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Masjid al-Haram (Arabic: ٱَلْمَسْجِدُ ٱلْحَرَام, romanized: ʾal-Masjid ʾal-Ḥarām, lit. 'The Sacred Mosque'),[4] also known as the Sacred Mosque[5] or the Great Mosque of Mecca,[6] is considered to be the most significant mosque in Islam.[7][8] It encloses the vicinity of the Kaaba in Mecca, in the western region of Saudi Arabia. It is among the pilgrimage sites associated with the Hajj, which every Muslim must perform at least once in their lives if able. It is also the main site for the performance of ʿUmrah, the lesser pilgrimage that can be undertaken any time of the year. The rites of both pilgrimages include circumambulating the Kaaba within the mosque. The Great Mosque includes other important significant sites, such as the Black Stone, the Zamzam Well, Maqam Ibrahim, and the hills of Safa and Marwa.[9]

As of 2025, the Great Mosque is both the largest mosque in the world, and the most expensive building in the world. It has undergone major renovations and expansions through the years.[10] It has passed through the control of various caliphs, sultans and kings, and is now under the control of the King of Saudi Arabia who is titled the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.[11]

History

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Further information: Hejaz, History of Islam, History of Saudi Arabia, and Islamic architecture

The Great Mosque contends with the Quba Mosque in Medina as the oldest mosque.[12] According to Islamic tradition, Islam as a religion precedes Muhammad,[13][14][15] representing previous prophets such as Abraham.[16] According to Islamic scholars, Abraham is seen as having built the Kaaba in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, which according to the Muslim view is seen as the first mosque[17] that ever existed.[18][19][20] According to other scholars, Islam started during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE.[21] The Quba Mosque is, according to tradition, the first mosque founded in Muhammad's time, shortly before he founded what is now called the Prophet's Mosque in Medina.[22]

Era of Abraham and Ishmael

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See also: Abraham in Islam, Hagar in Islam, and Ishmael in Islam

According to Islamic tradition in the Quran, Abraham, together with his son Ismael, raised the foundations of a house,[23] which has been identified by commentators as the Kaaba. According to Islamic tradition, it is said that Allah showed Abraham the exact site, which was previously built by Adam, very near to what is now the Well of Zamzam. After Abraham had built the Kaaba, an angel is said to have brought him the Black Stone, a celestial stone that, according to tradition, had fallen from Heaven on the nearby hill Abu Qubays. The Black Stone is believed by Islamic scholars to be the only remnant of the original structure made by Abraham.

After placing the Black Stone in the Eastern corner of the Kaaba, Abraham reportedly received a revelation in which God told the aged prophet that he should now go and proclaim the pilgrimage to mankind, so that men may come both from Arabia and from lands far away, on camel and on foot.[24]

Era of Muhammad

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Main article: Muhammad in Islam

Upon Muhammad's victorious return to Mecca in 630 CE, him and a number of the Sahaba including Ali broke the idols in and around the Kaaba,[25] similar to what, according to the Quran, Abraham did in his homeland. Thus ended polytheistic use of the Kaaba, and began monotheistic rule over it and its sanctuary.[26][27][28][29]

Umayyad era

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The first major renovation to the mosque took place in 692, on the orders of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.[30] Before this renovation, which included the mosque's outer walls being raised, the mosque was a small open area with the Kaaba at the center. By the end of the 8th century, the mosque's old wooden columns had been replaced with marble columns and the wings of the prayer hall had been extended on both sides along with the addition of a minaret on the orders of Al-Walid I.[31][32] The spread of Islam in the Middle East and the influx of pilgrims required an almost complete rebuilding of the site which included adding more marble and three more minarets.[citation needed]

Ottoman era

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In 1570, Sultan Selim II commissioned the chief architect Mimar Sinan to renovate the mosque. This renovation resulted in the replacement of the flat roof with domes decorated with calligraphy internally, and the placement of new support columns which are acknowledged as the earliest architectural features of the present mosque. These features are the oldest surviving parts of the building.

During heavy rains and flash floods in 1621 and 1629, the walls of the Kaaba and the mosque suffered extensive damage.[33] In 1629, during the reign of Sultan Murad IV, the mosque was renovated. In the renovation of the mosque, a new stone arcade was added, three more minarets (bringing the total to seven) were built, and the marble flooring was retiled. This was the unaltered state of the mosque for nearly three centuries.

The Great Mosque in an illustration of the Dala'il al-Khayrat of Mustafa Halim, 1750
The Great Mosque in an illustration of the Futuh al-Haramayn of Muhi Al-Din Lari, 1582
The mosque in 1850, during the Ottoman period
Plan of the Masjid al-Haram, 1884
The mosque in 1910, during the Ottoman period

The Saudi era

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First Saudi expansion

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The first major renovation under the Saudi kings was done between 1955 and 1976. In this renovation, four more minarets were added, the ceiling was refurnished, and the floor was replaced with artificial stone and marble. The Mas'a gallery (As-Safa and Al-Marwah) is included in the Mosque, via roofing and enclosures. During this renovation many of the historical features built by the Ottomans, particularly the support columns, were demolished.

On 20 November 1979, the Great Mosque was seized by extremist insurgents who called for the overthrow of the Saudi dynasty. They took hostages and in the ensuing siege hundreds were killed. These events came as a shock to the Islamic world, as violence is strictly forbidden within the mosque.

Second Saudi expansion

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The second Saudi renovations under King Fahd, added a new wing and an outdoor prayer area to the mosque. The new wing, which is also for prayers, is reached through the King Fahd Gate. This extension was performed between 1986 and 1994.[34]

1987 to 2005 saw the building of more minarets, the erecting of a King's residence overlooking the mosque and more prayer area in and around the mosque itself. These developments took place simultaneously with those in Arafat, Mina and Muzdalifah. This extension also added 18 more gates, three domes corresponding in position to each gate and the installation of nearly 500 marble columns. Other modern developments added heated floors, air conditioning, escalators and a drainage system.[citation needed]

In addition, the King Fahd expansion includes 6 dedicated prayer halls for people with disabilities. These halls have ramps to facilitate entry and exit with wheelchairs, as well as dedicated paths and free electric and manual carts for their use.[35]

Third Saudi expansion

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In 2008, the Saudi government under King Abdullah Ibn Abdulaziz announced an expansion[36] of the mosque, involving the expropriation of land to the north and northwest of the mosque covering 300,000 m2 (3,200,000 sq ft). At that time, the mosque covered an area of 356,800 m2 (3,841,000 sq ft) including indoor and outdoor praying spaces. 40 billion riyals (US$10.6 billion) was allocated for the expansion project.[37]

In August 2011, the government under King Abdullah announced further details of the expansion. It would cover an area of 400,000 m2 (4,300,000 sq ft) and accommodate 1.2 million worshippers, including a multi-level extension on the north side of the complex, new stairways and tunnels, a gate named after King Abdullah, and two minarets, bringing the total number of minarets to eleven. The circumambulation areas (Mataf) around the Kaaba would be expanded and all closed spaces receive air conditioning. After completion, it would raise the mosque's capacity from 770,000 to over 2.5 million worshippers.[38][39] His successor, King Salman launched five megaprojects as part of the overall King Abdullah Expansion Project in July 2015, covering an area of 456,000 m2 (4,910,000 sq ft). The project was carried out by the Saudi Binladin Group.[40] In 2012, the Abraj Al Bait complex was completed along with the 601-meter-tall (1,972 ft) Makkah Royal Clock Tower.

On 11 September 2015, at least 111 people died and 394 were injured when a crane collapsed onto the mosque.[41][42][43][44][45] Construction work was suspended after the incident, and remained on hold due to financial issues during the 2010s oil glut. Development was eventually restarted two years later in September 2017.[46]

COVID-19 Pandemic

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On 5 March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the mosque began to be closed at night and the Umrah pilgrimage was suspended to limit attendance.[47] The resumption of Umrah service began on 4 October 2020 with the first phase of a gradual resumption that was limited to Saudi citizens and expatriates from within the Kingdom at a rate of 30 percent.[48] Only 10,000 people were given Hajj visas in 2020 while 60,000 people were given visas in 2021.

Pilgrimage

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Main articles: Hajj and Umrah

The Great Mosque is the main setting for the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages[49] that occur in the month of Dhu al-Hijja in the Islamic calendar and at any time of the year, respectively. The Hajj pilgrimage is one of the Pillars of Islam, required of all able-bodied Muslims who can afford the trip. In recent times, over 5 million Muslims perform the Hajj every year.[50]

Notable Structures

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Kaaba

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Main article: Kaaba
The Kaaba

The Kaaba is a cuboid-shaped building in the centre of the Masjid al-Haram and is the most sacred site in Islam.[51] It is the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims worldwide. It is the focal point of the Hajj and Umrah rites. The pilgrims perform the tawaf (circumambulation) around its exterior.[51][52][53] The Kaaba's fabric covering (kiswah) is replaced annually in a formal ceremony.

A technical drawing of the Kaaba showing dimensions and elements

Hatim

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Main article: Hijr Ismail

Adjacent to the Kaaba is the Hijr Ismail, also known as the Hatim, a low semi-circular wall that marks an area historically regarded as part of the original footprint of the Kaaba.[54]

Black Stone

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Main article: Black Stone
The Black Stone is seen through a portal in the Kaaba.

The Black Stone is set into the eastern corner of the Kaaba's external wall. Historically and culturally venerated in Islamic tradition, the stone today exists as several fragments within a silver frame and is a focal point of devotion during tawaf.[55][56]

Mataf (Tawaf area)

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The Mataf full of worshipers

The mataf is the open, circular, paved area immediately surrounding the Kaaba where tawaf (circumambulation) is performed. Over centuries the mataf has been enlarged and modernised, including multi-level and climate-controlled expansions to accommodate the large and growing numbers of pilgrims that visit during Hajj and throughout the year.[57] Major 20th- and 21st-century Saudi expansion programmes substantially increased the mataf’s capacity.[38][39]

Maqam Ibrahim

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Main article: Maqam Ibrahim
The enclosure of Maqam Ibrahim in Mataf area

Maqam Ibrahim is a small square stone associated in Islamic tradition with the Abraham (Ibrahim). It is displayed near the Kaaba under a protective enclosure.[58] According to Islamic tradition, the imprint on the stone came from Abraham's feet.[59][60] It is the only standing historic structure in the Mataf area out of at least six other, which were removed to clear the area for the circumambulation (tawaf).[61]

Safa and Marwa

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Mount Safa

Safa and Marwa are two small hills within the mosque precinct, connected by the enclosed al-Mas'a walkway, where pilgrims perform the saʿī ritual during Hajj and Umrah.[62] The ritual commemorates Hājar (Hagar), wife of Abraham and mother of Ismail, who ran between the hills searching for water for her infant son.[63][64] The area was historically separate but incorporated into Masjid al-Haram during 20th-century expansions.[38]

Zamzam Well

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Mouth-piece of the Zamzam well from the Exhibition of the Two Holy Mosques Architecture Museum[65]

The Zamzam well, located 20 m (66 ft) east of the Kaaba,[66] is an ancient groundwater source traditionally linked to Hājar and Ishmael.[67][68][69] Modern engineering has enclosed the well and provides Zamzam water to pilgrims through pumping, bottling and distribution systems.[70]

Destruction of heritage sites

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Main article: Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia

There has been some controversy that the expansion projects of the mosque and Mecca itself are causing harm to early Islamic heritage. Many ancient buildings, some more than a thousand years old, have been demolished to make room for the expansion. Some examples are:[71][72]

List of Notable Imams

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Main article: List of Imams of the Two Holy Mosques
For full list of both current and former imams, see List of Imams of the Two Holy Mosques.
For list of muezzins, see List of Muezzins of the Two Holy Mosques.

See also

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Further reading

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Masjid al-Haram

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Masjid al-Haram (Arabic: ٱلْمَسْجِدُ ٱلْحَرَامُ, romanized: al-Masjid al-Ḥarām, lit. 'The Sacred Mosque'), commonly known as the Grand Mosque of , is the holiest mosque in , located in the heart of , . It encloses the , a cuboid structure considered the —the direction faced by Muslims during prayer—and the most sacred site within the faith. The mosque serves as the focal point for the pilgrimage, one of the Five Pillars of , attracting millions of annually and underscoring its central role in Islamic practice. Originally encompassing a modest area around the , Masjid al-Haram has been expanded extensively, particularly through Saudi initiatives since the 20th century, including the Third Saudi Expansion initiated in 2011, which added multiple prayer levels and minarets to boost capacity. These developments have increased its prayer area and infrastructure to handle large crowds, with the current capacity exceeding 1.7 million worshippers across indoor, external, and rooftop spaces. Despite its spiritual significance, the mosque has faced challenges such as crowd management during peak pilgrimages, leading to tragic stampedes in past years that highlight the logistical demands of accommodating global devotees.

Religious Significance

Theological and Quranic Foundations

Masjid al-Haram is designated in the as the first house of worship established for humanity, located at (an ancient name for ), described as blessed and a guidance for the worlds. This foundational status underscores its role in originating monotheistic worship, predating other sacred sites and symbolizing the primordial call to submit to one God without partners or idols. The site's sanctity is tied to its purpose as a secure place for devotion, free from impurity, where pilgrims purify themselves before approaching. The term "Masjid al-Haram" (the Sacred Mosque) appears 15 times in the , often in contexts affirming its inviolability and centrality to . It is explicitly commanded as the , the universal direction for prayer, with verses instructing believers to "turn your face toward al-Masjid al-Haram" wherever they may be. This directive, repeated in al-Baqarah (2:144, 149, 150), establishes it as the focal point for , overriding prior orientations and emphasizing obedience to divine order over convenience or tradition. In Islamic doctrine, orienting the five daily prayers—obligatory for adult Muslims—toward Masjid al-Haram fosters doctrinal unity among the global , estimated at over 2 billion adherents as of 2025. This convergence, regardless of geography, reinforces collective submission and equality before , as the direction symbolizes alignment with the origin of () rather than geographical or cultural favoritism. The mosque's Quranic primacy thus extends beyond physical space to embody spiritual coherence, with deviation from the invalidated as non-conforming to scriptural mandate.

Central Role in Islamic Practices

Hajj, the fifth pillar of Islam, mandates the physical presence of able-bodied Muslims at least once in their lifetime for key rituals centered in and around Masjid al-Haram, including tawaf around the Kaaba and sa'i between the hills of Safa and Marwah, which are incorporated within the mosque's expanded precincts, culminating in the essential standing at Arafat outside the mosque proper. Umrah, a non-obligatory pilgrimage, mirrors these rites—ihram, tawaf, sa'i, and shaving or trimming—performable year-round exclusively at the mosque, emphasizing its perpetual accessibility for supererogatory devotion. Prayers performed within Masjid al-Haram yield multiplied rewards according to hadith narrated from the Prophet Muhammad, wherein one prayer there equals 100,000 prayers elsewhere, a virtue attributed to its sanctity as the qibla and holiest site, distinct from the 1,000-fold reward at Masjid an-Nabawi. This incentive draws worshippers beyond pilgrimage obligations, reinforcing the mosque's role in daily and voluntary salat. Official Saudi statistics record over 2 million pilgrims annually for Hajj in the pre-COVID period from 2000 to 2019, averaging 2.27 million participants, necessitating vast capacities for tawaf and sa'i to accommodate the influx without compromising ritual integrity. Umrah attracted millions more yearly before 2020, with figures exceeding 6 million in recovery years like 2021, underscoring the mosque's function as a continuous hub for mass worship and the logistical pressures driving infrastructural adaptations to sustain these practices.

Historical Development

Pre-Islamic and Prophetic Origins

According to Islamic scripture, the , the cubic structure at the heart of Masjid al-Haram, was originally built by the prophets Abraham (Ibrahim) and his son circa 2000 BCE as the first monotheistic sanctuary for worship of the one God (). The recounts that they raised its foundations while invoking divine favor for it to serve as a place of security, pilgrimage, and guidance for humanity, with Abraham positioning the site as a model of devotion free from . collections reinforce this narrative, portraying the Kaaba as a primordial edifice periodically rebuilt due to floods or decay, initially established even by but formalized by Abraham to counter emerging . Pre-Islamic Arabia transformed the site into a polytheistic hub, where the Quraysh tribe custodians installed approximately 360 idols symbolizing tribal deities, each tribe honoring its own, including Hubal as the principal god enshrined within the Kaaba itself, and the Quran referencing deities such as al-Lāt (اللات), al-ʿUzzā (العزى), and Manāt (مناة) (Q. 53:19–23). The Kaaba contained the Black Stone (Hajar al-Aswad (الحجر الأسود)), a revered object. A hadith narrated by Ibn Abbas records the Prophet Muhammad stating: "By Allah! Allah will raise it on the Day of Resurrection with two eyes by which it sees and a tongue that it speaks with, testifying to whoever touched it in truth." Oral traditions and tribal genealogies maintained the site's sanctity amid Mecca's role as a caravan trade nexus, drawing annual pilgrims for rituals blending commerce and devotion, yet no extant inscriptions, artifacts, or extra-Islamic texts document the Kaaba's physical form or Mecca's prominence before the 4th century CE. Archaeological surveys in the region yield scant pre-Islamic material from Mecca, contrasting with the Quran's emphasis on the site's eternal divine election despite later corruptions by idolaters. In the lifetime of Prophet (d. 632 CE), the Kaaba's significance pivoted to Islamic foundations. Born in around 570 CE, received revelations designating the site as the —the directional focus for Muslim prayer—in February 624 CE ( 2 AH), shifting from to affirm its Abrahamic legacy amid community trials post-Hijra migration to in 622 CE. The in January 630 CE (8 AH) culminated in 's entry into the Kaaba, where he systematically dismantled the idols—reportedly pointing to each and declaring their powerlessness—thus purging polytheistic elements and reinstating monotheistic purity without altering the structure. This act, witnessed by assembled tribes and followed by collective prayer, embedded the Kaaba as the ritual core of by 's death, grounding subsequent practices in direct prophetic precedent rather than inferred pre-Islamic remnants.

Early Caliphates and Medieval Periods

Following the damages inflicted during in 683 CE, when Umayyad forces under bombarded the city, igniting a fire that affected the and surrounding structures amid the Second Fitna, Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr (عبد الله بن الزبير), who controlled , undertook repairs to the mosque, expanding the to include the adjacent area. Upon recapturing the city in 692 CE, Caliph commissioned renovations to Masjid al-Haram, directing the reconstruction of the to its pre-siege cubic form by excluding the Hijr, alongside extensions to the mosque's boundaries to enclose additional adjacent properties for enlarged prayer spaces. These efforts addressed both war-induced destruction and the need to accommodate rising pilgrim numbers as Islamic conquests drew converts from Persia, , and the . Under Caliph (الوليد بن عبد الملك) (r. 705–715 CE), further Umayyad expansions demolished more houses around the to widen the mataf circumambulation area and erected covered colonnades along the wall, incorporating imported marble columns and enhancing structural resilience against seasonal floods, as recorded by early chroniclers. Abbasid rulers continued this pattern of adaptive enlargement; Caliph (r. 754–775 CE) added porticos and repaired flood damage, while (r. 775–785 CE) in 777 CE ordered a comprehensive rebuild, razing peripheral buildings to expand the haram's footprint amid surging attendance from the caliphate's vast territories. Subsequent Abbasid caliphs, including (r. 786–809 CE), introduced improved water conduits linking to the and fortified the enclosure against recurrent inundations, reflecting pragmatic responses to environmental hazards and demographic pressures rather than mere symbolic gestures. In the medieval period, the Qarmatians under Abū Ṭāhir Sulaymān al-Jannābī (أبو طاهر سليمان الجنّابي) (r. 923–944 CE) raided Mecca on January 12, 930 CE, sacking the city during Hajj, massacring pilgrims whom they viewed as engaging in pagan rites, desecrating the site, breaking the Black Stone into pieces and placing them beside a latrine pit, and carrying it to their stronghold in Bahrayn, where it was held for approximately 22 years, effectively suspending Hajj rituals, before its return in 952 CE. Ayyubid Sultan (Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn (صلاح الدين)) (r. 1174–1193 CE) oversaw restorations following the 930 CE Qarmatian raid, which looted and inflicted structural harm, focusing on reinforcing the qibla wall and pilgrim pathways to handle intensified traffic from revived trade routes. sultans, governing from after 1250 CE, pursued capacity-oriented modifications, including the construction of the Bab al-Umra gate in the with adjacent minarets to streamline access for swelling multitudes, as evidenced by inscriptions and accounts prioritizing functional durability over aesthetic innovation. Ninth-century al-Azraqi's chronicles, drawing from earlier Meccan records, underscore how these interventions were necessitated by verifiable incidents of fire, flood, and overcrowding, with expansions calibrated to empirical needs like accommodating thousands during peak seasons rather than ideological impositions.

Ottoman and Pre-Saudi Eras

The gained control of and Masjid al-Haram in 1517 after defeating the , initiating a period of sustained administration over the Hijaz region that lasted until 1918. During this era, the mosque underwent several major renovations focused on structural reinforcement and aesthetic enhancement, reflecting the empire's role as custodians of Islam's holiest site. These efforts prioritized durability against seasonal floods and pilgrim wear, though they were constrained by the remote location and logistical challenges of transporting materials from and . Sultan (r. 1520–1566) commissioned key works in 1564 CE, including the paving of the Mataf—the circumambulation area around the —with durable marble tiles sealed using lead and secured with iron nails to withstand heavy foot traffic. He also rebuilt the mosque's minarets, increasing their number to seven and elevating their height for better visibility and the call to prayer, while reinforcing surrounding arcades with stone. Subsequent projects under Sultan in 1571 involved the renowned architect , who oversaw the addition of new stone arcades, retiled the marble flooring, and expanded porticos to improve shade and flow for worshippers. These interventions maintained the mosque's functionality amid growing pilgrimage numbers, though no radical enlargements occurred due to reverence for its ancient layout. The 19th century brought disruptions from Wahhabi incursions by the First Saudi State, which captured in 1803 and systematically demolished shrines, domes over prophetic graves, and ornate additions within the mosque, viewing them as innovations bordering on . This sack, extending into 1805, damaged structural elements and removed centuries of accumulated embellishments, reducing the site's aesthetic and symbolic layers. In response, Ottoman vassal Pasha of launched military campaigns starting in 1811; his forces, led by Ibrahim Pasha, recaptured by 1813 and by 1812, expelling the Wahhabis and restoring Ottoman-Egyptian authority. Restorations followed, rebuilding damaged porticos, reinstalling protective canopies, and reinstating custodianship protocols, though Egyptian oversight introduced temporary administrative shifts until full Ottoman reassertion. By the late Ottoman period, Masjid al-Haram's fixed footprint—encompassing roughly the expanded sahn and tawaf areas from prior eras—accommodated tens of thousands during routine prayers but faced acute overcrowding during , with pilgrims routinely extending into adjacent streets and hills due to spatial limits estimated at under in peak configurations. Maintenance persisted amid imperial decline, including periodic flood defenses and minaret repairs, but fiscal strains and regional instability curtailed ambitious projects, preserving the mosque in a state of functional stasis until the post-World War I upheavals.

Saudi Conquest and Restorations

Abdulaziz Ibn Saud's forces captured Mecca on October 13, 1924, during the , which ended the Hashemite Sharifate's control over the holy cities and led to the full annexation of the region by December 1925 following the fall of . This takeover addressed perceived neglect under Sharif Hussein bin Ali's rule, where encroachments and irregular maintenance had reduced open spaces around Masjid al-Haram, complicating pilgrimage rituals. Guided by Salafi-Wahhabi principles emphasizing and rejection of practices associated with shirk, the promptly demolished tombs, shrines, and venerated structures within and adjacent to the , including five of attributed to early Islamic figures near the site. These actions, viewed by Saudi authorities as restorative purification, eliminated sites prone to saint veneration and created expanded tawaf areas, aligning the mosque more closely with austere prophetic precedents over accumulated medieval and Ottoman accretions. In the ensuing years of the and , systematic clearances removed residential and commercial encroachments that had proliferated around the mosque's perimeter, reclaiming land for pedestrian circulation and basic improvements. Such measures responded to rising pilgrim volumes, which dipped to around 66,000 in amid economic constraints but climbed toward 150,000 by the as travel barriers eased, underscoring the need for decongested sacred precincts per Saudi administrative records. These initial interventions laid groundwork for functionality without large-scale rebuilding, prioritizing spatial openness over preservation of non-essential historical additions.

Expansions Under Saudi Kings (1920s-2000s)

The expansions of Masjid al-Haram under Saudi kings from the 1920s to the 2000s were driven by the need to accommodate rapidly growing numbers of pilgrims, fueled by Saudi Arabia's oil wealth, improved global transportation, and rising Muslim populations worldwide, with Hajj attendance increasing from around 100,000 in the early to over 2 million by the late . King Abdulaziz Al Saud, who conquered in 1925 and ruled until 1953, initiated planning for enlargements to address overcrowding, though major construction began posthumously under his son, King Saud bin Abdulaziz. These efforts prioritized practical engineering solutions like multi-level structures and expanded courtyards, reflecting pre-digital construction techniques reliant on manual labor and basic reinforcement. The first comprehensive Saudi expansion commenced in 1955 under King Saud, raising surrounding buildings to three floors, enlarging the Mataf circumambulation area and Sa'i gallery (Mas'aa), adding four minarets, and replacing the flooring with modern materials. Completed in 1973 during King Faisal bin Abdulaziz's reign (1964–1975), this project increased the mosque's total area from approximately 27,000 square meters to 152,000 square meters, elevating capacity to about 500,000 worshippers and enabling better management of ritual flows around the . Further refinements under King Khalid (1975–1982) included infrastructure upgrades to sustain these gains amid post-1973 oil revenue surges that funded accelerated development. King Fahd bin Abdulaziz's expansion, launched on September 14, 1988, with the laid personally by the king, represented the era's largest phase, adding extensive western wings between the King Abdulaziz and Gates, incorporating multi-tiered galleries and enhanced ventilation. Completed by 1993, it expanded the area to roughly 356,000 square meters and capacity to 1.5 million, directly responding to pilgrim volumes exceeding 2 million annually by the and incorporating security fortifications after the 1979 siege to prevent similar disruptions. These additions used framing and escalators for vertical access, addressing bottlenecks in horizontal sprawl. In the early under King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz (2005–2015), preliminary projects roofed additional open areas and introduced pedestrian tunnels to segregate ritual paths, further optimizing capacity for peak seasons while preserving core Ottoman-era porticos as decided in prior phases. These measures collectively transformed the mosque from a compact Ottoman-era complex accommodating tens of thousands into a vast engineered facility handling millions, with cumulative area growth reflecting causal links to economic booms enabling large-scale state investment.

Recent Expansions and Projects (2010s-2025)

The third Saudi expansion of Masjid al-Haram, initiated in 2011 under King Abdullah and advanced under King Salman, represented the largest phase to date, encompassing multi-level extensions, new areas, and infrastructure enhancements to accommodate surging pilgrim numbers exceeding 13 million annual visitors. By completion in phases through 2025, the project expanded the mosque's total area from approximately 414,000 square meters to 1.56 million square meters, incorporating six additional floors, an enlarged Mataf area, four new minarets, pedestrian tunnels for crowd flow, and a central services complex for utilities and maintenance. These developments, costing around SR 80 billion, boosted the mosque's capacity to approximately 2 million worshippers simultaneously, with key openings timed for 2025 to handle peak attendance. Integral to the expansion were five dedicated tunnels, four for pedestrian transport linking remote prayer zones to the core and one for utilities, alongside bridges and external parks to mitigate congestion during rituals. A central utilities complex centralized power, water, and , supporting sustainable operations amid high-density use, while of adjacent structures facilitated new courtyards without specified building removal counts in official records. These feats addressed longstanding capacity strains, enabling safer navigation for millions, though implementation faced delays from logistical complexities. Post-COVID-19 restrictions, which limited to under 60,000 in 2020-2021 and phased recoveries in 2022, were fully lifted by January 2023, restoring pre-pandemic quotas of up to 2 million pilgrims and normalizing operations at Masjid al-Haram. This resumption underscored the expansions' role in post-restriction scalability, with 2023 marking the first unrestricted event since 2019, facilitating rituals without capacity caps. In October 2025, Crown Prince announced the King Salman Gate project, a 12-million-square-meter adjacent to the , integrating residential, hospitality, commercial, and cultural facilities to enhance pilgrim access and add up to 900,000 indoor and outdoor spaces. Developed by a entity, the initiative prioritizes infrastructure upgrades like improved entry points, aligning with Vision 2030's goals while emphasizing preservation of sacred zones, though detailed timelines and reversal specifics remain forthcoming from state announcements.

Architectural and Structural Features

The Kaaba and Immediate Environs

The Kaaba is a cube-shaped granite structure measuring 13.1 meters in height, with a rectangular base of approximately 11 meters by 12 meters. Its exterior is draped in the kiswah, a black silk covering embroidered with gold thread bearing Quranic inscriptions, renewed annually to coincide with the Islamic new year or Hajj preparations. The entrance features a gold-plated door, installed on October 13, 1979, weighing about 300 kilograms and crafted with intricate designs. Embedded in the eastern corner of the at a height of about 1.5 meters is (Hajar al-Aswad), a fragmented dark rock encased in a silver frame, venerated in Islamic tradition as originating from Paradise. The structure undergoes an annual ritual, involving washing its interior and exterior with Zamzam water scented with rose water and oil, typically performed after dawn prayers in . Adjoining the Kaaba's northwestern wall is the Hijr Ismail (Hateem), a semi-circular walled enclosure of white marble, approximately 90 degrees in arc and integrated into the tawaf circuit as part of the original foundation per Islamic accounts. Positioned a few meters east of the 's doorway is the , a glass-enclosed stone bearing impressions attributed to Prophet Ibrahim's footprints during the 's construction. Approximately 20 meters east of the lies the , a subterranean source of water accessed via pumps beneath the floor.

Minarets, Galleries, and Expansions

The Masjid al-Haram features thirteen minarets rising above its roofs from various points around the perimeter, each structured in five sections topped by gilded crescents to enhance visibility and architectural symmetry. These towers vary in height to align with surrounding expansions, with pairs at Bab al-Umrah and King Abdulaziz Gate reaching 137 meters, while those at King Fahd Gate measure 98 meters. Multi-level galleries encircle the mataf area, providing stacked platforms clad in for vertical segregation of flows and accommodating layered circulation around the central . Expansions integrate air-conditioned mezzanines within these galleries, featuring underfloor mechanical systems for control and dedicated service levels. Structural enhancements in the Fahd and Abdullah expansions include clusters of electric escalators—such as seven buildings in the former and 56 units overall—facilitating vertical access across wings while preserving open prayer spaces paved in imported dolomitic selected for its thermal relief properties. Walls and columns employ and cladding for and aesthetic uniformity, supporting designs engineered for loads exceeding two million occupants.

Engineering and Capacity Enhancements

The engineering enhancements to Masjid al-Haram have focused on structural reinforcements, climate control, and to support massive pilgrim volumes while addressing environmental challenges in Mecca's arid climate. Expansions have incorporated load-bearing raised access floors with seismic bracing and high fire-resistance ratings (A1 classification), enabling safe accommodation of dynamic crowds on expanded surfaces totaling over 400,000 square meters in recent phases. These modifications, including marble pavements with thermophysical properties that reflect heat and regulate surface temperatures, contribute to by reducing reliance on constant mechanical cooling. Capacity has evolved through targeted infrastructure upgrades, with the Mataf circumambulation area increasing from 50,000 pilgrims per hour to over 130,000 following the third Saudi expansion, allowing smoother ritual flows during peak periods. Overall, the mosque now spans about 1.5 million square meters, supporting up to 3 million worshippers including multilevel galleries and roofs, a scale achieved via multi-tiered construction and efficient spatial design. Central to thermal management is the system, delivering 155,000 tons of across the complex via advanced HVAC networks that distribute germ-free chilled air, essential for pilgrim comfort amid temperatures often exceeding 40°C (104°F). Drainage infrastructure, integrated during expansions, includes subterranean channels and sloped flooring to handle rainfall and ablutions, preventing pooling in high-traffic zones. Post-2020 developments emphasize digital engineering for capacity optimization, with AI-driven platforms like Baseer deploying thousands of cameras and sensors for real-time crowd density analysis, , and flow diversion to prevent overcrowding. These systems process data to estimate site saturation, enhancing effective throughput without physical expansions and integrating with gate sensors for precise entry-exit tracking during 1446 (2025). Fire suppression elements, such as non-combustible flooring materials, complement these by minimizing risks in dense assemblies.

Pilgrimage and Worship

Hajj Rituals and Procedures

The pilgrimage, one of the five pillars of , involves specific rituals performed at Masjid al-Haram during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah, from the 8th to the 13th day, culminating in the sacrifice on the 10th. This period draws over 2 million pilgrims annually, with Saudi authorities issuing quotas to manage capacity, as seen in 2018 when 2.37 million participated, including 1.76 million from abroad. Pilgrims must enter the state of —a ritual consecration involving specific white garments for men and modest attire for women, along with prohibitions on certain actions—prior to crossing designated boundaries outside , such as Dhu'l-Hulayfah for those coming from or Al-Juhfah for arrivals from the west. Upon reaching Masjid al-Haram, typically on the 8th after departing for Mina, pilgrims commence with Tawaf al-Qudum, an arrival consisting of seven counterclockwise circuits around the , starting and ending at corner while reciting supplications. This is followed by optional prayer at and drinking from the . Many then perform Sa'i, walking seven times briskly between the hills of Safa and Marwah—now enclosed within the mosque's expanded complex—commemorating Hagar's search for water, covering approximately 3.15 kilometers via air-conditioned walkways and escalators added in expansions. These initial rites prepare pilgrims for the standalone Day of Arafat on the 9th, after which they return to the mosque. The core Hajj-exclusive tawaf at the mosque, Tawaf al-Ifadah (also called Tawaf al-Ziyarah), occurs post-Arafat on the 10th, obligatorily involving another seven circuits around the to symbolize devotion and unity; Sa'i is completed here if omitted earlier. This tawaf, performed amid dense crowds in the multi-level mataf ( plaza) expanded to over 400,000 square meters across ground and upper galleries, precedes the , or trimming, and preparation for the (Rami al-Jamarat) in Mina. Post-expansions since the , upper levels of the mataf and Sa'i pathways prioritize women for and to mitigate physical contact in mixed-gender flows, though the 's ground level remains accessible to all, reflecting the 's emphasis on collective proximity despite logistical strains. Finally, before departing by the 13th, pilgrims execute Tawaf al-Wida, a farewell without Sa'i, ensuring completion. These procedures, rooted in prophetic traditions, adapt to modern infrastructure like cooling systems and crowd-flow bridges to handle volumes exceeding 2 million, reducing risks observed in pre-expansion eras, though empirical data from Saudi monitoring emphasizes timed entries and digital tracking for orderly sequencing.

Umrah and Routine Prayers

Umrah, known as the lesser pilgrimage, consists of entering a state of (ritual consecration), performing tawaf (circumambulation of the seven times counterclockwise), undertaking sa'i (seven circuits between the hills of Safa and Marwah), and concluding with halq or taqsir (shaving or trimming the hair). Unlike , which is obligatory once in a lifetime during specific lunar dates, Umrah can be undertaken at any time of the year and multiple times, drawing pilgrims to Masjid al-Haram for its core rituals centered on the and adjacent sites. In 2024, recorded 35.68 million Umrah performers, including both domestic and international visitors, reflecting sustained high volumes facilitated by expanded infrastructure and visa policies. The flexibility of Umrah allows for integration with routine worship, with pilgrims often performing it alongside daily prayers, contributing to consistent footfall outside Hajj season. Peak non-Hajj periods, such as Ramadan, see Umrah combined with extended devotions, but the rite's non-seasonal nature supports year-round activity, with millions navigating the mosque's pathways for tawaf and sa'i daily. Routine prayers at Masjid al-Haram encompass the five obligatory daily salah: Fajr (dawn), Dhuhr (noon), Asr (afternoon), Maghrib (sunset), and Isha (night), each preceded by the (call to prayer) broadcast from the mosque's seven minarets to signal commencement and guide worshippers. The for Fajr and Maghrib particularly resonates across Makkah, alerting residents and visitors to prayer times amid the mosque's expansive capacity, which accommodates hundreds of thousands per congregation even in non-peak periods. Daily attendance varies but routinely exceeds standard mosque levels elsewhere, with the site's spiritual reward—equated in hadith to multiplied prayers—drawing locals and short-term pilgrims for congregational observance. Guidance during prayers includes multilingual announcements in , English, , and other languages to assist diverse attendees, ensuring orderly alignment toward the as the . In 2025, the updated Manarat Al-Haramain robot was deployed to guide pilgrims, answer religious questions in multiple languages, and facilitate fatwa support via touchscreen interfaces and video calls with muftis. Digital smart portals were also launched, offering multilingual Islamic content, interactive maps, live chat, prayer notifications, and AI integration to enhance the pilgrim experience. The mosque's design, with multi-level galleries and open courtyards, supports high-density prayer lines, though routine sessions avoid the extreme crowding of , emphasizing sustained accessibility for obligatory worship.

Crowd Management and Infrastructure

The Masjid al-Haram's infrastructure, enhanced through successive expansions, supports a prayer capacity exceeding 2 million worshippers simultaneously, with records of over 4 million attendees during peak Ramadan nights in 2025. Key features include multi-level bridges, such as the Jamarat Bridge, which facilitate vertical separation of pilgrim flows to minimize bottlenecks during rituals like stoning, thereby reducing congestion risks that historically contributed to stampedes before its implementation in the 2000s. Expansions have incorporated underground tunnels connecting peripheral areas to the mosque, enabling efficient vehicular and pedestrian movement for millions of arrivals, as seen in projects adding three dedicated tunnels for high-volume pilgrim transit. Digital tools aid navigation and density monitoring; the official Nusuk app provides real-time route guidance, permit coordination, and crowd alerts for and participants, integrating with GPS for site-specific directions around the and adjacent zones. Complementary systems employ and texture-based algorithms to estimate crowd densities via , triggering alerts for potential overcrowding in areas like the Mataf, which handles up to 107,000 pilgrims per hour during high-density periods. In early 2026, AI-driven smart crowd management systems were introduced using sensors, cameras, and real-time monitoring to track entrants and exits, enhancing safety and crowd flow. These measures, informed by pre-1950s data when capacities were under , have demonstrably lowered incident rates by dispersing flows and enabling proactive interventions, though risks persist in extreme surges. Post-2020 health protocols mandate vaccinations against , , and for entrants, alongside ongoing enforcement and frequent disinfection cycles within the mosque. Evacuation readiness includes regular air ambulance drills on newly installed helipads, as conducted in March 2025, allowing rapid medical extractions from the eastern runway to the on-site Al-Haram Emergency Hospital. These protocols build on expansion-driven capacity gains to sustain safe operations amid annual influxes approaching 3 million on peak nights.

Leadership and Personnel

Imams and Their Roles

The imams of Masjid al-Haram lead the congregational prayers, including the five daily salahs, Taraweeh during Ramadan, and special rituals for Hajj, while delivering khutbahs (sermons) that stress tawhid (the oneness of God), Islamic unity, and adherence to the Quran and Sunnah. These sermons often address contemporary issues through the lens of Salafi principles, emphasizing monotheism and cautioning against innovations (bid'ah) in worship. Imams are appointed by royal decree of the Saudi king, selected for their expertise in Quranic recitation, fiqh (jurisprudence), and scholarly piety, typically after rigorous evaluation by religious authorities. Abdul-Rahman Al-Sudais, the longest-serving chief imam since his appointment in 1984 at age 22, exemplifies this role; a graduate of the with early memorization, he has led over 40 sermons and thousands of prayers, influencing global Muslim discourse on unity and reform. Saleh bin Abdullah bin Humaid, appointed in 1983 as the first imam with a PhD (in ), delivers khutbahs promoting ethical governance and monotheistic purity; his scholarly background includes service on the Shura Council, and he was named in September 2025. Other active imams include Usama Khayyat (since 1998), known for emotive recitations; Abdullah Awad al-Juhany (since 2007); and Bandar Baleela (since 2013), all contributing to rotational prayer leadership. Recent additions, such as Badr bin Muhammad Al-Turki and Al-Waleed bin Khalid Al-Shamsan (appointed October 2024), reflect ongoing renewal in the corps. Historically, the imam tradition originates with Prophet Muhammad leading prayers at the mosque upon its establishment in 622 CE, evolving under caliphs and rulers; Saudi oversight since 1924 has formalized selections to align with Salafi methodology, prioritizing textual literalism and rejection of sectarian deviations.

Muezzins and Call to Prayer

The of Masjid al-Haram are responsible for reciting the (call to prayer) and (call to commence prayer), summoning worshippers with clear, resonant voices from designated stations within the . Notable figures include Sheikh Ali Ahmad Mulla, who has served as chief muezzin for over 40 years and is renowned for his enduring vocal tradition. Other current or recent muezzins include Abdullah Asad Reyes, with the team typically comprising around 13 to 16 members, expanding to 22 during to handle increased prayer volumes. The is recited six times daily: a pre-dawn call approximately 45 to 60 minutes before Fajr to awaken residents, followed by the five obligatory calls for Fajr, Dhuhr, Asr, Maghrib, and Isha prayers. These recitations are synchronized across multiple muezzins using precise timing protocols to ensure uniformity, with voices often layered or alternated for resonance within the vast enclosure. Muezzins employ melodic techniques rooted in maqams, such as Hijaz or Bayati, to infuse the with emotive scales and phrasing while adhering to the fixed text, emphasizing clarity and projection without instrumental accompaniment. Sheikh Ali Ahmad Mulla, for instance, demonstrates extended breath control in Hijaz maqam for prolonged, soulful delivery. Amplification aids were introduced in Masjid al-Haram during King Abdulaziz's reign, with loudspeakers installed by 1947 to extend the call beyond the mosque's confines, marking an early adoption of such technology in mosques worldwide. The modern system features over 100 microphones, 8,000 speakers across 650,000 square meters, and six control rooms staffed by 120 engineers to manage distribution and prevent echoes. The is broadcast globally via radio, television, and digital streams, reaching millions during peak times like .

Management and Stewardship

Saudi Administrative Oversight

The General Presidency for the Affairs of the Two Holy Mosques administers Masjid al-Haram, overseeing , development, and religious services to facilitate worship for millions of visitors annually. Established in by royal decree and restructured in subsequent years, the presidency coordinates expansions, cleaning operations, and logistical support under direct Saudi governmental authority. Leadership of the presidency falls under appointees of the Saudi monarch, with Abdulrahman bin Abdulaziz Al-Sudais serving as president since his 2012 appointment, continuing through expansions initiated under King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud. Funding for operations and projects stems from the national budget, bolstered by oil revenues that have enabled investments exceeding $20 billion in recent decades for enhancements like air-conditioned galleries and elevated walkways. To manage access, the Saudi government enforces visa quotas distributed to countries via official missions, capping participation at sustainable levels—such as approximately 2 million pilgrims in recent years—to align with limits and prevent unmanaged surges. Complementary hygiene policies mandate vaccinations against diseases like meningococcal meningitis and for visa approval, alongside on-site protocols, enabling large-scale gatherings while minimizing health risks. These administrative strategies have expanded the mosque's capacity from under 100,000 worshipers in the mid-20th century to 1.85 million following the Third Saudi Expansion completed in stages through , allowing broader participation from Muslim populations worldwide compared to pre-unification eras of restricted access.

Security Measures and Incidents

Following the 1979 , Saudi authorities implemented enhanced protocols at Masjid al-Haram, including the installation of metal detectors and (CCTV) systems to screen entrants and monitor activities. By the , over 5,000 CCTV cameras were deployed across the mosque and surrounding areas, integrated with a centralized operations center for real-time surveillance. These measures, coordinated by the General Presidency for the Affairs of the Two Holy Mosques, aim to detect explosives, weapons, and unauthorized behaviors, reflecting a post-siege emphasis on preventing ideological insurgencies rooted in puritanical Salafi critiques of state authority. Security personnel, numbering over 1,300 dedicated staff for safety and regulatory services, operate alongside civil guards to enforce access controls and respond to threats, with deployments scaling to tens of thousands during . This apparatus enforces Wahhabi-Salafi doctrinal uniformity, prohibiting practices deemed deviant such as certain Shia rituals, to avert internal challenges from radical groups viewing the as insufficiently pious. The most significant incident was the November 20 to December 4, 1979, seizure by approximately 400-500 militants led by , a former member influenced by Ikhwanist and millenarian ideologies. Al-Otaybi proclaimed Muhammad ibn Abd Allah al-Qahtani as the , launching the attack during dawn prayers to denounce the Saudi rulers as corrupt puppets of the West and call for a return to prophetic governance; the militants held the mosque's courtyards, killing guards and pilgrims in initial clashes. Saudi forces, aided by French special forces due to religious constraints on non-Muslims entering the site, besieged and gassed the complex, recapturing it after two weeks with an official toll of 255 deaths, including militants, soldiers, and civilians. Al-Otaybi and 67 surviving followers were publicly executed by beheading in early 1980. Subsequent threats have included foiled plots by affiliates targeting holy sites, prompting iterative upgrades like explosives detectors at gates, though no comparable seizure has recurred due to fortified perimeters and integration. Expansions since the 1980s have indirectly bolstered security by reducing congestion vulnerabilities exploited in past fires and crushes, such as the 1987 incident involving 402 deaths from clashes, but primary defenses remain ideological vetting and physical barriers against armed ingress.

Controversies

Heritage Site Demolitions

Saudi authorities have overseen the of numerous historic structures surrounding and within as part of multi-billion-dollar expansion projects aimed at increasing capacity for pilgrims. These include the 2002 razing of the Ottoman-era , constructed in 1783 on a hill overlooking the , to clear space for the Abraj Al-Bait hotel and residential complex. Similarly, in the , workers demolished sections of the 's Ottoman porticos and columns, some dating to the 16th-19th centuries, along with Abbasid-era elements, using drills and mechanical diggers to facilitate plaza expansions. Such demolitions extend to broader clearances around , with estimates indicating that 95 percent of the city's millennium-old have been removed over the past two decades to prioritize modern infrastructure over preserved relics. A recent expansion project involved the removal of 5,882 buildings in the vicinity, incorporating over 13.1 million stone pieces and 3 million cubic meters of concrete to redevelop the area. Saudi rationales for these actions draw from Wahhabi interpretations of prohibiting the erection of structures over graves or that could foster veneration akin to , as the Prophet Muhammad reportedly instructed companions to level such sites to uphold () and avert shirk (). Officials emphasize prioritizing functional space, arguing that relics risk diverting focus from direct devotion. These efforts have empirically expanded the mosque's by approximately 1.2 million square in recent phases, boosting capacity to accommodate an additional 1.2 million worshippers and addressing pre-expansion constraints that limited annual and attendance. Prior limits, tied to the original site's confined layout, had capped effective prayer areas, necessitating the trade-offs for scalability amid rising global Muslim populations.

Ideological Challenges and 1979 Seizure

On November 20, 1979, a group of approximately 260 armed militants led by Juhayman al-Otaibi seized control of Masjid al-Haram during the last day of the annual pilgrimage, proclaiming Mohammed Abdullah al-Qahtani as the , a messianic figure prophesied in to restore pure faith. The insurgents, drawing from a puritanical interpretation of Salafism influenced by earlier reformist teachers like Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings but extended into takfiri rejection of the Saudi state, accused the Al Saud monarchy of corruption, moral decay, and undue Western influence, demanding its overthrow and the establishment of rule strictly governed by the Qur'an and without intermediaries. The militants barricaded themselves within the mosque's vast complex, holding tens of thousands of pilgrims and worshippers initially trapped inside, though many escaped or were released amid ; official Saudi figures report 26 hostages or pilgrims killed during the standoff. Fighting ensued with Saudi , resulting in 127 deaths among security personnel and 117 militants killed, for a total of 270 fatalities by the siege's end on December 4, 1979, though independent estimates suggest higher numbers due to the intensity of close-quarters combat in the sacred site. The insurgents' ideology represented a radical fringe challenge to the Saudi-Wahhabi alliance, viewing the state's religious establishment as compromised and the rulers as apostates deserving , a declaration of that justified violence against fellow . Saudi authorities, prohibited by Islamic tradition from bearing arms in the mosque without religious sanction, secured fatwas from senior ulema declaring the militants apostates and permitting military intervention. The resolution involved and units, supported covertly by French GIGN special forces advisors who provided tactical expertise and chemical agents like and possibly poison gas to flush rebels from underground areas, culminating in an armored assault that damaged parts of the structure. Juhayman and 68 surviving militants were captured; on January 9, 1980, 63 were publicly beheaded across eight Saudi cities, signaling the regime's resolve against internal ideological threats. The prompted a strategic pivot in Saudi governance, reinforcing alliances with hardline Salafi clerics to legitimize the monarchy's custodianship of the holy sites and expanding religious policing to suppress dissent, while funding global Wahhabi propagation to co-opt puritanical energies abroad, such as in against the Soviets. This event entrenched a security apparatus focused on ideological purity, averting similar large-scale uprisings within the kingdom, though it inadvertently galvanized transnational by exposing fractures in the Saudi religious-state compact.

Modernization Critiques and Responses

Critics of the Masjid al-Haram's modernization efforts have contended that surrounding high-rise developments, such as the Abraj Al-Bait complex and the Royal Mecca Clock Tower, diminish the spiritual focus on the by visually overshadowing it with commercial luxury structures. Some observers have described this transformation as turning the holy site into a ""-style environment, prioritizing ostentatious consumerism over religious sanctity. Saudi authorities have countered that such expansions are essential for accommodating surging pilgrim numbers, with the mosque's capacity raised from approximately 1.5 million to over 2.5 million worshippers through phased projects costing billions. This growth addresses empirical risks of overcrowding, as evidenced by pre-expansion incidents like the 1990 Al-Muaissem tunnel that killed 1,426 pilgrims due to inadequate space and access. The 2025 King Salman Gate project, announced on October 15 and spanning 12 million square meters adjacent to the mosque, exemplifies this approach by aiming to add 900,000 prayer spaces alongside mixed-use facilities to enhance pilgrim flow during peak periods. Facing backlash over potential further , Saudi officials adjusted plans to prioritize preservation of the site's sacred simplicity, underscoring a balance between capacity needs and heritage concerns.

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