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Prophets and messengers in Islam
Prophets and messengers in Islam
Prophets and messengers in Islam
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Islamic miniature depicting Muhammad leading a prayer of all Islamic prophets and messengers in a celestial Mosque during Isra' and Mi'raj

Prophets in Islam (Arabic: ٱلْأَنْبِيَاء فِي ٱلْإِسْلَام, romanized: al-anbiyāʾ fī al-islām) are individuals in Islam who are believed to spread God's message on Earth and serve as models of ideal human behaviour. Some prophets are categorized as messengers (Arabic: رُسُل, romanized: rusul; sing. رَسُول, rasool), those who transmit divine revelation, most of them through the interaction of an angel. Muslims believe that many prophets existed, including many not mentioned in the Quran. The Quran states: "And for every community there is a messenger."[1][2] Belief in the Islamic prophets is one of the six articles of the Islamic faith.[3]

Muslims believe that the first prophet was also the first human being Adam, created by God. Many of the revelations delivered by the 48 prophets in Judaism and many prophets of Christianity are mentioned as such in the Quran with the Arabic versions of their names; for example, the Jewish Elisha is called Alyasa', Job is Ayyub, Jesus is 'Isa, etc. The Torah given to Moses (Musa) is called Tawrat, the Psalms given to David (Dawud) is the Zabur, the Gospel given to Jesus is Injil.[4]

The last prophet in Islam is Muhammad ibn ʿAbdullāh, whom Muslims believe to be the "Seal of the Prophets" (Khatam an-Nabiyyin), to whom the Quran was revealed in a series of revelations (and written down by his companions).[5] Muslims believe the Quran is the divine word of God, thus immutable and protected from distortion and corruption,[6] destined to remain in its true form until the Last Day.[7] Although Muhammad is considered the last prophet, some Muslim traditions also recognize and venerate saints (though modern schools, such as Salafism and Wahhabism, reject the theory of sainthood).[8]

In Islam, every prophet preached the same core beliefs: the Oneness of God, worshipping of that one God, avoidance of idolatry and sin, and the belief in the Day of Resurrection or the Day of Judgement and life after death. Prophets and messengers are believed to have been sent by God to different communities during different times in history.

Terminology

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The Syriac form of rasūl Allāh (lit. 'messenger of God'), s̲h̲eliḥeh d-allāhā, occurs frequently in the apocryphal Acts of St. Thomas. The corresponding verb for s̲h̲eliḥeh—s̲h̲alaḥ, occurs in connection with the prophets in the Hebrew Bible.[9]

Terminology in the Quran

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In Arabic, the term nabī (Arabic plural form: أنبياء, anbiyāʼ) means "prophet". Forms of this noun occur 75 times in the Quran. The term nubuwwah (Arabic: نبوة "prophethood") occurs five times in the Quran. The terms rasūl (Arabic plural: رسل, rusul) and mursal (Arabic: مرسل, mursal, pl: مرسلون, mursalūn) denote "messenger with law given by/received from God" and occur more than 300 times. The term for a prophetic "message" (Arabic: رسالة, risālah, pl: رسالات, risālāt) appears in the Quran in ten instances.[10]

The following table shows these words in different languages:[11]

Prophet and Messenger in the Bible and Quran
Arabic English Greek Hebrew
نَبِيّ nabī, pronounced [ˈnæbiː] prophet προφήτης prophētēs[12] נָבִיא (nāḇî') pronounced [naˈvi][13]
رَسُول rasūl, pronounced [rɑˈsuːl]

مُرْسَل mursal, pronounced [ˈmʊrsæl]

messenger
prophet
apostle		 ἄγγελος, angelos[14]
ἀπόστολος, apostolos[15]		 מַלְאָךְ mal'āḵ, pronounced [malˈ(ʔ)aχ][16]
שְׁלַח, šᵊlaḥ pronounced [ʃeˈlaχ]}}[17]

Usage of Angels

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Islamic miniature depicting Jibril providing prophetic revelation from God to Muhammad

Exegetes usually distinguish the messenger angels (rasūl), who carry out divine decrees between heaven and earth, from the angels in heaven (karubiyin).[18][19] In the Quran and tafsir, the term rasūl is also used for messengers from among the angels. The term is used in Quran 81:19, Quran 11:69–11, and Quran 51:26–11, and is also used for the servants of the Angel of Death.[20]

Characteristics

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In Islam, the Quran is believed to be a revelation from the last prophet in the Abrahamic succession, Muhammad, and its contents detail what Muslims refer to as the straight path.[21] According to Islamic belief, every prophet preached submission and obedience to God (Islam). There is an emphasis on charity, prayer, pilgrimage, fasting, with the most emphasis given to the strict belief and worship of a singular God.[22] The Quran itself calls Islam the "religion of Abraham" (Ibrahim)[23] and refers to Jacob (Yaqub) and the Twelve Tribes of Israel as being Muslims.[24]

The Quran says:

He has ordained for you ˹believers˺ the Way which He decreed for Noah, and what We have revealed to you ˹O Prophet˺ and what We decreed for Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, ˹commanding:˺ "Uphold the faith, and make no divisions in it."

— Surah Ash-Shura 42:13

Prophets in Islam are exemplars to ordinary humans. They exhibit model characteristics of righteousness and moral conduct. Prophetic typologies shared by all prophets include prophetic lineage, advocating monotheism, transmitting God's messages, and warning of the eschatological consequences of rejecting God. Prophetic revelation often comes in the form of signs and divine proofs. Each prophet is connected to one another, and ultimately support the final prophetic message of Muhammad. The qualities prophets possess are meant to lead people towards the straight path. In one hadith, it was stated: "Among men the prophets suffer most."[25]

Signs and divine proofs

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Main articles: Islamic view of miracles and Miracles of Muhammad

Throughout the Quran, prophets such as Moses and Jesus often perform miracles or are associated with miraculous events. The Quran makes clear that these events always occur through God and not of the prophet's own volition. Throughout the Meccan passages there are instances where the Meccan people demand visual proofs of Muhammad's divine connection to God to which Muhammad replies "The signs are only with Allah, and I am only a plain warner." (Q29:50)According to Muslims, this instance makes clear that prophets are only mortals who can testify to God's omnipotence and produce signs when he wills it.[26] Furthermore, the Quran states that visual and verbal proofs are often rejected by the unbelievers as being sihr ("magic") The Quran reads: "They claim that he tries to bewitch them and make them believe that he speaks the word of God, although he is just an ordinary human being like themselves. (Q74:24-25)

Sin and protection

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In the early years of Islam, prophets were not considered infallible or sinless.[27] Every greater prophet, with exception to Jesus, was accused of sin.[27] Not only was it possible for prophets to sin, their sins had soteriological significance.[27][28] For example, Moses in Islam needs forgiveness after he killed an innocent person.[29] Adam regretted his sin in Garden Eden, which is supposed to teach humans how to repent.[30]

By the ninth century CE, Sunni Islam began to consider prophets to be sinless.[31] It became a major concern to ensure the reliability of the revelation.[32] This doctrine probably developed under influence of Shia Islam from the doctrine of the infallible Shia Imams (ʿiṣmah).[33][34] Later Mutazilites agree to this view and hold that prophets are protected from both minor sins and major sins.[35] From among the Asharites it has been argued that prophets are protected from sinning in their function as a messenger. al-Baqillani stated that prophets are mainly protected from deception and lying when they convey God's message and from major sins, but are not generally sinless.[35] The majority of theologians subscribed to this opinion.[36]

Later, especially Muhammad is described as infallable among Sufis. When asked how Muhammad was not affected by the touch of the devil, Rumi compares devils to a dog's salvia poured into an ocean, the ocean symbolizing Muhammad's greatness. Other people, on the other hand, are like a cup filled with water. The dog cannot affect the ocean, but the dog's salvia affects the cup of water.[37]

Wisdom

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Muhammad was given a divine gift of revelation through the angel Gabriel. This direct communication with the divine underlines the human experience but the message of the Quran dignifies this history of revelation with these select people in human history the foundation for Muhammed's prophetic lineage.

The Quran mentions various divinely-bestowed gifts given to various prophets. These may be interpreted as books or forms of celestial knowledge. Although all prophets are believed by Muslims to have been immensely gifted, special mention of "wisdom" or "knowledge" for a particular prophet is understood to mean that some secret knowledge was revealed to him. The Quran mentions that Abraham prayed for wisdom and later received it.[38] It also mentions that Joseph[39] and Moses[40] both attained wisdom when they reached full age; David received wisdom with kingship, after slaying Goliath;[41] Lot (Lut) received wisdom whilst prophesying in Sodom and Gomorrah;[42] John the Baptist received wisdom while still a mere youth;[43] and Jesus received wisdom and was vouchsafed the Gospel.[44]

Prophetic lineage

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Abraham sacrificing his son, Ishmael; and Abraham cast into fire by Nimrod. A miniature in the 16th-century Ottoman Turkish manuscript Zubdat Al-Tawarikh

Abraham is widely recognized for being the father of monotheism in the Abrahamic religions. In the Quran, he is recognized as a messenger, a spiritual examplar to mankind, Quran 2:24 and a link in the chain of Muslim prophets. Muhammad, God's final messenger and the revelator of the Quran, is a descendant of Abraham, and Muhammad completes Abraham's prophetic lineage. This relationship can be seen in the Quranic chapter 6:

That is Our Argument which We imparted to Abraham against his people. We raise up in degrees whomever We please. Your Lord is indeed Wise, All-Knowing. And We granted him Isaac and Jacob, and guided each of them; and Noah We guided before that, and of his progeny, [We guided] David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses and Aaron. Thus We reward the beneficent. And Zechariah, John, Jesus and Elias, each was one of the righteous. And Ishmael, Elijah, Jonah and Lot; each We exalted above the whole world. [We also exalted some] of their fathers, progeny and brethren. And We chose them and guided them to a straight path.6:83-87

The Quran presents the world as full of interlocking dramas and conflicts. The divine drama concerns the events of creation and banishment from the garden; while the human drama concerns the life and history of humanity but, also includes the events in the life of the prophets.[21] Islamic morality is founded on this virtuous living through faith in the life ordained by the divine. This is the divine task given to believers accompanied by the divine gift that the Prophets had in revelation and perspective of ayat.[21] The prophets are called to follow and reclaim the message of the straight path. This is the key feature of the authority of their revelation, which fits within the Abrahamic tradition. The Quran's place within the broader Abrahamic context gives the revelation to Muhammed the same authority as the Tawrat and the Injil.[45]

Representation and prophetic connection to Muhammad

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There are patterns of representation of Quranic prophecy that support the revelation of Muhammad. Since Muhammad is in Abraham's prophetic lineage, they are analogous in many aspects of their prophecy. Muhammad was trying to rid the Pagans of idolatry during his lifetime, which is similar to Abraham. This caused many to reject Muhammad’s message and even made him flee from Mecca due to his unsafety in the city. Carl Ernest, the author of How to Read the Qur’an: A New Guide, with Select Translations, states, "The Qur’an frequently consoles Muhammad and defends him against his opponents."[46] This consolation can also be seen as parallel to Abraham's encouragement from God. Muhammad is also known to perform miracles as Abraham did. Sura 17 (al-isrā) briefly describes Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey where he physically ascended to the Heavens to meet with previous prophets. This spiritual journey is significant in the sense that many Islamic religious traditions and transformations were given and established during this miracle, such as the ritual of daily prayer. (Q17:78-84) Muhammad is a descendant of Abraham; therefore, this not only makes him part of the prophetic lineage, but the final prophet in the Abrahamic lineage to guide humanity to the Straight Path. In Sura 33 (al-ahzāb) it confirms Muhammad and states, "Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but is the Messenger of Allah and the seal of the Prophets. Allah is Cognizant of everything". (Q33:40)

Female prophets

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The question of Mary's prophethood has been debated by Muslim theologians. Some Zahirite theologians argue that Mary, as well as Sara, the mother of Isaac, and Asiya, the mother of Moses, are prophets. They base this determination on the instances in the Quran where angels spoke to the women and divinely guided their actions.[47] According to the Zahirite Ibn Hazm (d. 1064), women could possess prophethood (Arabic: نبوة, romanized: nubuwwah) but not messengerhood (Arabic: رسالة, romanized: risālah) which could only be attained by men.[47] Ibn Hazm also based his position on Mary's prophethood on Q5:75 which refers to Mary as "a woman of truth" just as it refers to Joseph as "a man of truth" in Q12:46. Other linguistic examples which augment scholarship around Mary's position in Islam can be found in terms used to describe her. For example, In Q4:34 Mary is described as being one of the devoutly obedient (Arabic: قَانِتِين, romanized: qānitīn), the same description used for male prophets.[48]

Challenges to Mary's prophethood have often been based on Q12:109 which reads "We have only sent men prior to you". Some scholars have argued that the use of the term "rijal" or men should be interpreted as providing a contrast between men and angels and not necessarily as contrasting men and women.[48] The majority of scholars, particularly in the Sunni tradition, have rejected this doctrine as heretical innovation (Arabic: بدعة, romanized: bid'ah).[47]

Duty, Emphasis, and Obedience

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Monotheism

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The Quran states,

"And (remember) Abraham, when he said to his people: 'Worship Allah and fear Him; that is far better for you, if only you knew. Indeed, you only worship, apart from Allah, mere idols, and you invent falsehood. Surely, those you worship, apart from Allah, have no power to provide for you. So, seek provision from Allah, worship Him and give Him thanks. You shall be returned unto Him.'" (Q. 29:16-17)

This passage promotes Abraham's devotion to God as one of his messengers along with his monotheism. Islam is a monotheistic religion, and Abraham is one who is recognized for this transformation of the religious tradition. This prophetic aspect of monotheism is mentioned several times in the Quran. Abraham believed in one true God (Allah) and promoted an "invisible oneness" (tawḥīd) with him. The Quran proclaims, "Say: 'My lord has guided me to a Straight Path, a right religion, the creed of Abraham, an upright man who was no polytheist.'" (Q. 6:161) One push Abraham had to devote himself to God and monotheism is from the pagans of his time. Abraham was devoted to cleansing the Arabian Peninsula of this impetuous worship.[49] His father was a wood idol sculptor, and Abraham was critical of his trade. Due to Abraham's devotion, he is recognized as the father of monotheism.

Eschatology

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Prophets and messengers in Islam often fall under the typologies of nadhir ("warner") and bashir ("announcer of good tidings"). Many prophets serve as vessels to inform humanity of the eschatological consequences of not accepting God's message and affirming monotheism.[26] A verse from the Quran reads: "Verily, We have sent thee [Muhammad] with the truth, as a bearer of glad tidings and a warner: and thou shalt not be held accountable for those who are destined for the blazing fire." (Q2:119) The prophetic revelations found in the Quran offer vivid descriptions of the flames of Hell that await nonbelievers but also describe the rewards of the gardens of Paradise that await the true believers.[26] The warnings and promises transmitted by God through the prophets to their communities serve to legitimize Muhammed's message. The final revelation that is presented to Muhammed is particularly grounded in the belief that the Day of Judgement is imminent.

Obedience

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Stories of the prophets in the Quran often revolve around a certain pattern, according to which a prophet is sent to a group of people, who then reject or attack him, and ultimately suffer extinction as God's punishment. However, the Quran, given its paraenetic character, does not offer a full narrative; but rather offers a parabolic reference to the doom of previous generations, assuming the audience is familiar with the told stories.[50] The Quran emphasizes the importance of obedience to prophets in Surah 26 Ash-Shu'ara, in which a series of prophets preaching fear of God and obedience to themselves.

  • verse 108 has Noah saying 'fear God and Obey me'
  • verse 126 has Hud saying 'fear God and obey me'
  • verse 144 has Salih saying 'fear God and obey me'
  • verse 163 has Lot saying 'fear God and obey me'
  • verse 179 has Shu'ayb saying 'fear God and obey me'[51][52]

Scriptures

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The nature of revelation

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During the time of Muhammad's revelation, the Arabian peninsula was made up of many pagan tribes. His birthplace, Mecca, was a central pilgrimage site and a trading center where many tribes and religions were in constant contact. Muhammad's connection with the surrounding culture was foundational to the way the Quran was revealed. Though it is seen as the direct word of God, it came through to Muhammad in his own native language of Arabic, which could be understood by all the peoples in the peninsula. This is the key feature of the Quran which makes it unique to the poetry and other religious texts of the time. It is considered immune to translation and culturally applicable to the context of the time it was revealed.[53] Muhammad was criticized for his revelation being poetry which, according to the cultural perspective, is revelation purely originating from the jihn and the Qurash but the typology of duality and its likeness to the other prophets in the Abrahamic line affirms his revelation. This likeness is found in the complexity of its structure and its message of submission of faith to the one God, Allah.[45] This also revels that his revelation comes from God alone and he is the preserver of the Straight Path as well as the inspired messages and lives of other prophets, making the Quran cohesive with the monotheistic reality in the Abrahamic traditions.[45]

Holy books of Islam

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See also: Islamic holy books

The revealed books are the records which Muslims believe were dictated by God to various Islamic prophets throughout the history of mankind, all these books promulgated the code and laws of Islam. The belief in all the revealed books is an article of faith in Islam and Muslims must believe in all the scriptures to be a Muslim. Islam speaks of respecting all the previous scriptures.[54]

The Quran mentions some Islamic scriptures by name:

  • The "Tawrat" (also Tawrah or Taurat; Arabic: توراة‎) is the Arabic name for the Torah within its context as an Islamic holy book believed by Muslims to have been revealed to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel. When referring to traditions from the Tawrat, Muslims have not only identified it with the Pentateuch, but also with the other books of the Hebrew Bible as well as with Talmudic and Midrashim writings.[55]
  • The Quran mentions the Zabur, interpreted as being the Book of Psalms,[56] as being the holy scripture revealed to King David (Dawud). Scholars have often understood the Psalms to have been holy songs of praise, and not a book administering law.[57] Quran 21:105 and Psalm 37:29 are direct counterparts.[58]
  • Books of Divine Wisdom (Arabic: possibly identified as الْزُبُر az-Zubur): The Quran mentions certain Books of Divine Wisdom.[59]
  • The Injil (Gospel) was the holy book revealed to Jesus, according to the Quran. Although many lay Muslims believe the Injil refers to the entire New Testament, scholars have clearly pointed out that it refers not to the New Testament but to an original Gospel, which was sent by God, and was given to Jesus.[60] Therefore, according to Muslim belief, the Gospel was the message that Jesus, being divinely inspired, preached to the Children of Israel. The current canonical Gospels, in the belief of Muslim scholars, are not divinely revealed but rather are documents of the life of Jesus, as written by various contemporaries, disciples and companions. These Gospels contain portions of Jesus's teachings but do not represent the original Gospel, which was a single book written not by a human but was sent by God.[61]
  • Quran: The Quran (Arabic: القرآن‎, romanized: al-Qurʼān) was the revelation revealed to Muhammad.
  • Scrolls of Abraham (Arabic: صحف إبراهيم‎, Ṣuḥuf ʾIbrāhīm)[62] are believed to have been one of the earliest bodies of scripture, which were given to Abraham (Ibrāhīm).[63] Although usually referred to as "scrolls", many translators have translated the Arabic suhuf as "books".[64][65] The verse mentioning the "Scriptures" is in Quran 87:18-19 where they are referred to, alongside the Scrolls of Moses, to have been "Books of Earlier Revelation".
  • Scrolls of Moses (Arabic: صُحُفِ مُوسَىٰ, Ṣuḥuf Mūsā) are an ancient body of scripture mentioned twice in the Quran. They are part of the religious scriptures of Islam. Jordanian scholar and professor of philosophy Ghazi bin Muhammad mentions that the "Scrolls of Moses" are identical to the Torah of Moses.[66]
  • Book of Enlightenment (Arabic: الكِتَابُ ٱلْمُنِير, romanized: Kitābul-Munīr): The Quran mentions a Book of Enlightenment,[67] which has alternatively been translated as Scripture of Enlightenment or the Illuminating Book.

Known prophets

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Prophets and messengers named in the Quran

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All messengers mentioned in the Quran are also prophets, but not all prophets are messengers.[68]

Prophets and messengers in the Quran
Name Messenger Arch-prophet Notes Equivalent in other traditions
Ādam آدَم[69] Yes[69] No First human being, first prophet and father of all humanity Adam
ʾIdrīs إِدْرِيس[70] No No
"Raised... to an exalted place".
 Enoch or Hermes Trismegistus
Nūḥ نُوح[74] Yes[75] Yes[76][77][78] Sent to the people of Noah.[79] Survivor of the Great Flood Noah
Hūd هُود[80] Yes No Merchant sent to the ʿĀd tribe.[81] Eber
Ṣāliḥ صَالِح[82] Yes[82] No Camel breeder. Sent to the Thamud tribe.[83]
ʾIbrāhīm إِبْرَاهِيم[84] Yes[85] Yes[86][78] Sent to the people of Iraq and Syria.[87] Builder of the Kaaba. Associated with the Scrolls of Abraham[88] Abraham
Lūṭ لُوط[89] Yes[90] No Sent to Sodom and Gomorrah.[91] Did not live in Palestine, but was considered "brethren" by its inhabitants. Lot
ʾIsmāʿīl إِسْمَاعِيل[92] Yes[92] No Sent to pre-Islamic Arabia. Became the founder of the Arabian people Ishmael
ʾIsḥāq إِسْحَاق[93] No No Sent to Canaan. Founder of the Israelite people. Isaac
Yaʿqūb يَعْقُوب[93] No No Founder of the Israelite people. Jacob
Yūsuf يُوسُف[94] Yes[95] No Sent to Egypt. Joseph
ʾAyyūb أَيُّوب[94] No No Sent to Edom. A model of patience.[96] Job
Shuʿayb شُعَيْب[97] Yes[97] No Shepherd, sent to Midian[98] Jethro
Mūsā مُوسَىٰ[99] Yes[99] Yes[76][78] Challenged the Pharaoh; lead the migration back to Israel. Associated with the Tawrah and Scrolls of Moses[100] Moses
Hārūn هَارُون[101] Yes[99] No Vizier, brother of Moses Aaron
Dāūd دَاوُۥد[74] Yes[74] No Sent to Jerusalem. Military commander and third king of Israel and Judah (reigned around 1000 – 971BCE). Author of the Zabur[102] David
Sulaymān سُلَيْمَان[74] No No Sent to Jerusalem. Copperworker who became the fourth king of the Israel and Judah (reigned around 1000 – 971BCE).[103] Built the First Temple; Son of Dawud. Solomon
ʾIlyās إِلْيَاس[74] Yes[104] No Silk weaver sent to the people of Ilyas (Children of Israel)[105]
 Elijah
Alyasaʿ ٱلْيَسَع[74] No No Sent to the Children of Israel Elisha
Yūnus يُونُس[74] Yes[106] No Sent to the people of Yunus[107] (Nineveh). Swallowed by a giant fish. Jonah
Ḏū l-Kifli ذُو ٱلْكِفْل[108] No No Several possibilities have been suggested, including Ezekiel, Isaiah,[109][110] Obadiah,[110] and Buddha[111][112][113]
Zakariyyā زَكَرِيَّا[74] No No Sent to Jerusalem and were assassinated. Zakkariyya was the father of Yaḥyā. Zechariah
Yaḥyā يَحْيَىٰ[114] No No John the Baptist
ʿĪsā عِيسَىٰ[115] Yes[116] Yes[78][76][77] c. 4BCE – c. 33CE. The Messiah sent to the Children of Israel.[117] Associated with the Injil[118] Jesus
Muḥammad مُحَمَّد[119][120] Yes[121] Yes[86][78] 570 – 632CE. Shepherd, merchant, founder of Islam; Seal of the Prophets, Islam's prophet sent to all humanity and jinn[122] Compiler of the Quran[123]

Figures whose prophethood is debated

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Figures whose prophethood is debated
Name Notes Equivalent in other traditions
Šayṯ شَيْث[124] He does not appear in the Quran, but he is mentioned in Hadith. Seth
Kālib كالب[125] Sent to Israel. Caleb
Yūša bin Nun يُوشَع[126][127] Sent to Israel, Yusha (Joshua) is not mentioned by name in the Quran, but his name appears in other Islamic literature and in multiple Hadith. He is also named as a prophet in the Tawrat. In the Quranic account of the conquest of Canaan, Joshua and Caleb are referenced, but not named, as two men, on whom God "had bestowed His grace". Yusha is regarded by most scholars as to the prophetic successor to Musa (Moses). Joshua is the assistant of Moses when he visits al Khidr, and according to the Torah and the Bible, he was one of the two tribe messengers, along with Caleb that brought news that Jerusalem was habitable for the Jews. Joshua is also Moses's successor as the leader of the Jews, who led them to settle in Israel after Moses' death. Joshua (Yusha) entering into Jerusalem is also mentioned in the Hadith. Joshua
al-Khaḍir ٱلْخَضِر Sent to the seas,[128] the oppressed peoples,[128] Israel,Quran 18:65-82 Mecca,[129] and all lands where a prophet exists[130] The Quran mentions the mysterious Khidr (but does not name him). He is sometimes identified with Melchizedek, who is the figure that Moses accompanies on one journey. Although most Muslims regard him as an angel or enigmatic saint,[131] some see him as a prophet as well.[132] Unknown, sometimes identified as Melchizedek, and sometimes equated with Elijah[133]
Luqmān لُقْمَان Sent to Ethiopia.[134][135] The Quran mentions the sage Luqman in the chapter named after him, but does not clearly identify him as a prophet. The most widespread Islamic belief[136] views Luqman as a saint, but not as a messenger, however, other Muslims regard Luqman as a messenger as well.[137] The Arabic term wali is commonly translated into English as "Saint". This should not be confused with the Christian tradition of sainthood.
Ṣamūʾīl صَمُوئِيل Not mentioned by name, only referred to as a messenger/prophet sent to the Israelites and who anoints Saul as a king.[126][127] Samuel
Ṭālūt طَالُوت Some Muslims refer to Saul as Talut, and believe that he was the commander of Israel. Other scholars, however, have identified Talut as Gideon. According to the Qur'an, Talut was chosen by Samuel to lead them into war. Talut led the Israelites to victory over the army of Goliath, who was killed by Dawud (David). He is also named as a prophet in the Tawrat. According to some, Saul is not a prophet, but a divinely appointed king.[138][139] Saul[140] or Gideon
Irmiyā إرميا[141] He does not appear in the Quran or any canonical hadith, but his narrative is fleshed out in Muslim literature and exegesis. He is also named as a prophet in the Tawrat (the Arabic-language name for the Torah within its context as an Islamic holy book). Some non-canonical hadith and tafsirs narrate that the Parable of the Hamlet in Ruins is about Irmiya.[142][143] Jeremiah
Hizqil حِزْقِيل He is often identified as being the same figure as Dhul-Kifl,[144] Although not mentioned in the Qur'an by the name, Muslim scholars, both classical[145] and modern[146] have included Ezekiel in lists of the prophets of Islam. Ezekiel
Dāniyāl دَانِيَال[147] Usually considered by Muslims to be a prophet; he is not mentioned in the Qur'an, nor in Sunni Muslim hadith, but he is a prophet according to Shia Muslim hadith.[148][149] He is also named as a prophet in the Tawrat.[150] Daniel
Ḏū l-Qarnayn
ذُو ٱلْقَرْنَيْن[147][151] 		He appears in the Quran 18:83-101 as one who travels to east and west and erects a barrier between mankind and Gog and Magog (called Ya'juj and Ma'juj).[152] Cyrus the Great,[153] Imru'l-Qays I,[154] Messiah ben Joseph,[155] Darius the Great,[156] Oghuz Khagan[157])
Uzayr عُزَيْر He is mentioned in the Quran,[158] but he is not specified to have been a prophet, although many Islamic scholars hold Uzair to be one of the prophets.[159][160] He is also named as a prophet in the Tawrat (the Arabic-language name for the Torah within its context as an Islamic holy book). Ezra
Imrān عِمْرَان The Family of Imran (Arabic: آل عمران) is the 3rd chapter of the Quran. Imran, not to be confused with Amram,[161] is Arabic for the biblical figure Joachim, the father of Mary and maternal grandfather of Jesus. Joachim
Maryam مَرْيَم Some scholars[162][163] regard Maryam (Mary) as a messenger and a prophetess, since God sent her a message through an angel and because she was a vessel for divine miracles.[164] Among those who accepted the prophetess status of Maryam were Al-Qurtubi, Ibn Hazm, and Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari. However, Islamic scholars across generations from Hasan al-Basri of Tabi'un gemeration; Al-Nawawi of medieval era Shafi'i school; Qadi Iyad of Maliki school; al-Juwayni the grand Imam of medieval Mecca and Medina; and modern scholars such as Muhammad Al-Munajjid and Umar Sulaiman Al-Ashqar stated that the consensus or majority of Islamic scholars rejected the prophet status of Mary and quoted the tradition from Hasan al-Basri that there are no prophets in Islam from women, or from Jinn.[165][166][167] Mary
Shamshû̅n شمشون Various Islamic scholastic figures such as Wahb ibn Munabbih, Mujahid ibn Jabr, Ibn Kathir, Al-Tabari, Abu Ishaq al-Tha'labi, Ibn Abi Hatim [ar], Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Thalabi, and Badr al-Din al-Ayni has regarded Samson as prophet, and bestowing him the honorific "Peace Be Upon Him", as they based the prophetic status of Samson on the interpretation of the Quran verses of Ya-Sin and Al-Qadr chapters.[168][169][170][171][172] Samson

Other persons

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The Quran mentions 25 prophets by name but also tells that God sent many other prophets and messengers, to all the different nations that have existed on Earth. Many verses in the Quran discuss this:

  • "We did aforetime send messengers before thee: of them, there are some whose story We have related to thee, and some whose story We have not related to thee...."[173]
  • "For We assuredly sent amongst every People a messenger, ..."[174]

In the Quran

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  • Sons of Jacob: These men are sometimes not considered to be prophets, although most exegesis scholars consider them to be prophets, citing the hadith of Muhammad and their status as prophets in Judaism. The reason that some do not consider them as prophets is because of their behavior with Yusuf (Joseph) and that they lied to their father.
  • Ashab al-Kahf: The people of the cave, who slept about 300 years due to their piousness and sought refuge in the cave to escape religious persecution. They were mentioned in chapter 18 of the Quran.[175]
  • Three people of the town: These three unnamed people who were sent to the same town are mentioned in chapter 36 of the Quran.[176][original research?]

In Islamic literature

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Numerous other people have been mentioned by scholars in the Hadith, exegesis, commentary. These people include:

Other groups

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Prophethood in Ahmadiyya

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Main article: Prophethood (Ahmadiyya)

The Ahmadiyya Community does not believe that messengers and prophets are different individuals. They interpret the Quranic words warner (nadhir), prophet, and messenger as referring to different roles that the same divinely appointed individuals perform. Ahmadiyya distinguish only between law-bearing prophets and non-law-bearing ones. They believe that although law-bearing prophethood ended with Muhammad, non-law-bearing prophethood subordinate to Muhammad continues.[182][183] The Ahmadiyya Community recognizes Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908) as a prophet of God and the promised Messiah and Imam Mahdi of the latter days.[184] The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement rejects his status as a prophet, instead considering him to be a renewer of the faith.[183] However, all other Muslims and their scholars argue that the Ahmadiyya community are not Muslim.[185][186][183]

Prophethood in the Baháʼí Faith

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Further information: Baháʼí and Muhammad in the Baháʼí Faith

In contrast to the Muslims, Baháʼís[187] do not believe that Muhammad is the final messenger of God,[187][188] or rather define eschatology and end times references as metaphorical for changes in the ages or eras of mankind but that it and progress of God's guidance continues. Although, in common with Islam, the title the Seal of the Prophets is reserved for Muhammad, Baháʼís interpret it differently. They believe that the term Seal of the Prophets applies to a specific epoch, and that each prophet is the "seal" of his own epoch. Therefore, in the sense that all the prophets of God are united in the same "Cause of God", having the same underlying message, and all "abiding in the same tabernacle, soaring in the same heaven, seated upon the same throne, uttering the same speech, and proclaiming the same Faith", they can all claim to be "the return of all the Prophets".

See also

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References

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Prophets and messengers in Islam

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In Islam, prophets (anbiya') and messengers (rusul) are humans selected by to receive and guide humanity toward , moral conduct, and submission to God's will. All messengers are prophets, but not all prophets are messengers; the distinction lies in their roles, with prophets generally receiving inspiration to uphold existing divine laws among believers, while messengers are dispatched to disbelievers with new scriptures or legal codes to establish fresh guidance. The explicitly names 25 prophets, including , , Abraham, , , and , though Islamic tradition holds that sent a prophet to every nation throughout history, with the total number exceeding 124,000. is affirmed as the final prophet and messenger, sealing prophethood for all time and completing the divine message through the . Belief in all prophets and messengers constitutes one of the six pillars of Iman (faith) in Islam, underscoring their role as intermediaries between Allah and humanity without elevating them to divinity. Muslims are required to accept every prophet without distinction, as rejecting even one equates to denying Allah's unified message of worshiping Him alone, which has remained consistent across eras. Prophets exemplify ideal human behavior, facing trials to demonstrate patience, justice, and reliance on God, thereby serving as timeless models for ethical living and spiritual guidance. Among the most prominent prophets are those who received major scriptures: Noah (Nuh) with guidance for his people, Abraham (Ibrahim) as the father of , Moses (Musa) with the (Tawrat), Jesus (Isa) with the Gospel (Injil), and Muhammad with the . These figures, mentioned frequently in the Quran—Musa 136 times, Ibrahim 69 times, and Nuh 43 times—highlight themes of divine mercy, warning against , and calls for societal reform. Other notable prophets include Hud, sent to the 'Ad people; Saleh to the ; and (), known for his story of forgiveness and providence. Through their narratives, the Quran emphasizes that prophethood is a mercy from , aimed at every community to affirm His oneness and prepare for accountability in the .

Terminology and Concepts

Definition and Distinction

In , prophets (anbiya', singular nabi) are individuals selected by to receive divine and to guide their communities toward righteousness and moral conduct. These figures serve as intermediaries between the divine and humanity, delivering messages of glad tidings and warnings to foster adherence to 's will. The role emphasizes spiritual leadership within specific societies, often reinforcing existing divine laws rather than introducing new ones. Messengers (rusul, singular rasul), however, represent a subset of prophets who are additionally entrusted with the conveyance of scriptures or new legislative codes to humanity. While all messengers qualify as prophets due to their receipt of , not every prophet achieves the status of a messenger, as the latter involves a mandated public proclamation, typically to nations in defiance of prior guidance. For instance, figures like Yahya () functioned as prophets by upholding and exemplifying existing revelations without introducing a new scripture, whereas Musa () served as a messenger by delivering the as a foundational . This distinction underscores the escalating responsibility of messengers in establishing or renewing divine ordinances. Traditional Islamic sources estimate that dispatched approximately 124,000 prophets throughout to various peoples, ensuring comprehensive guidance across eras and regions, though only 25 are explicitly named in the . Of these, around 313 are regarded as messengers bearing heightened missions. The overarching purpose of both prophets and messengers remains the affirmation of —the oneness of —and the institution of a order conducive to human salvation and societal harmony.

Quranic Terminology

In the Quran, the term nabi (plural: anbiyāʾ), meaning "prophet," is derived from the Semitic root n-b-ʾ, which connotes announcing or calling forth, and traces its etymological roots to the Hebrew naviʾ, signifying a "caller" or "announcer" of divine messages. This noun form appears 75 times, often denoting individuals divinely inspired to convey guidance, as in verses emphasizing their role in upholding monotheism. Pre-Quranic usage in Arabian contexts was influenced by Judeo-Christian traditions, where Syriac and Biblical Aramaic variants of naviʾ entered local dialects through Jewish and Christian communities in the Hijaz, adapting the concept to describe inspired figures amid polytheistic practices. The term rasūl (plural: rusul), translated as "messenger," stems from the root r-s-l, implying dispatch or sending with authority, evoking an envoy bearing a specific divine commission. It occurs 332 times in the , frequently qualified as rasūl min Allāh ("messenger from "), underscoring the prophetic figure's role as a bearer of revealed scripture or law, such as in references to messengers delivering warnings to ancient nations. In , rasūl appeared in secular and religious contexts influenced by Semitic trade routes, where it denoted emissaries in narratives, but the elevates it to exclusively divine agency, integrating it with Abrahamic motifs familiar to the Meccan audience. Quranic phrases like rasūl Allāh ("Messenger of God") and anbiyāʾ Allāh ("Prophets of God") highlight divine appointment, appearing in contexts that affirm the continuity of revelation across prophets, as in Surah Al-Anbiyāʾ (21:7), which invokes prophets as human exemplars sent to their peoples. This terminology evolves from pre-Islamic borrowings by unifying disparate Abrahamic prophetic lineages—drawing on Biblical and Syriac precedents—into a cohesive framework tailored for an Arabian milieu, emphasizing (monotheism) while rejecting idolatrous deviations.

Role of Angels

In Islamic belief, angels serve as divine intermediaries in the prophetic mission, facilitating communication between and human prophets by delivering revelations, providing support during trials, and announcing significant events. The angel , in particular, holds a central role as the primary conveyer of wahy (divine revelation) to prophets throughout history. For instance, is described in the as the one who brought the Quran down to the heart of Prophet Muhammad by 's permission, emphasizing his function as a trusted emissary in the process of prophethood. This role extends to other prophets, where and other angels transmit 's messages, underscoring their obedience in executing divine commands without deviation. Beyond revelation, angels strengthen prophets in moments of adversity, offering supernatural aid that highlights 's support for His messengers. Islamic traditions describe angelic support for prophets, such as assistance to Prophet David in bolstering his kingship and wisdom against challenges. Similarly, Islamic traditions recount that during Prophet Abraham's trial by fire, an angel—often identified as Jibril—approached him to offer assistance, though Abraham affirmed his reliance on alone, leading to the fire's miraculous transformation into coolness and safety (Quran 21:69). These instances illustrate angels' protective role, intervening to affirm the prophets' resolve and divine favor. Angels also act as announcers of prophetic births and missions, conveying glad tidings that herald the arrival of future messengers. For example, angels informed Prophet Zakariya (Zechariah) of the birth of his son Yahya (John), a prophet destined to confirm a word from . In a parallel event, an angel—identified as the spirit or Jibril—appeared to Maryam (Mary) to announce the miraculous birth of Prophet Isa (Jesus), emphasizing the purity and divine selection of these figures. Such announcements not only prepare the ground for prophetic continuity but also demonstrate angels' role in nurturing the lineage of guidance. The occasionally refers to angels as rasul (messengers), as in , where they descend with the spirit of revelation by 's command to warn and affirm , yet they are distinctly differentiated from human prophets. While angels are portrayed as bearers of messages, they lack the capacity to live among people or endure human trials, a role reserved for prophets. Theologically, angels embody absolute obedience to , possessing no to disobey, as they are created solely to worship and execute His orders without hesitation or error. This contrasts sharply with human prophets, who, despite their immunity from major , navigate tests of faith and choice, underscoring the unique trials inherent in their earthly mission to guide .

Core Characteristics

Divine Signs and Proofs

In Islamic theology, divine signs and proofs, known as mu'jizat (), are supernatural events that defy natural laws and are granted by to prophets to authenticate their divine missions. These miracles are tailored to the cultural and contextual needs of each prophet's community, serving as irrefutable evidence of God's support. For instance, the term mu'jiza derives from the root meaning "to render incapable," indicating acts beyond human capability that challenge skeptics to replicate them. The employs the term ayat (signs) to denote both textual revelations and physical manifestations that corroborate prophethood, emphasizing that these are deliberate proofs from rather than self-initiated displays by the prophets. A key purpose of these signs is to convince disbelievers of the truth and affirm divine backing, as stated in Al-Ankabut: "And they say, 'Why are not signs sent down to him from his Lord?' Say, 'The signs are only with Allah, and I am only a clear warner.' But sufficient is the Book We have revealed to you, so that they may give thought." This verse underscores that the Quran itself functions as a primary aya, a linguistic and intellectual miracle challenging humanity to produce its like, thereby validating the Prophet Muhammad's message without needing additional physical proofs in every instance. Divine signs manifest in various types, including physical miracles that alter the material world, intellectual signs such as profound wisdom in legal and ethical rulings, and prophetic dreams or visions that foretell events. Physical examples include Moses' staff transforming into a serpent to outmatch Pharaoh's magicians, demonstrating supremacy over prevailing sorcery in ancient Egypt. Intellectual signs are evident in the Quran's inimitable eloquence and comprehensive guidance, while visions, such as true dreams granted to prophets, provide divine insight and prophecy. These proofs aim to foster belief, but rejection by opponents often invites divine consequences; Pharaoh's denial of Moses' signs, for example, led to his downfall and the parting of the sea as retribution.

Immunity from Sin

In Islamic theology, the doctrine of ʿiṣmah () holds that prophets are divinely protected from committing major sins (kabāʾir) and from any errors in transmitting the divine message, ensuring the integrity of . This protection is considered essential for prophets to serve as reliable conduits of God's will and exemplary figures for humanity. The term ʿiṣmah derives from the root meaning "to preserve" or "to guard," reflecting Allah's safeguarding of prophets from moral failings that could undermine their mission. The Quranic foundation for ʿiṣmah is rooted in verses emphasizing the prophets' purity and fidelity to revelation. For instance, Surah Al-Ahzab (33:33) states: "Allah intends only to remove impurity from you, O people of the [Prophet's] household, and to purify you with [extensive] purification," which scholars interpret as a divine assurance of spiritual cleansing extended to the Muhammad and, by analogy, to all prophets, shielding them from grave sins to maintain their role as moral guides. Additional verses reinforce this, such as Surah Al-Ma'idah (5:67), commanding the to convey the message without fear, implying divine preservation from , and Surah An-Najm (53:3-4), affirming that the 's words are not of his own desire but pure revelation. These texts underscore that prophets are "purified" to prevent any lapse that could compromise the authenticity of scriptures like the . However, ʿiṣmah allows for minor human oversights or lapses in judgment outside the scope of revelation transmission, provided they do not constitute moral failings and are promptly corrected by divine guidance. A key example is in Surah Abasa (80:1-10), where the briefly frowned and turned away from a blind companion, , while addressing disbelieving elites; this momentary distraction, driven by strategic concern for Islam's spread, prompted immediate Quranic reproof but is viewed not as sin but as a correctable reaction, affirming that prophets remain under Allah's tutelage without erring in core prophetic duties. Such nuances highlight that ʿiṣmah focuses on protection from intentional wrongdoing or prophetic mistakes, not absolute immunity from all inadvertent actions. Theological perspectives on ʿiṣmah vary across schools. In Sunni doctrine, prophets are comprehensively protected from major sins both before and after prophethood, as well as from any alteration in message delivery, though minor sins may occur with swift repentance to exemplify humility; this view, held by scholars like Ibn Taymiyyah, ensures the Quran's reliability while humanizing prophets. In contrast, the Mu'tazila emphasize a rational basis for ʿiṣmah, arguing that prophets must be entirely free from error—moral or intellectual—to rationally justify divine selection and the veracity of , extending protection even against forgetfulness in prophetic functions. This rationalist approach, prominent in early Islamic thought, prioritizes logical necessity for prophets as flawless role models. Ultimately, ʿiṣmah serves to guarantee the trustworthiness of divine scriptures and prophets' exemplary status, allowing believers to emulate them without doubt, as any vulnerability to grave would erode in God's guidance. By preserving prophets from such failings, upholds the and prior revelations as unerring sources of and ethics.

Prophetic Wisdom

In Islamic theology, hikmah (wisdom) refers to the divinely bestowed insight and understanding granted to prophets, encompassing knowledge of divine laws, ethical principles, and foresight into future events, enabling them to guide humanity effectively. This wisdom is not merely intellectual acuity but a profound, inspired discernment that aligns human actions with God's will, as articulated in the Quran where it is frequently paired with revelation to underscore its sacred origin. Unlike ordinary knowledge, prophetic hikmah ensures infallible judgment in matters of faith and morality, serving as a cornerstone for communal and personal guidance. The sources of prophetic hikmah are primarily divine, bestowed directly by God through revelation, supplemented by angelic instruction or the prophet's innate spiritual purity. Prophets receive this wisdom to interpret divine commands accurately, including limited knowledge of the unseen (ghayb), such as glimpses of future occurrences or historical accounts of past nations, without encompassing the full extent of God's omniscience. For instance, the Quran states that God grants hikmah to whom He wills, emphasizing its role in elevating the recipient's capacity for righteous leadership and prophecy. This endowment distinguishes prophets by providing them with unerring insight into religious truths, free from error in doctrinal or ethical applications. Quranic narratives illustrate hikmah through specific prophets, highlighting its practical manifestations. To Prophet Yusuf (Joseph), God granted hikmah and knowledge upon reaching maturity, empowering him to interpret dreams with unparalleled accuracy, as seen in his foresight of Egypt's famine and his rise to governance. Similarly, Prophet Sulayman (Solomon) was endowed with hikmah alongside judgment, allowing him to comprehend the language of birds and resolve disputes justly, such as discerning truth in a case of disputed parenthood. Prophet Dawud (David) received hikmah that informed his legislative wisdom, exemplified in the Psalms (Zabur), which contained divinely inspired judgments for equitable ruling. These examples demonstrate hikmah's application in personal conduct, such as ethical decision-making, and in legislation, where it fosters just governance and moral instruction for societies. Prophetic fundamentally differs from general human , which may be acquired through or study but remains fallible and prone to deviation. In contrast, the prophets' wisdom is infallible specifically in religious and ethical domains, ensuring their guidance remains a reliable conduit for divine will and communal benefit, without extending to personal errors outside prophetic duties. This underscores hikmah as a sign of authentic prophethood, reinforcing its role in upholding and moral order.

Lineage and Succession

In Islamic tradition, the prophetic lineage originates with , recognized as the first human being and the inaugural prophet appointed by God to guide humanity after his creation and placement on . All subsequent prophets descend from Adam, establishing an unbroken chain of divine envoys who transmit the message of across generations. This continuity is emphasized through pivotal figures like , whose ark preserved his righteous family—forming the nucleus of post-flood humanity and the prophetic line—ensuring the survival and propagation of God's covenant despite widespread corruption. The lineage advances through Abraham, a central and who renewed the call to , and specifically via his son , whose descendants include the Arabian prophets. Muhammad, as the culminating figure, traces his ancestry directly to , with scholarly consensus affirming the genealogy from to and from through twenty-one generations to , underscoring the preservation of this sacred bloodline in Islamic historical records. Within this succession, five prophets are elevated as Ulul 'azm—possessors of firm resolve—for their extraordinary determination in confronting opposition and instituting renewed divine laws: , Abraham, , , and . These arch-prophets each received independent scriptures and shari'ah, serving as resolute upholders of the core monotheistic message during eras of profound trial, with their missions marking transformative epochs in human spiritual history. Muhammad's role finalizes this chain, as proclaimed in the : "Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but is the Messenger of and the . And has ˹perfect˺ knowledge of all things" (33:40). The term khatam an-nabiyyin denotes the conclusive seal, affirming that no further prophets will arise after him, thereby establishing the perpetuity of his message as the ultimate guidance for humankind. Preceding prophets foreshadowed Muhammad's arrival, exemplified by the supplication of Abraham and during the construction of the : "Our Lord! Raise from among them a messenger who will recite to them Your revelations, teach them the and , and purify them. Indeed, You ˹alone˺ are the Almighty, All-Wise" (2:129). This prayer is understood in Islamic as an for a messenger from their progeny, fulfilled in Muhammad's mission among Ishmael's descendants. This genealogical and successive framework illustrates the singular, evolving unity of , wherein each builds upon the prior to reinforce submission to the one , reaching its complete and everlasting form in .

Female Prophets

Recognized Figures

In Islamic tradition, several women are recognized by certain scholars as prophets or prophetesses based on their receipt of and exemplary faith, though the Quran does not explicitly label them as "nabi" (prophet). These figures are drawn primarily from Quranic narratives and interpretations, emphasizing their roles in receiving wahy () or guidance that parallels prophetic missions. Maryam (Mary), the mother of Isa (Jesus), is the most prominently acknowledged female prophetess among those scholars who affirm women in this role. The Quran describes her receiving direct angelic revelation from Jibril (), who announces her miraculous conception and provides divine instruction, as detailed in Surah Maryam (19:17-21). This interaction is interpreted as wahy by scholars such as and , who argue that angelic address and the purity of the message bestowed upon her confer prophetic status, akin to male prophets. Furthermore, Surah Maryam (19:58) lists her alongside prophets who received divine favor, reinforcing her siddiqa (truthful one) designation in Surah (5:75), a title shared with prophets like . Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ash'arī explicitly includes her among female prophets, citing her unparalleled devotion and the on the "perfection of women" that pairs her with as ideals of faith. Asiya, the wife of Fir'awn (Pharaoh), is another key figure recognized for her prophetic qualities through her steadfast belief and protective role toward Musa (Moses). The Quran highlights her as an exemplar of the believing woman in Surah At-Tahrim (66:11), where she prays for a home in Paradise and seeks refuge from her oppressive husband, demonstrating divine favor amid trial. Scholars like Ibn Hazm and al-Ash'arī affirm her prophethood based on hadith traditions of female perfection and her implicit guidance in upholding monotheism against tyranny, viewing her actions as inspired by divine wisdom. Sarah, the wife of Ibrahim (Abraham), and Hagar (Hajar), his other wife and mother of Ismail, are acknowledged in some scholarly traditions as prophetic due to their encounters with divine visions and trials that shaped prophetic lineages. For , the Quran recounts angels delivering glad tidings of (Isaac) and (Jacob) directly to her in Surah Hud (11:71-73) and Surah Adh-Dhariyat (51:29), an address interprets as prophetic revelation since angels communicate such messages only to prophets. Al-Ash'arī includes both and among prophetesses, attributing to Hagar a visionary experience during her trial in the desert that led to the Zamzam well's emergence, symbolizing divine inspiration amid adversity. While the Quran provides evidence of these women as recipients of —through angelic visits, visions, and moral exemplarity—their explicit prophetic status remains a minority view among scholars, often contrasted with the majority position that prophets were exclusively male. This limited recognition reflects the patriarchal contexts of pre-Islamic and early Islamic societies, where women's public roles were constrained, yet exegeses like those of and affirm their spiritual authority through detailed analysis of Quranic verses and . There is no fixed number of female prophets in Islamic sources, but the emphasis lies on their exemplary status as models of piety, resilience, and submission to God, inspiring believers across generations.

Theological Perspectives

In Islamic theology, the debate over female prophets centers on whether divine election for prophethood (nubuwwah) is restricted by gender, distinct from the consensus that no female messengers (rusul) were sent, as explicitly stated in the Quran (e.g., Q 12:109: "We sent not before you [O Muhammad] any messenger except men"). The majority view among classical and contemporary scholars holds that there were no female prophets, reasoning that prophethood entails public conveyance of divine guidance, a role deemed unsuitable for women given historical social norms that limited their public engagement and exposed them to potential harm or disbelief. This position is reinforced by interpretations of Quranic verses emphasizing male messengers and the absence of explicit female prophetic figures beyond inspirational women like Maryam. However, this view acknowledges spiritual equality between genders, as illustrated by the hadith in which the Prophet Muhammad described women as "counterparts of men" (shawaqq), underscoring that divine favor is not inherently gendered. A minority opinion among classical scholars, including Ibn Ḥazm (d. 1064 CE, founder of the Ẓāhirī school) and al-Qurṭubī (d. 1273 CE, Mālikī jurist), affirms the possibility of female prophets based on instances of direct divine communication to women, without the obligation of scriptural revelation or public mission that defines messengers. These scholars cite examples such as Maryam (Mary), who received angelic announcements and divine favor (Q 3:42–47), as evidence of prophetic status, arguing that God's election transcends gender limitations. Certain Hanbalī-influenced views align with the majority rejection, emphasizing practical barriers to women's public preaching in patriarchal contexts, though some broader classical discussions allow for private prophetic inspiration for women. In relation to ʿiṣmah (infallibility), any female prophet would share the same protection from sin and error in conveying divine will as male prophets, a core attribute ensuring the purity of guidance across genders. Modern feminist Islamic thought builds on these minority perspectives to expand women's spiritual roles, promoting gender inclusivity. This approach highlights female prophets—or potential ones—as models that enhance Islamic exemplars of and authority, fostering egalitarian interpretations without contradicting core doctrines. For instance, Maryam is briefly referenced here as a key figure embodying such potential, though detailed biography appears elsewhere.

Duties and Obligations

Advocacy for Monotheism

In Islam, the advocacy for , or , constitutes the fundamental duty of all and messengers, who were sent to guide humanity toward the exclusive worship of . The explicitly states that every delivered the core message of affirming "There is no deity except " (La ilaha illallah), urging people to worship the one God and reject all forms of polytheism and false deities known as . This universal proclamation is encapsulated in Surah An-Nahl (16:36): "We surely sent a messenger to every community, saying, ‘Worship and shun false gods.’ But some of them were guided by , while others were destined to stray." This verse underscores that formed the essence of prophetic missions across all nations, transcending time and place to establish pure devotion without associates or intermediaries. Prophets employed diverse methods to promote tawhid, including miraculous signs, rational arguments, and direct actions to reform idolatrous practices within their communities. A prominent example is the Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim), who challenged his people's idol worship through logical discourse and symbolic disruption. In Al-Anbiya (21:51-70), Abraham questions his father and community about their devotion to statues, declaring, "Indeed, I turn my face toward He who created the heavens and the earth, inclining toward truth, and I am not of those who associate others with ." He then smashes the idols except the largest one, hanging the axe on it to expose their lifelessness, thereby demonstrating the futility of and affirming 's sole sovereignty. This act of community reform not only highlighted the prophets' role in dismantling superstitious beliefs but also exemplified their commitment to tawhid through tangible, persuasive means. Despite these efforts, prophets consistently faced vehement opposition from entrenched polytheistic societies, including tribal leaders and imperial authorities who viewed as a threat to their power and traditions. Such resistance often escalated to persecutions, including mockery, physical harm, and attempts on their lives, as seen in the experiences of (Nuh), who preached against idol worship for 950 years yet endured rejection from his people (Surah Nuh 71:5-7), and Moses (Musa), who confronted Pharaoh's claim of divinity. The generalizes this pattern in Surah Al-An'am (6:34): "And certainly were messengers denied before you, but they were patient over [what they were] denied, and they were harmed until Our victory came to them." These challenges reinforced the prophets' perseverance in advocating amid adversity. The universality of remains the unchanged core of all prophetic dispensations, serving as the foundational principle that linked earlier messengers like Hud and Saleh to the final Prophet Muhammad, all calling humanity to the same divine truth without alteration. Prophets functioned primarily as warners (nadhir) against shirk—the gravest sin of associating partners with —emphasizing that deviation from leads to spiritual ruin, while adherence brings guidance and salvation. This role is affirmed across prophetic narratives, ensuring tawhid's enduring relevance as the bedrock of Islamic faith.

Eschatological Warnings

In Islam, prophets serve dual roles as mushir (bringers of good tidings) and nadhir (warners), particularly in foretelling the qiyamah (Day of Resurrection) to alert humanity to the consequences of their actions in the . This function is exemplified in the , where is described as possessing no knowledge of the unseen but acting solely as a warner and bearer of glad tidings for believers regarding . The warnings emphasize accountability before , with prophets conveying that rejection of leads to torment in Hell, while faith and promise entry into Paradise. A key element of these eschatological messages involves vivid descriptions of paradise as eternal reward for the obedient and hellfire as punishment for disbelievers, aimed at instilling fear of divine justice to promote moral reform. For instance, Prophet Hud warned his people, the 'Ad, against their arrogance and idolatry, prophesying a destructive storm as if they persisted in disbelief, which ultimately befell them as a sign of the ultimate judgment to come. This purpose underscores the prophets' mission to motivate adherence to (monotheism) by highlighting the inescapable reckoning on the Day of Judgment, where deeds are weighed and eternal fates decided. While earlier prophets received partial revelations on eschatological matters, tailored to their communities' contexts, the full and final details of the and were completed through Muhammad's , providing comprehensive guidance on the signs of the Hour and post-judgment realities. Hadith literature expands on this by detailing the prophets' role in shafa'a () on the Day of Judgment, where they collectively seek mercy for believers after initial pleas from figures like , , Abraham, , and defer to , who then intercedes successfully with God's permission. This intercession applies particularly to those who affirmed but committed sins, reinforcing the prophets' ongoing advocacy for their followers' .

Emphasis on Obedience

In Islamic theology, prophets serve as enforcers of , known as shari'a in its broader sense, urging adherence to core ethical principles such as , charity, , and family morals to foster societal harmony and individual piety. These messengers conveyed God's commands as a means of guiding humanity toward , with each adapting the divine law to their community's context while maintaining the universal foundation of . The Quran explicitly mandates obedience to both God and His messengers, as stated in Surah Al-Imran (3:32): "Say, 'Obey Allah and His Messenger.' If they still turn away, then truly Allah does not like the disbelievers." This imperative is illustrated in the stories of prophets like Lot, who called his community to abandon immoral practices and submit to God's ethical laws, yet faced rejection that underscored the need for compliance to avoid divine retribution. Disobedience to prophetic guidance has historically led to severe consequences, as seen in the narratives of past nations. For instance, Noah's people, corrupted by and moral decay, ignored his warnings and were destroyed in a great as punishment for their defiance. Similarly, other communities that rejected their prophets encountered calamities, serving as cautionary tales of the perils of turning away from divine commands. While emphasizing accountability, Islamic teachings balance obedience with the promise of mercy, portraying it as a pathway to God's compassion for those who submit humbly. Prophets exemplified this through their own humility and patience, as Muhammad is described as a model of forbearance who responded to hostility with mercy rather than retaliation. Such conduct highlights obedience not as mere subjugation but as a virtuous cycle leading to spiritual elevation and communal welfare. The prophetic emphasis on obedience evolved across history, beginning with universal ethical principles in early messengers like and , who focused on foundational and moral uprightness, and progressing to more detailed legal codes in later prophets. received the , outlining comprehensive laws for worship, justice, and social order among the , while Muhammad's revelation in the provided an encompassing shari'a that integrated prior messages into a final, universal framework. This progression reflects God's adaptive guidance, tailoring obedience requirements to humanity's development while preserving the core call to ethical submission.

Revelations and Scriptures

Mechanism of Revelation

In Islamic , wahy (revelation) refers to the divine process by which imparts knowledge, commands, and guidance to prophets, ensuring the transmission of unadulterated truth to humanity. This communication occurs through various modes, including direct inspiration to the prophet's heart, true dreams that convey prophetic visions, or delivery via an intermediary angel such as Jibril (Gabriel). The general mechanism of revelation involves the prophet receiving the divine message, internalizing it through memorization, and conveying it verbatim to followers without alteration or error. This fidelity is safeguarded by the doctrine of 'isma (infallibility), a protective attribute granted by God to all prophets, shielding them from sin, forgetfulness, or misinterpretation in matters of revelation. As a result, prophets serve as flawless conduits for divine will, preserving the integrity of the message across generations. For Prophet Muhammad, the final messenger, revelation unfolded gradually over 23 years, beginning in 610 CE when the angel Jibril appeared to him in the Cave of Hira near , commanding him to "Read" the first verses of the . This process continued intermittently, adapting to circumstances and providing timely guidance to the early Muslim community. The itself describes as "a weighty word" (qawlan thaqilan), emphasizing its profound impact and the physical strain it imposed on the Prophet, such as intense pressure, sweating, and exhaustion during descent. The mode of revelation varies among prophets to suit their missions and contexts; for instance, spoke directly to at the burning bush on , addressing him without an intermediary to affirm his prophethood and deliver the . Such distinctions highlight 's wisdom in tailoring communication—angelic for most, direct speech for select figures like —to ensure clarity and authority in each era.

Canonical Holy Books

In Islam, the canonical holy books, known as the kutub (books) or suhuf (scrolls) in a broader sense, represent divine revelations bestowed upon select prophets to guide humanity toward and righteous conduct. These scriptures are affirmed in the as authentic products of , each tailored to its historical context while collectively forming a chain of divine guidance. The explicitly recognizes four primary books alongside earlier scrolls, emphasizing their role in confirming one another, though it positions itself as the final and preserved criterion (muhaymin) over all preceding texts. The , revealed to Prophet over 23 years beginning in 610 CE, is the culminating and unaltered scripture in , comprising 114 chapters (surahs) that encapsulate comprehensive guidance on , , , and . It abrogates and perfects prior revelations where necessary, serving as the ultimate authority to discern truth from distortion in earlier books. As stated, "We have sent down to you the Book in truth, confirming what came before it and as a criterion over it." Unlike previous scriptures, the is preserved in its original form through meticulous oral and written transmission, ensuring its integrity for all time. The Tawrat (Torah), revealed to Prophet Musa (Moses), constitutes the foundational divine law for the Children of , containing commandments, narratives of past prophets, and principles of justice. It is described as embodying "guidance and light" through which prophets judged the Jewish community. From an Islamic perspective, the original Tawrat provided moral and legal directives, but its current textual form has undergone alterations by human hands, necessitating the Quran's role in restoring and verifying its core truths. The Zabur (Psalms), granted to Prophet Dawud (), consists of hymns, prayers, and extolling God's praise and offering spiritual counsel. The affirms, "And to David We gave the Zabur," highlighting its revelatory status as a complement to the Tawrat. In Islamic tradition, the Zabur focuses on devotional aspects rather than detailed legislation, and while its essence aligns with monotheistic teachings, the extant version is viewed as partially altered, with the Quran safeguarding its authentic elements. The Injil (Gospel), bestowed upon Prophet Isa (Jesus), son of Maryam, presents teachings that confirm and modify the Tawrat's laws, emphasizing mercy, , and inner purification. It is characterized as containing "guidance and light, confirming what came before it of the Scripture." Islamic doctrine holds that the original Injil was a single revelation to Isa, promoting unity with , but subsequent compilations into the canonical Gospels represent human interpolations and distortions. Additionally, the Suhuf (scrolls) refer to concise early scriptures revealed to Prophets Ibrahim (Abraham) and Musa, encapsulating fundamental tenets of , ethical living, and warnings against . The references them as "the scriptures of Abraham and Moses," underscoring their antiquity and alignment with later revelations. These scrolls, less detailed than the major books, served as primordial guides and are considered part of the divine continuum, though their specific contents are not extensively preserved outside Quranic allusions. Collectively, these holy books affirm a unified message of submission to one (tawhid), prophetic succession, and moral accountability, with each successive revelation building upon and safeguarding the previous ones. The Quran's designation as muhaymin—a guardian, witness, and arbiter—ensures the verification of their truths while abrogating obsolete elements, rendering it the definitive scripture for all humanity. Muslims are obligated to believe in all these revelations as acts of , even if only the Quran remains in its pristine form.

Enumeration of Prophets

Prophets Named in the Quran

The Quran explicitly names 25 prophets and messengers, serving as exemplars of divine guidance, perseverance in the face of adversity, and unwavering advocacy for (monotheism). These figures span from the earliest human communities to the advent of , with their narratives interwoven throughout the sacred text to underscore moral and spiritual lessons. The following provides a complete enumeration, with key prophets grouped thematically and brief descriptions for all, drawing from their Quranic portrayals of roles, trials, and missions.

Frequency of Mentions in the Quran by Name

The 25 prophets named in the Quran are mentioned with varying frequency, reflecting differences in narrative emphasis and detail across the text. The list below orders them by the number of mentions:
  • Musa (Moses): 136 times
  • Ibrahim (Abraham): 69 times
  • Nuh (Noah): 43 times
  • Yusuf (Joseph): 27 times
  • Lut (Lot): 27 times
  • Isa (Jesus): 25 times
  • Adam: 25 times
  • Harun (Aaron): 20 times
  • Ishaq (Isaac): 17 times
  • Sulayman (Solomon): 17 times
  • Yaqub (Jacob): 16 times
  • Dawud (David): 16 times
  • Ismail (Ishmael): 12 times
  • Shu'ayb (Jethro): 11 times
  • Salih: 9 times
  • Zakariyya (Zachariah): 7 times
  • Hud: 7 times
  • Yahya (John): 5 times
  • Ayyub (Job): 4 times
  • Yunus (Jonah): 4 times
  • Muhammad: 4 times, Ahmad: 1 time
  • Dhul-Kifl: 2 times
  • Ilyas (Elias): 2 times
  • Al-Yasa (Elisha): 2 times
  • Idris (Enoch): 2 times
Among the early prophets: , recognized as the first human and prophet, was created by from clay and appointed as a vicegerent on earth, tasked with teaching the names of all things to the angels as a sign of human potential. His story emphasizes and divine mercy: after being tempted by to eat from the forbidden tree alongside his wife , and Hawwa sought forgiveness, which granted, establishing the pattern of human fallibility and redemption. This narrative illustrates the foundational role of prophethood in guiding humanity toward moral awareness and submission to . Idris (identified with ) is praised for his righteousness and elevation to a lofty station due to his steadfast faith and knowledge. He warned against moral decay following Adam's era, promoting piety and intellectual pursuits like writing and astronomy. Nuh (), another primordial warner, preached to his corrupt community for 950 years, facing relentless rejection from those who mocked his message and built idols. commanded him to construct an ark, saving him, his followers, and pairs of animals from a cataclysmic that destroyed the disbelievers, symbolizing divine justice against and corruption. Hud was sent as a messenger to the ancient 'Ad people, calling them to abandon and worship alone, but they rejected him, leading to their destruction by a fierce wind as punishment for their arrogance. Saleh was dispatched to the tribe, who demanded a ; he presented a she-camel from a rock, but they hamstrung it, resulting in an earthquake that annihilated them for their disbelief. Ibrahim (Abraham) stands as the archetypal patriarch and "father of prophets," whose unyielding reshaped religious history. He rejected his people's , confronting his father and smashing idols to demonstrate their powerlessness, surviving a miraculous escape from fire ordained by the tyrant Namrud. tested his through commands to leave his homeland and, most profoundly, to sacrifice his son Ismail, which was replaced by a ram, affirming submission (). Ibrahim, along with Ismail, rebuilt the in as a for , establishing the Abrahamic covenant that links subsequent prophets. Ismail, as a young prophet, demonstrated obedience in the sacrifice trial and assisted in purifying the . Lut (Lot) was sent to his people in Sodom, warning against their immoral acts, including ; saved him and his family (except his wife) by destroying the city with a rain of stones. The prophetic lineage continued through Ibrahim's descendants: Ishaq (Isaac), born miraculously to elderly parents as a reward for faith, carried forward the monotheistic legacy and fathered Yaqub (Jacob). Yaqub endured profound trials, including favoritism toward his son Yusuf (Joseph), who was sold into slavery by jealous brothers but rose to prominence in through and integrity. Yusuf's story highlights forgiveness and , as he reunited with his family during , forgiving their betrayal and affirming Allah's overarching plan. These figures exemplify familial bonds tested by hardship, reinforcing themes of patience and trust in divine wisdom. Musa (Moses), the most frequently mentioned , emerged as a liberator of the from 's oppression in . Raised in the royal household after being saved as an infant, Musa received prophethood at the burning bush on , where granted him the and miracles like his staff turning into a serpent and his hand glowing white. He confronted with his brother () as support, leading across the parted and establishing laws against , as seen in the incident. Musa's mission underscored confrontation with tyranny and the delivery of scripture to foster a just community. Harun assisted Musa as a prophet and spokesperson, helping manage the Israelite community during Musa's absences, though he struggled against their lapses into disbelief. Shu'ayb was sent to the people of Midian (Madyan), urging them to cease cheating in trade and ; they dismissed him, and destroyed them with an . Later rulers among the prophets included (), a just king who defeated , received the Zabur (), and was granted wisdom to judge disputes and understand the language of birds and animals. His son () inherited this prophethood, ruling with unparalleled wisdom, commanding winds, , and animals; he built the and humbled the Queen of , who embraced . Dhul-Kifl, noted for his patience and fulfillment of oaths, is believed to have succeeded Ayyub in leading the , upholding justice and righteousness. These leaders exemplified governance infused with divine insight and ethical rule. Prophets like (Elijah), Al-Yasa (Elisha), and Yunus (Jonah) were dispatched to wayward societies. challenged the idol-worshipping followers among the , enduring persecution for calling them to . Al-Yasa succeeded him, continuing the mission amid growing sin and tyranny. Yunus, after initially fleeing his duty to , was swallowed by a great fish, where he repented; forgave him, and his people ultimately heeded his warning against corruption, marking a rare instance of collective acceptance. Their roles highlight persistent outreach to rebellious communities despite personal trials. Ayyub (Job) embodies exemplary patience (sabr) in suffering, afflicted with loss of wealth, family, and health as a test from Allah, yet he never despaired, praying for relief that was ultimately granted with renewed blessings. This narrative teaches resilience and reliance on divine mercy amid prolonged adversity. Zakariya (Zechariah) and his son Yahya (John the Baptist) served as forerunners heralding the coming of Isa (Jesus). An elderly guardian of Maryam, Zakariya prayed for an heir despite his wife's barrenness, and Allah granted him Yahya, a prophet marked by wisdom, gentleness, and asceticism from youth. Yahya confirmed the scriptures and prepared the way for Isa, calling people to righteousness. Isa, born miraculously to the virgin Maryam without a father, spoke from the cradle and performed miracles by Allah's permission—such as shaping birds from clay, healing the blind and lepers, and raising the dead—while delivering the Injil (Gospel) to affirm monotheism. The Quran emphatically states Isa was neither divine nor crucified but was raised to Allah, refuting later Christian doctrines. Finally, , the , received the over 23 years in and , calling humanity to pure , social justice, and moral reform. Orphaned early, he was known for trustworthiness before prophethood, enduring persecution, migrating to , and establishing the first Islamic community. His message culminated in the without bloodshed, universalizing the prophethood for all nations. Across these prophets' stories, recurrent themes include severe trials that tested faith, relentless advocacy for against and immorality, and the establishment of communities grounded in and obedience to . Their narratives collectively affirm the continuity of divine guidance, culminating in Muhammad's final message.

Debated Prophetic Figures

In Islamic theology, the status of certain figures as (anbiya') is subject to scholarly debate primarily due to the absence of explicit Quranic designation as "nabi" () and reliance on varying interpretations of and (exegeses). This criterion distinguishes debated cases from the 25 affirmatively named in the , where the term "nabi" or "rasul" (messenger) is clearly applied. Debates often hinge on whether divine knowledge or actions imply prophethood, or if they signify saintly () status instead. One prominent debated figure is al-Khidr, the mysterious servant of God mentioned in Surah Al-Kahf (18:60-82), who possesses knowledge of the unseen granted by . In this narrative, al-Khidr accompanies and performs enigmatic actions—such as damaging a boat, killing a boy, and repairing a wall—that later reveal divine wisdom, leading to discussions on whether his "mercy" from denotes prophethood. The majority of scholars, including Imam al-Nawawi, hold that al-Khidr was a prophet due to his direct divine instruction and esoteric knowledge, though a minority view him as a righteous saint (wali) rather than a full prophet. Shaykh al-Shanqiti argues that the Quranic description indicates prophethood, as Al-Khidr's actions were commanded by Allah through revelation. This debate persists in Sufi traditions, where al-Khidr symbolizes ongoing spiritual guidance, but lacks unanimous consensus owing to the Quran's non-explicit labeling. Dhul-Qarnayn, the traveler and barrier-builder alluded to in Surah Al-Kahf (18:83-98), is another contested figure, often likened to historical rulers like Alexander the Great but praised for his monotheistic justice. Some scholars, including in Tafsir Maarif-ul-Quran by Mufti Muhammad Shafi, identify Dhul-Qarnayn as Cyrus the Great, the Persian king called Khorus by the Jews, Cyrus by the Greeks, Gorush by the Persians, and Kai-Khusro by the Arabs, from the era of Daniel and later than Ibrahim; they distinguish him from Alexander the Macedonian, who was a polytheist, arguing the Quranic portrayal of a righteous monotheistic ruler fits Cyrus better. Some tafsir, such as certain Sufi interpretations, attribute prophethood to him based on his divinely aided construction of a barrier against Yajuj and Majuj (Gog and Magog) and his global expeditions promoting tawhid (monotheism). However, the majority scholarly opinion, as in Tafsir al-Jalalayn, explicitly denies him prophetic status, classifying him as a righteous king or exalted servant (abd salih) empowered by Allah without revelation. The ambiguity arises from the Quran's silence on his prophetic role, with debates centering on whether his authority implies nubuwwah (prophethood) or mere wilayah (sainthood). Companions like Ali ibn Abi Talib reinforced the non-prophet view, describing him as a devoted slave whom Allah loved. Luqman, the wise advisor featured in Surah Luqman (31:12-19), embodies moral and ethical guidance through his counsel to his son, emphasizing gratitude, , and humility. Early scholars like viewed him as , citing his bestowed "" (wisdom) as akin to prophetic insight, potentially linking him to pre-Islamic Ethiopian or Arabian origins. Conversely, the majority of the (early generations), per 's , regard Luqman as a pious sage (hakim) and not a prophet, arguing that true prophethood requires explicit divine commissioning absent in his Quranic portrayal. This divide reflects broader interpretive tensions, with his story serving as a model of wisdom without necessitating prophetic elevation. In addition to the detailed discussions above, several other figures have been subject to debate regarding their status as prophets, often drawing from extra-Quranic traditions, historical narratives, or interpretive exegeses rather than explicit Quranic or sahih hadith evidence. The following table summarizes key debated figures and predominant scholarly views:
FigureStatusDetails
Sham'un (Samson)DisputedFound in Qisas al-Anbiya (e.g., al-Tha‘labi); considered Isra’iliyyat by many scholars.
Jarjis/Jirjis (George)Legendary/Disputed ProphetAppears in Bihar al-Anwar (al-Majlisi); not in Qur'an or sahih hadith; often viewed as apocryphal.
Al-KhidrProphet (majority view) or WaliQur'an 18:65–82; described as having “knowledge from Us”; scholars like al-Razi and al-Shanqiti support prophethood.
LuqmanWise man, not a prophet (majority view)Qur'an 31; not called a prophet; some minority traditions suggest otherwise.
Uzayr (Ezra)DisputedMentioned in Qur'an 9:30; not called a prophet; some traditions suggest he was revived after 100 years (cf. Qur'an 2:259).
Dhul-QarnaynRighteous king, not a prophet (majority view)Qur'an 18:83–98; some early scholars considered him a prophet, but most identify him as a just ruler.
Kaleb (Caleb)Possibly a prophetIndirectly referenced in Qur'an 5:23; not named; some traditions pair him with Yusha’ as faithful scouts.
Scholarly divisions on these figures extend across Sunni, Shi'a, and Sufi traditions, beyond the Sunni consensus affirming the 25 Quran-named prophets as core. While Sunnis generally limit prophethood to explicit Quranic or sahih evidence, Shi'a and Sufi perspectives sometimes expand it esoterically. These debates underscore Islam's emphasis on authenticated sources, preventing unsubstantiated elevations while allowing interpretive pluralism.

Additional Figures in Tradition

In Islamic tradition, beyond the prophets explicitly named in the , various collections, tafsirs, and historical narratives mention additional figures believed to have held prophetic roles, though these accounts often rely on chains of narration considered weaker than Quranic authority. A well-known attributes the total number of prophets to 124,000, with only a fraction named in scripture, emphasizing that most were sent to specific communities without detailed records preserved in canonical texts. These figures serve illustrative purposes in sermons and exegeses, highlighting themes of divine guidance and , but they lack the definitive status of Quranic prophets and are approached with scholarly caution due to varying authenticity. Among these, Sham'un (Simon Peter) and Yuhanna (John, distinct from Yahya ibn Zakariya) are referenced in some tafsirs as disciples of who assumed messenger-like roles after his ascension. In the of Surah Ya-Sin (36:13-14), narrates from via Wahb bin and Shu'ayb al-Jaba'i that the first two messengers sent to a disbelieving town were Sham'un and Yuhanna, with a third (sometimes identified as Bulus or Paul) reinforcing them; they faced rejection and , mirroring the prophetic trials of earlier figures. These narrations portray them as bearers of Jesus's monotheistic message to the , invoking divine aid amid opposition, though their prophetic designation remains interpretive rather than explicit in primary sources. Hizqil (Ezekiel), identified as a prophet sent to the Children of , features prominently in and for his of reviving the dead, symbolizing 's power over . According to narrations from Imam al-Baqir and Imam al-Sadiq in , Hizqil succeeded Yusha' ibn Nun as a leader and prophet; encountering a valley of bleached bones from who perished fleeing a plague (alluding to Quran 2:243), he prayed for their resurrection, and Allah revived between 30,000 and 70,000 souls twice over, restoring flesh, blood, and life to affirm among witnesses. This account, also referenced by Shaykh al-Tabarsi and Ali ibn Ibrahim in tafsirs, underscores Hizqil's role in exhorting obedience and warning against , positioning him as a reviver of both bodies and spiritual resolve among his people. Other figures, such as the Yemeni kings known as Tubba', appear in historical traditions and tafsirs as potential prophets or righteous rulers who embraced monotheism before Islam's advent. Tubba' was a title for Himyarite monarchs, particularly As'ad Abu Kurayb (Tubba' al-Awsat), who reportedly conquered vast territories and, upon reaching , heeded Jewish scholars' warnings about the future Prophet Muhammad, sparing the city and adopting elements of the Mosaic faith for his people. However, exegeses like Tafsir al-Maarif al-Quran clarify that while he promoted righteousness, claims of his prophethood cannot be verified, as his community later reverted to idolatry, facing as noted in Surahs (44:37) and Qaf (50:12-14); such narratives illustrate pre-Islamic awareness of but with weak chains of transmission. In Sufi lore, speculative accounts of pre-Adam prophets emerge, positing spiritual guides or messengers to and earlier creations before humanity's progenitor, though these hold minimal authority and are often deemed weak or metaphorical. Drawing from esoteric interpretations in works like those of , such figures represent primordial divine lights guiding pre-human realms toward unity with , but orthodox scholars reject them as unsubstantiated, emphasizing as the first human prophet without predecessors in prophetic lineage. Unnamed prophets, including like those alluded to in as local messengers to tribes (e.g., figures akin to Hud but undocumented), further populate this vast tradition, totaling 124,000 in aggregate reports from Musnad Ahmad and , serving to underscore the universality of prophethood across eras and peoples without exhaustive enumeration.

Variations Across Traditions

Prophethood in Ahmadiyya

In the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, prophethood is understood to continue in a subordinate form after the Prophet Muhammad, who is regarded as the seal of all independent and law-bearing prophets. This doctrine holds that while no new law or can supersede the , divine revelation and prophetic guidance may manifest through members of Muhammad's (community) as "ummati nabiyyin" (prophets from among his followers), who operate strictly under his spiritual law and reflect his prophethood without abrogating it. The founder of the movement, (1835–1908), claimed to be the Promised Messiah and foretold in Islamic prophecies, embodying a non-law-bearing prophetic status derived through complete obedience to Muhammad. Ahmad asserted that his role was not to introduce new doctrines but to revive the original teachings of in an era of spiritual decline, receiving revelations that confirmed his subservience to the Prophet Muhammad as the final authority. He explicitly denied being a law-bearing prophet, stating that the remains the eternal and perfect guidance until the Day of Judgment. This belief is grounded in a specific interpretation of Quranic verse 33:40 from Al-Ahzab, which describes Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets" (khatam an-nabiyyin), understood by Ahmadis as signifying the pinnacle of prophetic excellence and authenticity rather than an absolute chronological end to all prophethood. They argue that the term "khatam" denotes perfection and endorsement, allowing for subordinate prophets within Muhammad's dispensation, as supported by classical lexicons and commentaries. Additionally, Ahmadiyya scholars reference narrations on spiritual succession, such as those describing khilafat () following prophethood on its precepts, including prophecies of renewal after periods of monarchy, to affirm the possibility of guided successors embodying prophetic qualities without independent authority. Ahmadis view Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's advent as the metaphorical of , fulfilling prophecies of a reformer who would subdue the enemies of through moral and spiritual means rather than physical warfare, thereby rejuvenating the faith globally. This interpretation posits that died a natural death and did not ascend bodily, making Ahmad's role essential for Islam's revival in . The Ahmadiyya doctrine on subordinate prophethood has sparked significant controversy, leading to the community's declaration as non-Muslim by mainstream Muslim opinion in through the Second Constitutional Amendment of 1974. Enacted under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto amid political pressures and anti-Ahmadi agitation, this amendment explicitly excluded Ahmadis from the definition of , citing their beliefs on prophethood as heretical, and paved the way for further legal restrictions on their practices.

Prophethood in Baháʼí Faith

In the Baháʼí Faith, prophethood is understood through the concept of Manifestations of God, divine figures who progressively reveal God's will to humanity across eras, including Islamic prophets such as Muhammad. These Manifestations, described as "Mirrors of God," reflect the divine attributes and provide teachings adapted to the spiritual and social needs of their time, ensuring humanity's ongoing advancement. Baháʼu'lláh (1817–1892), the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, is regarded as the most recent Manifestation, succeeding earlier ones like Muhammad, Jesus, Moses, and Abraham in a chain of successive revelations that unify all major religions. This progressive revelation affirms the as a sacred scripture revealed through , recognizing him as the "" in the context of his dispensation, yet it positions the —'s book of laws—as the latest divine legislation that abrogates previous social ordinances while upholding eternal spiritual truths. For instance, 's revelation built upon those of and by establishing and community laws suited to 7th-century Arabia, much like how 's teachings address global unity in the modern age. The (1819–1850), a precursor to , is also viewed as a Manifestation who initiated this latest cycle by fulfilling Islamic prophecies of the Promised One. Baháʼí theology identifies approximately nine central Manifestations—Abraham, Krishna, , , , , , the Báb, and —as pivotal links in this divine chain, with serving as a crucial connection to . Unlike strictly Islamic views that conclude prophethood with , the Baháʼí perspective emphasizes , promoting the oneness of all religions and encouraging adherents to honor prophets from diverse traditions without exclusivity to . This framework fosters interfaith harmony, viewing differences in s as contextual rather than contradictory, ultimately aiming for the collective maturity of humankind.

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  30. https://www.al-islam.org/lets-learn-about-prophet-islam-naser-makarem-shirazi/lesson-10-prophet-islam-seal-prophecy
  31. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/15/4/461
  32. https://systemoflife.com/ibn-hazam-al-qurtubi-and-abul-hasan-asharee-and-their-evidences-on-female-prophets/
  33. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/158044
  34. https://seekersguidance.org/answers/islamic-belief/were-there-ever-any-female-prophets/
  35. https://renovatio.zaytuna.edu/article/the-fundamental-contradiction-of-islamic-feminism
  36. https://quran.com/an-nahl/36
  37. https://quran.com/21/51-70
  38. https://abukhadeejah.com/the-monotheist-belief-that-the-prophets-called-to-and-a-refutation-of-whatever-opposes-it/
  39. https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3340
  40. https://sunnah.com/bukhari:7510
  41. https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/27614/prophets-had-same-religion-but-different-laws
  42. https://orthodoxmuslim.com/2022/08/06/prophets-of-allah-one-religion-various-laws/
  43. https://quran.com/ali-imran/32
  44. https://endreminder.com/historical-nations-that-rejected-allahs-prophets-and-their-destruction/
  45. https://quraninc.com/the-quranic-story-of-prophet-noah-lessons-on-faith-patience-and-perseverance/
  46. https://riwaya.co.uk/riwaya-blog/lessons-from-the-life-of-prophet-nuh/
  47. https://www.utrujj.org/prophet-muhammad-the-manifestation-of-mercy/
  48. https://simplyislam.sg/he-chose-mercy-prophetic-responses/
  49. https://www.whyislam.org/belief-in-prophets/
  50. https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/prophetic-ethics-a-model-for-those-seeking-god-and-eternal-life
  51. https://cpsglobal.org/articles/revelation-wahy
  52. https://al-islam.org/articles/divine-revelation-islamic-perspective-divine-guidance-and-human-understanding-mohammad-ali
  53. https://islamiccenter.org/wahy-and-ilham-revelation-and-inspiration
  54. https://al-islam.org/shiite-creed-shaykh-saduq/concerning-infallibility-isma
  55. https://islamiccenter.org/infallibility-2
  56. https://seekersguidance.org/answers/islamic-belief/how-are-the-prophets-protected-from-error-and-sin/
  57. https://www.missionislam.com/quran/beginrevelation.htm
  58. https://www.dar-alifta.org/en/article/details/170/the-beginning-of-the-revelation-part-4
  59. https://myislam.org/surah-muzzammil/ayat-5/
  60. https://www.islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=73
  61. https://al-islam.org/glorious-quran-translated-commentary-divine-lights-set-4-ali-muhammad-fazil-chinoy/surah-ta-ha
  62. https://al-islam.org/islam-faith-practice-history-sayyid-muhammad-rizvi/lesson-10-prophets-scriptures
  63. https://quran.com/5/44
  64. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/197537
  65. https://myislam.org/prophet-stories/
  66. https://quran.com/61/6
  67. https://onepathnetwork.com/quran/prophets-mentioned-in-the-quran/
  68. https://myislam.org/prophet-adam/
  69. https://myislam.org/prophet-nuh/
  70. https://myislam.org/prophet-ibrahim/
  71. https://myislam.org/prophet-yusuf/
  72. https://myislam.org/prophet-musa/
  73. https://myislam.org/prophet-yunus/
  74. https://myislam.org/prophet-ayyub/
  75. https://islamicstudies.info/history/prophets/stories-of-the-prophets.htm
  76. https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/31.12
  77. https://www.islamreligion.com/en/articles/10401/viewall/lessons-from-story-of-moses-and-khidr-part-1
  78. https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=18&tAyahNo=65&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2
  79. https://islamanswers.co.uk/question/was-khidr-a-prophet/
  80. https://islamqa.info/en/answers/21793
  81. https://quran.com/en/18:83/tafsirs/en-tafsir-maarif-ul-quran
  82. https://nurmuhammad.com/who-are-zul-qarnain-and-yajooj-wa-majooj-tafsir-surat-al-kahf-18-93-98/
  83. https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=18&tAyahNo=83&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2
  84. https://www.imamghazali.org/blog/tafsir-surah-al-kahf-verses-83-101-dhul-qarnayn
  85. https://islamicstudies.info/quran/maarif.php?sura=31&verse=12&to=19
  86. https://muftiwp.gov.my/en/artikel/al-kafi-li-al-fatawi/3641-al-kafi-1348-how-many-prophets-anbiya-and-apostles-mursalun-are-sent-by-allah-swt
  87. https://quran.com/36:13/tafsirs/en-tafsir-ibn-kathir
  88. https://www.al-islam.org/hayat-al-qulub-vol-1-stories-prophets-muhammad-baqir-majlisi/account-hizqil
  89. https://quran.com/en/44:37/tafsirs/en-tafsir-maarif-ul-quran
  90. https://www.islamhelpline.net/answer/2630/124000-prophets
  91. https://www.alislam.org/articles/ahmadis-believe-khatam-e-nabuwwat/
  92. https://www.alislam.org/book/truth-about-ahmadiyyat/claim-promised-messiah/
  93. https://www.alhakam.org/the-meaning-of-the-seal-of-prophethood/
  94. https://www.reviewofreligions.org/37195/do-ahmadi-muslims-deny-the-finality-of-prophethood/
  95. https://www.alhakam.org/the-ahmadi-muslims-of-pakistan-a-loyal-community-under-siege-since-1974/
  96. https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/god-his-creation/revelation/manifestations-god
  97. https://bahai-library.com/lambden_islam_muhammad_quran
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