images (pratibimba) of Paramatman that share limited attributes like knowledge and bliss but remain hierarchically subordinate. Paramatman's lordship extends over creation, preservation, and dissolution, ensuring cosmic order through its infinite perfections and grace. Across these Vedantic schools, a common thread is the emphasis on paths like jnana (knowledge) in Advaita for dispelling and realizing non-duality, (devotion) in and Dvaita for cultivating surrender and grace, leading to the experiential realization of Paramatman as the ultimate goal of spiritual life.

Paramatman as Eternal Time

In the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Paramātman is depicted as kāla, the eternal time, embodying the role of both destroyer and impartial witness to cosmic actions. This portrayal underscores kāla as the transformative force that disturbs the equilibrium of the three guṇas (qualities of nature), driving the cycles of creation, preservation, and dissolution without direct intervention by the divine. For instance, in narratives such as the allegory of Puranjana (Skandha IV), time manifests as decrepitude (jarā) and disease (yavana), eroding the material body and binding the soul to karmic consequences, while Paramātman sanctions these movements as the overseeing Supersoul. Similarly, in the myth of Vṛtrāsura (Skandha VI), kāla enforces inevitable destruction after prolonged cycles, culminating in Viṣṇu's indirect role through Indra, highlighting time's autonomy yet ultimate subordination to the divine will. Philosophically, this association frames time as an integral aspect of Paramātman's līlā (divine play), a playful that perpetuates the binding of (jīvas) to the material world through endless cycles of birth and until liberation (mokṣa) is attained via devotion (). In the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, energizes (primordial nature), manifesting the universe from the mahattattva (cosmic intelligence) onward, yet it serves the higher purpose of spiritual evolution, where sincere devotion to Paramātman—exemplified by Prahlāda's unwavering (Skandha VII)—allows transcendence of temporal constraints. This view positions time not as an adversary but as a benevolent mechanism within the divine sport, compelling toward reunion with the eternal. A key contrast emerges in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa's cosmology: while Paramātman embodies in its operational aspect, the supreme reality itself remains akālika (beyond time), untouched by the very cycles it governs. This duality illustrates how the transcendent Supersoul witnesses and regulates temporality—such as the devouring of Vedic knowledge (śrutis) at the close of each (Skandha VIII)—without being ensnared by it, preserving an eternal vantage point amid flux. Devotees, through , emulate this transcendence, accessing realms where time's influence dissolves, as seen in Kṛṣṇa's revelations to the gopīs (Skandha X). The concept of Paramātman as eternal time evolved post-Upanishadic in Bhakti literature, particularly with the Bhāgavata Purāṇa's composition around the 9th-10th century CE, marking a shift toward devotional cosmology that integrated earlier Vedic notions of time with personalist theology. This development, rooted in South Indian Vaiṣṇava traditions, emphasized kāla's role in fostering bhakti as the path to timeless liberation, influencing subsequent texts like the works of Āḷvār poets. Scholarly analyses date the Purāṇa's final form to after the 8th century CE, reflecting a synthesis of abstract metaphysics and narrative accessibility for lay devotees. ===== END CLEANED SECTION =====

Paramatman in

In , the term Paramātman is used interpretively to refer to the liberated (siddha), denoting the supreme state of the individual free from karmic bondage, though primary texts more commonly employ siddha.

Path to Becoming Paramatman

In ontology, every individual , or jīva, possesses the inherent potential to attain liberation and become a Paramātman, understood as a perfected, omniscient, and eternally blissful siddha free from all karmic bondage. This transformation occurs through the systematic eradication of karma, which obscures the soul's natural qualities of infinite , perception, energy, and bliss. The process is non-theistic, rejecting any and emphasizing that all Paramātmans achieve identical, supreme status without . The path to liberation, resulting in siddha status (equated with Paramātman in interpretive traditions), is outlined in the Tattvārthasūtra, a foundational Jain text attributed to Umāsvāmī (c. 2nd–5th century CE), which defines the threefold path of liberation known as the ratnatraya or "three jewels": right faith (samyagdarśana), right knowledge (samyagjñāna), and right conduct (samyakcāritra). Right faith involves unwavering in the Jain truths, such as the seven tattvas (realities) including souls, matter, and karma; right knowledge entails comprehensive understanding of these principles to discern truth from delusion; and right conduct manifests as ethical living, particularly through vows like non-violence (ahiṃsā) and . These elements must harmoniously integrate, as partial adherence prolongs karmic , while their perfect synthesis stops the influx of new karma (āsrava) and facilitates its shedding (nirjarā). Spiritual progress unfolds across fourteen stages called guṇasthānas, marking the soul's ascent from an ordinary jīva mired in delusion to kevalin (complete omniscience at the thirteenth stage) and finally to siddha or Paramātman at the fourteenth. Ascetic practices, including meditation, fasting, and strict observance of ahiṃsā—the paramount vow prohibiting harm to any living being—are central to this purification, as they weaken and expel karmic matter bound to the soul. Upon death, the liberated soul ascends to Siddhaśilā, the summit of the Jain universe, where it exists eternally as a bodiless, omnipresent Paramātman in perpetual bliss, beyond rebirth. The Tattvārthasūtra underscores this egalitarian attainment, affirming that any jīva can realize its divine potential through disciplined effort, without divine intervention.

Relation to Jiva and Karma

In Jain philosophy, the jiva represents the individual soul in its bound state, obscured by karmic particles known as karma-varganas, which are fine clusters of non-living matter attracted to the soul through passionate actions such as attachment, anger, greed, ego, and deceit. These karma-varganas veil the jiva's inherent infinite qualities of knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy, preventing its realization as the supreme state (Paramātman or siddha), the pure form of the soul achieved upon complete liberation from all karmic bondage. The siddha thus denotes the emancipated jiva, free from the cycle of rebirth and existing in its infinite, untainted form. The role of karma in this relation is central, as it manifests in eight primary types that must be halted and eradicated for liberation; these include knowledge-obscuring karma (jnanavaraniya), which limits the soul's , and lifespan-determining karma (ayushya), which fixes the duration and form of existence across realms such as , , celestial, or hellish. The other types—intuition-obscuring, feeling-producing, deluding, energy-obstructing, body-determining, and status-determining—further entangle the by influencing , emotions, conduct, physical embodiment, and social position, with the first four classified as ghati (soul-destroying) and the latter four as aghati (non-destroying). Liberation from this karmic obstruction occurs through samvara, the stoppage of fresh karmic influx via ethical restraints and vows, and nirjara, the shedding of accumulated karma through ascetic practices like fasting, meditation, and penance, ultimately culminating in , or perfect , which unveils the jiva's innate attributes of infinite bliss and knowledge as a siddha or Paramātman. Once attained, all liberated souls as Paramātmans exist in absolute equality at Siddhashila, the apex of the , blissfully inactive without , desires, or further action, each possessing identical infinite perfections.

Paramatman in Other Traditions

In Sikhism

In Sikh theology, Paramatman is understood as the formless divine essence, known as or , representing the that pervades all existence and resides as the inner light (jyot) within the individual (atman). This supreme is not separate from the atman but to it, emphasizing a profound unity where the divine is immanent and transcendent simultaneously. The realization of this identity dissolves the illusion of duality, allowing the seeker to experience the eternal presence of the divine within. The scriptural foundation for this concept lies in the , the central Sikh scripture, which equates Paramatman with through verses that highlight unity and transcendence. For instance, it states, "The is in the soul, and the soul is in the . This is realized through the Guru's Teachings" (SGGS, M.1, Ang 1153), underscoring the inseparability of the divine and the self. Another verse affirms, "Those who understand their own souls, are themselves the Supreme Soul" (SGGS, M.1, Ang 421), portraying Paramatman as the accessible through inner awareness. These teachings reject anthropomorphic forms of the divine, focusing instead on its formless, all-pervading nature. Realization of Paramatman occurs through the practice of naam simran, the meditative remembrance of the divine name, combined with bhakti (devotional love) and seva (selfless service), leading to jivan mukti, or liberation while living. This path emphasizes ethical living, humility, and surrender to the divine will, without reliance on asceticism or ritualism, as the human soul reunites with Paramatman by overcoming ego through the Guru's guidance (SGGS, M.1, Ang 661). Naam simran fosters this merger by attuning the mind to the divine vibration, integrating daily life with spiritual awareness. Sikhism's conception of Paramatman developed in the 15th-16th century region, founded by Dev Ji amid social and religious upheaval, blending elements of devotion from the broader Indian tradition with a unique monotheistic framework that reformed prevailing Hindu and Islamic influences. This synthesis occurred through the teachings of the ten Gurus, culminating in the compilation of the in 1604, which eternalized the path to divine realization.

Comparative Perspectives

In , Paramatman is conceptualized as the theistic supreme reality, the highest self that indwells and controls all beings as the personal manifestation of , emphasizing devotion and realization of divine unity. In , by contrast, Paramatman represents the ultimate liberated state of the soul (), a supreme spirit of purity and achieved by any upon shedding all karmic bonds, without implying a . Both traditions underscore through ethical discipline and as the means to attain this supreme condition, yet they diverge sharply on godhood: attributes creative and sustaining powers to Paramatman as , whereas views it as a non-theistic, perfected individual essence devoid of such attributes. Sikhism shares with Hinduism the emphasis on unity between the individual soul and Paramatman, interpreted as the formless, omnipresent divine essence (Akal Purakh) that pervades creation and is realized through meditative remembrance (simran). However, Sikh teachings integrate this realization within an egalitarian communal framework via the sangat, where collective worship and service promote spiritual equality, a dimension largely absent in the ascetic, individualistic paths of Jainism that prioritize solitary renunciation for soul liberation. This communal egalitarianism in Sikhism thus extends the divine unity of Paramatman beyond personal enlightenment to social harmony, contrasting with Jainism's focus on individual karmic purification. On a broader scale, notion of Paramatman as an eternal, supreme directly opposes the Buddhist of anatta (no-), which denies any enduring, independent essence in beings and regards claims of an immortal atman or paramatman as illusory attachments perpetuating samsara and dukkha. Buddhism's rejection of such an eternal core prioritizes impermanence (anicca) and interdependent arising (pratityasamutpada) over the unitary hood central to Paramatman, marking a profound metaphysical divide between the two traditions. Modern interpretations of Paramatman in the 20th and 21st centuries remain underexplored in scholarly discourse, particularly in , where it is occasionally invoked to describe the higher integrated into therapeutic practices for mental well-being and . Similarly, interfaith dialogues have only sporadically addressed Paramatman, often framing it as a bridge to universal divine consciousness amid efforts toward global spiritual harmony. These gaps highlight opportunities for further development, such as through Smartism's inclusive theology, which identifies Paramatman with multiple deity forms () to foster ecumenical understanding across traditions.

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