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Guṇa (Sanskrit: गुण) refers to the three fundamental tendencies or forces that constitute nature, or the matrix of material existence in Hindu philosophies. It can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".[1][2]

The concept is originally notable as a feature of Samkhya philosophy.[3] The guṇas are now a key concept in nearly all schools of Hindu philosophy.[4] There are three guṇas (triguṇa), according to this worldview, that have always been and continue to be present in all things and beings in the world.[4] These three guṇas are called: sattva (goodness, calmness, harmonious), rajas (passion, activity, movement), and tamas (ignorance, inertia, laziness).[5] All of these three guṇas are present in everyone and everything; it is the proportion that is different, according to Hindu worldview. The interplay of these guṇas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.[4][6]

In some contexts, it may mean "a subdivision, species, kind, quality", or an operational principle or tendency of something or someone.[6] In human behavior studies, Guna means personality, innate nature, and psychological attributes of an individual.[7][8][9]

Like many technical terms in other languages, guṇa can be difficult to encapsulate with a single English word. Its original and common meaning is a thread, implying the original materials that weave together to make up reality. The usual, but approximate translation in common usage is "a quality".[10]

Terminology

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Guna appears in many ancient and medieval Indian texts. Depending on the context, it means:[1][2][11]

  • string or thread, rope, sinew, chord (music, vowel phonology and arts literature)[12][13]
  • virtue, merit, excellence (dharma and soteriological literature)[11][14]
  • quality, peculiarity, tendency, attribute, property, species (sastras, sutras, the Epics, food and analytical literature)[15]

The root and origins

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Guṇa is both a root and a word in Sanskrit. Its different context-driven meanings are derived from either the root or the word. In verse VI.36 of Nirukta by Yāska, a 1st millennium BC text on Sanskrit grammar and language that preceded Panini, Guṇa is declared to be derived from another root Gaṇa,[16] which means "to count, enumerate".[17] This meaning has led to its use in speciation, subdivision, classification of anything by peculiarity, attribute or property. This meaning has also led to its use with prefixes such as Dviguṇa (twofold), Triguṇa (threefold) and so on.

In other contexts, such as phonology, grammar and arts, "Guṇa-" takes the meaning of āmantraṇā (आमन्त्रणा, addressing, invitation) or abhyāsa (अभ्यास, habit, practice).[17] In the Mahabharata Book 6 Chapter 2, the meaning of guṇa similarly comes in the sense of addressing each part (the root implying āmantraṇā), and thereby it means avayava (अवयव, member, subdivision, portion). In Sanskrit treatises on food and cooking, guṇa means quality, tendency and nature of ingredient. Ancient South Indian commentators, such as Lingayasurin, explain that the meaning of guṇa as "thread, string" comes from the root guṇa- in the sense of repetition (abhyāsa), while the Telugu commentator Mallinatha explains the root guṇa- is to be understood in Sisupalavadha as āmredana (आम्रेडन, reiteration, repetition).[17] Larson and Bhattacharya suggest that the "thread" metaphor relates to that which connects and runs between what we objectively observe to the tattva (तत्त्व, elementary property, principle, invisible essence) of someone or something.[11][18]

In the context of philosophy, morality and understanding nature, "Guna-" with more dental na takes the meaning of addressing quality, substance, tendency and property.[11][17] In abstract discussion, it includes all hues of qualities – desirable, neutral or undesirable; but if unspecified, it is assumed with good faith to be good and divine in Indian philosophy. Thus, Guṇi from the root "Guṇa-" means someone or something with "divine qualities", as in Svetasvatara Upanishad hymn VI.2.[17]

The gunas under various philosophies

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Innate qualities and tendencies are key ancient concepts in Indian literature. Maitrayaniya Upanishad is one of the earliest texts making an explicit reference to Hindu trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and linking them to their Guna – as creator/activity, preserver/purity, destroyer/recycler respectively.[19] The idea of three types of guṇa, innate nature and forces that together transform and keep changing the world is, however, found in numerous earlier and later Indian texts.[20]

Samkhya school of Hinduism

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In Samkhya philosophy, a guṇa is one of three "attributes, tendencies, qualities": sattva, rajas and tamas. This category of guṇas has been widely adopted by various schools of Hinduism for categorizing behavior and natural phenomena. The three qualities are:

  • Sattva is the guṇa of balance, harmony, goodness, purity, universal-ism, holism, construction, creativity, positivity, peacefulness, and virtue.[21]
  • Rajas is the guṇa of passion, activity, neither good nor bad and sometimes either, self-centeredness, egoism, individualization, drivenness, movement, and dynamism.[5][22]
  • Tamas is the guṇa of imbalance, disorder, chaos, anxiety, impurity, destruction, delusion, negativity, dullness or inactivity, apathy, inertia or lethargy, violence, viciousness, and ignorance.[22][23]

Scholars of Samkhya have three main views on defining what gunas are. They are seen as either substances, qualities, or capacities.[24]

In Indian philosophy, these qualities are not considered present in an either-or fashion. Rather, everyone and everything has all three, only in different proportions and in different contexts.[4] The living being or substance is viewed as the net result of the joint effect of these three qualities.[4][5]

According to Samkya school, no one and nothing is either purely Sattvik or purely Rajasik or purely Tamasik.[5] One's nature and behavior constitute a complex interplay of all three guṇas, in varying degrees. In some, the conduct is Rajasik with significant influence of Sattvik guṇa; in some it is Rajasik with significant influence of Tamasik guṇa, and so on.[5]

The balance of Gunas of everything and everyone can change and does. However, change in one quality faces inertia from other two qualities in Indian worldview. Change needs internal or external influence or reinforcement, as knowledge and force to transform. The force to change comes from the Rajas guṇa, the Sattva guṇa empowers one towards harmonious and constructive change, while Tamas guṇa checks or retards the process.

In Indian mythology, Vishnu is envisioned with more Sattva, Brahma with more Rajas, and Shiva seen with all three Gunas.[20]

Nyaya school of Hinduism

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In Nyaya (Generality or common features) school of Hinduism, there is extensive debate on what Guna means, and whether quality is innate, subjective or describable. Early scholars of this school identified 17 qualities, which later scholars expanded to 24 guṇas. Different scholars of this school list the 24 differently; for example, Bhasarvajna disallows 6 of the 24 commonly accepted by the ancient scholars.[10] The most commonly accepted list is: color, taste, smell, touch, number, contact, disjunction, farness, nearness, dimension, separateness, knowledge, pleasure, frustration, desire, hatred, effort, weight, fluidity, viscosity, dispositional tendency, merit, demerit, and sound.[25]

Nyaya school considers quality as non-repeatable, a conceptual theme not found in Western philosophy where "quality" is presumed to be repeatable. It is also not found in some parallel schools of Hinduism. Repeatability means that the white in one object is same as white in other object, and white means the same thing. Nyaya scholars hold that "whiteness" is a guṇa of "white", but that is different from "whiteness" of an object or living being. To them, white has many hues and the "whiteness" is subjective.[25]

In Laksanavali, an ancient Indian text by Udayana, Guna is discussed with more nuance. For example, he writes, "quality of earth" is specific only if it meets three conditions: it occurs in earth, does not occur in anything that is not earthy, and be a distinctive quality that cannot be described as combination of other qualities.[26]

There are twenty four gunas mentioned in the joint school of Nyaya - Vaisheshika system in the Indian philosophy.[27][28] For example, the Indian philosopher Praśastapāda had mentioned the term gurutva (Sanskrit: गुरुत्व) for the cause of the act of falling, in his commentary text Praśastapādabhāṣya on the Vaisheshika Sutra of Maharshi Kanada. According to him, gurutva is the quality of the paramanus of prithvi and ap (water).[29][30][31][32] Gurutva is a Sanskrit word made from two terms guru and tva. The term guru has meaning of weight or heaviness. And the term tva is a Sanskrit affix to convert an adjective word into an abstract noun. When the affix term tva is added after the term guru, then the compound word gurutva takes the form of an abstract noun.[29]

In the commentary texts Padarthadharmasamgraha of Prashastapada and Nyayakandali of Shridhara, the Gurutva is an imperceptible quality of the dravyas prithvi and jala. It cannot be perceived by any of the sense organs. It is only inferable from its effect of the falling of substances.[33] Sankara Mishra in his commentary text Upaskara explained the sutra 5.1.7 of the Vaisheshika Sutra which gives the reference of the term gurutva. According to him, gurutva is the cause of falling in the absence of conjunction. He states that the term conjunction indicates every type of impediments.[34] The quality of gurutva is eternal existence in the paramanus of the dravyas so it can't be destroyed. But the effect of gurutva can be neutralised by conjunction, effort and faculty (speed form). When gurutva is interrupted by these, it's effect is neutralised.[33] In the text Vaisheshika Sutra, there is a sutra regarding conjunction as

॥ संयोगाभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् ॥ ॥ saṃyogābhāve gurutvāt patanam ॥

— Maharshi Kanada, Vaisheshika Sutra, 5.1.7 (Sutra)

The Vaisheshika sutra 5.1.7 translates as "In the absence of conjunction, gurutva causes falling effect".[34]

Similarly there is a sutra regarding saṃskāra (speed form) as

॥ संस्काराभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् ॥ ॥ saṃskārābhāve gurutvāt patanam ॥

— Vaisheshika Sutra, 5.1.18

The Vaisheshika sutra 5.1.18 translates as "In the absence of propulsive energy generated by action (saṃskāra), gurutva causes falling effect".[35]

In the combined Nyayavaisesika school, the twenty four gunas are divided into two types on the basis of generality and speciality of the gunas. They are sāmānya guṇas (general qualities) and viśeṣa guṇas (special qualities). The gunas which exist in two or more than two dravyas are called as sāmānya guṇas and similarly the gunas which specially exist in only one type of dravya are called as viśeṣa guṇas. Since gurutva exists in the two types of dravyas namely prithvi and jala, so it is classified as a sāmānya guṇa.[36]

On the basis of its existence, it is classified as both eternal and non eternal (evanescent) gunas. It is eternal gunas for the paramanus of the dravyas prithvi and jala. Similarly it is non eternal (evanescent) gunas for composite materials. On the basis of perception, it is classified as atīndriyaguṇas. The atīndriyaguṇas are those gunas which are not perceptible by external sense organs.[33]

Vaisheshika school of Hinduism

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In Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, which is most related to Nyaya school, states that our awareness, understanding and judgments of any person and thing in the world is relational. All relations, holds this school of Hinduism, is dyadic between anuyogin (referend) and pratiyogin (referent).[37] Guna (quality) is considered one of the seven padārtha (category) of relations. The others are: inherence (samavaya), being (bhava), genus (samanya), species (vishesha), substance (dravya) and motion/action (karman). Unlike Vaisheshika, Nyaya considers inherence as subset of guṇa (quality).[37]

Gangesha, a Nyaya scholar, suggests a somewhat different theory, stating that our awareness is of two types – true and false. True awareness is produced when we seek to observe some excellence (guṇa) in its cause, while false awareness results from observing fault (dosha) in its cause. In other words, in Gangesha's perspective, the observer's state of mind and attitude affects relational awareness.[38]

Bhagavad Gita

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Chapters 2, 3, 7, 13, 14, 17 and 18 of Bhagavad Gita discuss Guna.[39] Verse 17.2 refers to the three Guna – sattvic, rajasic and tamasic – as innate nature (psychology or personality of an individual).[40][41] Sattvic guṇa is one driven by what is pure, truth, compassionate, without craving, doing the right because it is right, positive and good. Tamasic guṇa is one driven by what is impure, dark, destructive, aimed to hurt another, contemptuous, negative and vicious. Rajasic guṇa is one that is ego-driven, out of personal passion, active, ostentatious, seeking the approval of others.[39][41]

In Chapters 17 and 18, Bhagavad Gita illustrates various items and actions by their three Guna. For example, three types of charity are discussed, and what makes charity Sattvic, Rajasic or Tamasic. Similarly, food, relationships, knowledge and actions are detailed in terms of the three Guna.[39] In Chapter 18, for example:[42]

नियतं सङ्गरहितमरागद्वेषतः कृतम् । अफलप्रेप्सुना कर्म यत्तत्सात्त्विकमुच्यते ॥२३॥
यत्तु कामेप्सुना कर्म साहंकारेण वा पुनः । क्रियते बहुलायासं तद्राजसमुदाहृतम् ॥२४॥
अनुबन्धं क्षयं हिंसामनपेक्ष्य च पौरुषम् । मोहादारभ्यते कर्म यत्तत्तामसमुच्यते ॥२५॥

Action that is virtuous, thought through, free from attachment, and without craving for results is considered Sattvic; Action that is driven purely by craving for pleasure, selfishness and much effort is Rajasic; Action that is undertaken because of delusion, disregarding consequences, without considering loss or injury to others or self, is called Tamasic.

— Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 18, verses 23–25 [42]

Similarly, knowledge that is attached to object of action, without concern for understanding the cause, without concern for purpose or significance, is Tamasic knowledge; knowledge that is segregated, that considers everything unconnected, individualistic and meaningless is Rajasic; knowledge that sees one being in all beings, that seeks the whole, a unity in diversity, and similarities in the divided components is Sattvic.[43]

Furthermore, in Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna advises Arjuna to transcend the three modes of existence and other forms of dualism.[44]

Guna in theory of ethics

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Guna is one of the four important elements in the framework of ethical theories in Indian philosophy.[5][45] Bommer et al. suggest that ethical/non-ethical behavior is an outcome of individual attributes, personal environment, social environment and institutional rules and laws.[46] Guna theory is the ancient Indian philosophy on individual attributes, while the theories of Dharma and Ashramas address the personal and social environment, as well as part of its institutional framework. Guna theory, states Crawford,[45] represents a hierarchical theory of values, where the relative order of hierarchy is suggested to vary within each individual along with the relative proportion of each guṇa. The interplay of three guṇas affect an individual's values, and in Hindu worldview, these values affect individual's actions, as well as the happiness and serenity experienced by the individual.[4][47][48] The guṇas are not considered static and set. Hindu literature, such as the Bhagavad Gita, state it to be dynamic and changeable with knowledge, introspection and understanding of sva-dharma. Realizing one's sva-dharma and Self is emphasized in Indian ethical theories. The highest state of existence and bliss, in Advaita school of Hinduism for example, is jivanmukti (Self-realization) and moksha.[49][50]

Guna theory's perspective on values constituting human personality is unique yet congruent with other ethical theories.[51]

Guna in cosmology

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Samkhya cosmology combines the three guṇas with primal matter (universe, Prakrti).[52][53] These are present in all things and beings in the world, and it is their interplay that defines the physical and psychological character and nature.[52] They serve as the fundamental operating principles or 'tendencies' of prakṛti which are called: sattva guṇa, rajas guṇa, and tamas guṇa.[6][54] When any of the guṇa is out of balance in a being or object, the Samkhya school suggests that a pattern of evolution starts, affecting not only itself but its environment.[52] Purusha, or consciousness, is considered separate from Prakriti and changeless.[52]

Guna in other contexts

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Sanskrit grammar

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In the Sanskrit grammatical tradition (Vyakarana), guṇa refers to a set of normal-length vowels that are less reduced than the basic set (in modern terms, the zero grade), but more reduced than the vṛddhi vowels (in modern terms, the lengthened grade). As an example, ṛ, i, u are basic (zero-grade) vowels, with corresponding guṇa (full-grade) vowels ar, e, o and vṛddhi (lengthened-grade) vowels ār, ai, au. (This is more understandable once it is realized that, at an earlier stage of development, Sanskrit e and o were ai and au, and Sanskrit ai and au were āi and āu.) Guṇa corresponds to what is now termed the full grade in Indo-European ablaut. Another orthography and phonology concept related to Guṇa is Vṛddhi.[55] These innovations are not unique to Sanskrit, but also found in Greek, Latin, Italian and to some extent Russian.[56] Guna and other rules of language for Sanskrit are described by Pāṇini in his Ashtadhyayi.[57]

Ayurveda

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In the terminology of Ayurveda (traditional medicine), guṇa can refer to one of twenty fundamental properties which any substance can exhibit, arranged in ten pairs of antonyms, viz. heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, viscous/liquid.[58]

Guṇa is also a concept in Ayurvedic medicine, as a system to assess conditions and diets. For this reason Triguṇa and tridosha are considered to be related in the traditions of Ayurveda.

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Guṇa

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In , particularly within the and schools, a guṇa (Sanskrit: गुण, meaning 'quality', 'attribute', or 'strand') denotes one of three primordial qualities that constitute prakṛti, the foundational material nature from which the manifest evolves. These guṇas—sattva (essence or goodness), rajas (activity or passion), and tamas (inertia or darkness)—are omnipresent, interdependent forces that determine the characteristics of all physical and mental phenomena, existing in dynamic equilibrium or imbalance to drive cosmic and individual processes. They form the metaphysical basis for understanding creation, human , and spiritual liberation in these traditions. Sattva represents the principle of light, harmony, intelligence, and purity, fostering clarity, knowledge, tranquility, and attachment to happiness; it illuminates and supports constructive activity without disturbance. In contrast, embodies energy, motion, and dynamism, characterized by passion, desire, and restlessness, which propel change, creation, and action but often lead to aversion and agitation. Tamas, the heaviest of the three, signifies dullness, , stability through , and , promoting , obstruction, and a covering obscurity that hinders and progress. These qualities are not merely abstract but manifest proportionally in all entities, from elements like air (predominantly sattva) and fire (rajas) to stones (tamas), influencing temperament, diet, and ethical conduct. The guṇas play a central role in soteriological frameworks, where their interplay binds the individual soul (puruṣa) to material existence, and transcendence of their dominance—achieved through practices like discrimination and meditation—leads to liberation (kaivalya). In the Bhagavad Gītā (Chapter 14), Lord Krishna describes the guṇas as modes of prakṛti that govern perception, action, and bondage, with sattva elevating toward wisdom, rajas toward fruitive labor, and tamas toward heedlessness, urging the devotee to rise above them for union with the divine. This concept extends beyond Samkhya-Yoga to broader Hindu thought, informing classifications of foods, rituals, and social duties, while paralleling triadic principles in other Indian systems like Ayurveda.

Etymology and Terminology

Linguistic Origins

The term guṇa derives from the Sanskrit verbal root guṇ, signifying "to string together," "to count," or "to multiply," which conveys the idea of attributes as interconnected or enumerated elements. An alternative derivation links it to the root gṛ, meaning "to swallow" or "to praise," though the predominant semantic evolution emphasizes "quality" or "attribute" as a fundamental property. This etymological foundation reflects the word's transition from concrete to abstract connotations in ancient Indian linguistics. In Vedic literature, guṇa first appears in the , where it denotes a "sacred thread" or the "quality of action," often in ritualistic or descriptive contexts referring to strands in cords or inherent properties of divine acts. This usage highlights its initial material sense, tied to tangible elements like threads in sacrificial rites. By the time of the , the term shifts toward metaphysical attributes, as evidenced in the , where guṇa describes qualities associated with the layers of the self (kośas), such as the dynamic properties inhering in the vital air sheath (prāṇamaya). The historical development of guṇa spans from pre-classical Vedic Sanskrit (c. 1500–500 BCE), with its concrete and ritualistic implications in texts like the Rigveda, to classical Sanskrit (c. 500 BCE onward), where it gains broader abstract applications in philosophical discourse. This evolution mirrors the linguistic maturation from poetic hymns to speculative treatises, incorporating guṇa as a versatile descriptor of properties in both physical and subtle realms. Examples include its role in enumerating virtues or elements in later Vedic compilations, bridging empirical observation and conceptual analysis. Phonetically, guṇa features the velar nasal ṇ and a short u, pronounced as /ɡuɳə/ in classical , maintaining stability across dialects. Morphologically, it functions primarily as a masculine (guṇaḥ), though it adopts neuter forms in certain philosophical compounds; it readily forms bahuvrīhi and tatpuruṣa compounds, such as triguna ("three qualities"), illustrating its in denoting multiplicity or specificity of attributes.

Core Definitions

In Indian philosophical thought, guṇa denotes the fundamental qualities or modes that constitute , the primordial material nature, serving as innate tendencies present in varying proportions across all manifested . These qualities are not merely attributes but dynamic constituents that underpin the structure of , influencing both physical and subtle aspects of the universe. The triad of guṇas comprises , , and tamas. Sattva embodies harmony, purity, and knowledge, promoting clarity, buoyancy, and illumination; it is symbolically associated with white or light, representing equilibrium and goodness. Rajas signifies activity, passion, and motion, driving change, excitation, and ambition; it is linked to red or energy, evoking dynamism and restlessness. Tamas represents , , and stability, fostering heaviness, obstruction, and ; it corresponds to black or darkness, symbolizing stagnation and resistance. These guṇas derive from ancient textual traditions, where their interplay forms the basis of material composition. In its unmanifest state, maintains the guṇas in perfect equilibrium, existing as undifferentiated potential without evolution or diversity. This balance is disrupted by subtle interactions, leading to disequilibrium among the guṇas, which initiates the process of manifestation and the emergence of the differentiated world. The guṇas exhibit universal applicability, permeating all phenomena from elemental substances to cognitive faculties, thereby shaping the qualities of objects, beings, and mental states in accordance with their dominant proportions.

Guṇas in Indian Philosophical Schools

Samkhya and Classical Yoga

In philosophy, the foundational dualism posits purusha as pure, unchanging consciousness that serves as the passive witness, eternally distinct from prakriti, the unconscious material principle composed of the three guṇas: (harmony and clarity), (activity and passion), and tamas (inertia and obscurity). This distinction underscores that purusha remains uninvolved in the transformations of prakriti, which evolves solely to enable the experience of suffering and eventual liberation for the witness. The guṇas function as the intrinsic strands or constituents of prakriti, existing in a state of equilibrium until disequilibrium arises, prompting the evolution of the 23 tattvas (principles of reality). Ishvarakrishna's Samkhya Karika, the seminal text systematizing these ideas around the 4th century CE, describes in verses 11–13 how the guṇas underpin this process: the manifest world (vyakta) emerges from their interplay, characterized as non-discriminative, objective, shared, non-conscious, and generative, while the unmanifest (avyakta) represents their balanced state, and their mutual dominance drives transformation. From prakriti, the first tattva to evolve is buddhi (intellect), followed by ahamkara (ego-sense), manas (mind), the five sense organs (jñānendriyas), the five action organs (karmendriyas), the five subtle elements (tanmātras), and the five gross elements (mahābhūtas), totaling 23 evolutes. This sequential unfolding occurs through the guṇas' disequilibrium, where sattva promotes illumination and balance, rajas instigates motion and differentiation, and tamas provides stability but also obstruction. The dynamics of the guṇas manifest distinctly in the internal instruments (): predominates in , enabling discernment and determination; dominates in , fostering individuation and agency; and tamas prevails in manas and the senses, governing and coordination but often leading to when unchecked. Vācaspati Miśra's commentary on the Karika elucidates this by explaining the guṇas as interdependent forces— as the essence to be realized, tamas as the barrier, and as the overcoming energy—whose balanced interplay sustains prakriti's potentiality until proximity to triggers evolution. Gaudapada's bhāṣya further emphasizes that the guṇas never merge but modify each other, ensuring the diversity of manifest forms while their root remains unmanifest. Classical Yoga, as articulated in Patañjali's Yoga Sūtras (circa 2nd–4th century CE), integrates this Samkhya framework by prescribing practices to transcend the guṇas and realize purusha's isolation (kaivalya). The eightfold path (aṣṭāṅga yoga)—including āsana (postures) for bodily steadiness and prāṇāyāma (breath control) for vital energy regulation—purifies the antahkarana, reducing rajas and tamas to elevate sattva, thereby facilitating samādhi (absorptive concentration). Specifically, sūtra 2.45 states that perfection in samādhi arises from devotion to Īśvara (īśvara-praṇidhāna), which Vyāsa's commentary interprets as enhancing sattva purity to dissolve guṇa-induced fluctuations. Ultimate transcendence occurs in sūtra 4.34, where the guṇas, deprived of purpose, revert to prakriti, establishing purusha in its true nature. Thus, Yoga employs disciplined practice to reverse prakriti's evolution, achieving liberation from guṇa bondage.

Nyaya and Vaisheshika

In the school, guṇas are defined as one of the primary categories (padārthas) within its metaphysical framework, specifically as 24 non-substantial qualities that inhere in substances (dravyas) through the relation of inherence (samavāya). These qualities encompass both perceptual attributes, such as color (rūpa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha), and touch (sparśa), and more abstract or metaphysical ones, including intellect (), pleasure (), pain (duḥkha), desire (icchā), aversion (dveṣa), effort (prayatna), merit (), and demerit (). Guṇas are distinguished from substances by their dependence on a substrate for existence; they cannot exist independently and are perceived or known only as properties of dravyas. The school, closely allied with in its later developments, conceptualizes guṇas as one of the six fundamental categories (padārthas) of reality, alongside substance (dravya), action (karma), generality (sāmānya), particularity (viśeṣa), and inherence (samavāya). In Kanada's foundational text, the Vaisheshika Sutras (1.1.6), guṇas are enumerated as qualities such as color (rūpa), (rasa), smell (gandha), touch (sparśa), number (saṃkhyā), measure (parimāṇa), separateness (pṛthaktva), conjunction (saṃyoga), disjunction (vibhāga), priority (paratva), posteriority (aparatva), (buddhi), pleasure (), pain (), desire (icchā), aversion (dveṣa), and effort (prayatna), initially listing 17 such attributes before later expansions in the Nyaya-Vaisheshika synthesis to include additional ones like heaviness (gurutva), fluidity (dravatva), sound (śabda), and tendency (saṃskāra). Unlike the perceptual focus in some listings, Vaisheshika emphasizes guṇas like number and separateness as enabling the differentiation and enumeration of entities in the pluralistic . A key distinction in the Nyaya-Vaisheshika treatment of guṇas lies in their status as eternal, inherent properties that subsist unchangingly in their substrates, contrasting with dynamic or evolving modes in other systems; for instance, while some guṇas like merit and demerit arise through actions, they persist as fixed attributes until liberation. This static supports the schools' , where guṇas serve as objects of valid (pramāṇas) such as (pratyakṣa) and (anumāna), allowing for the reliable cognition of qualities inhering in substances to establish truths about the world. In Gautama's Nyaya Sutras (1.1.1–1.1.3), guṇas are integrated into the list of prameyas (objects of ), underscoring their role in systematic and debate. Guṇas play a crucial integrative role in the Nyaya-Vaisheshika atomistic metaphysics, where atoms (paramāṇus) of the four material elements—earth, water, fire, and air—possess specific inherent qualities that determine their interactions and combinations into composite substances; for example, atoms of bear color, taste, smell, and touch, while those of include color and touch, facilitating the formation of gross through conjunction (saṃyoga). Furthermore, guṇas such as merit () and demerit () inhere in the (ātman), providing the mechanism for karmic mechanics by linking moral actions to unseen forces (adṛṣṭa) that influence rebirth and the eventual attainment of liberation through the cessation of such qualities. This framework underscores the schools' realistic pluralism, where guṇas enable the causal efficacy of atoms under divine supervision while preserving the eternity of ultimate particulars. In contrast to the Samkhya school's prakṛti-based guṇas, Nyaya and Vaisheshika view them as static inherents within a pluralistic realism.

Bhagavad Gita

In the , embedded within the epic , Lord Krishna imparts teachings on the guṇas to on the battlefield of , synthesizing foundational concepts of material nature with practical paths in a devotional framework. This discourse presents the guṇas—sattva (goodness), rajas (passion), and tamas (ignorance)—as constituents of (primordial nature) that bind the soul to the cycle of birth and death, influencing perception, action, and rebirth. Krishna emphasizes their role in everyday life and , urging transcendence through detached action and devotion, thereby adapting abstract philosophical ideas into actionable guidance for ethical living and liberation. Chapter 14, titled Guṇa Traya Vibhāga Yoga (The Yoga of the Division of the Three Guṇas), forms the core exposition, detailing how the guṇas emerge from Krishna's inferior energy and ensnare the embodied . Verses 14.5–18 delineate their qualities and effects: , luminous and serene, binds through attachment to and happiness, promoting clarity but still veiling the self (Bhagavad Gita 14.6, 14.9, 14.17); , restless and desire-driven, compels ceaseless activity and greed, fostering pain and repeated births in worldly pursuits (Bhagavad Gita 14.7, 14.9, 14.16); , rooted in , induces , , and , leading to lower births and spiritual (Bhagavad Gita 14.8, 14.9, 14.15). These modes fluctuate in dominance, affecting the body and mind by conditioning senses, intellect, and resolve (Bhagavad Gita 14.10–13). Krishna teaches transcendence to the guṇātīta state—beyond the guṇas—through amid their interplay, recognizing them as mere agents of nature while fixing the mind on the divine (Bhagavad Gita 14.19–20, 14.22–25). Building on this, Chapter 17 (Śhraddhā Traya Vibhāga Yoga) applies the guṇas to faith (śhraddhā) and daily practices, illustrating their pervasive influence on human conduct. Faith aligns with one's dominant guṇa: sāttvic faith honors scriptural deities selflessly, rājasic seeks demigods for personal gain, and tāmasic propitiates spirits through tampered rituals (Bhagavad Gita 17.2–4). Food preferences reflect this—sāttvic nourishes vitality and joy, rājasic incites discomfort and disease, tāmasic dulls the senses (Bhagavad Gita 17.8–10). Sacrifices, austerities, and charity follow suit: sāttvic acts adhere to duty without expectation of reward, promoting purity; rājasic pursue prestige or ostentation; tāmasic violate norms through deceit or harm (Bhagavad Gita 17.11–22). Krishna underscores that all such expressions, when uttered with the syllable oṁ, elevate the practitioner toward the divine. Chapter 18 (Mokṣha Sanyās Yoga) integrates the guṇas with karma yoga, linking them to prescribed duties (svadharma) and renunciation (tyāga). Duties vary by varṇa (social divisions)—brāhmaṇa (priests) emphasize sāttvic qualities like peace and wisdom, kṣhatriya (warriors) balance rajas for action and valor, vaiśhya (merchants) harness rajas for productivity, and śhūdra (laborers) manage tamas through service— all rooted in guṇa-karma (qualities and actions), not birth (Bhagavad Gita 18.41–44, 18.45–46). Rajas drives action-oriented karma yoga, sattva fosters knowledge and detachment, while tamas breeds delusion and avoidance of responsibility. True renunciation lies not in abandoning duties but in relinquishing attachment to fruits, classifying knowledge, action, and intellect by guṇas to guide ethical performance (Bhagavad Gita 18.5–9, 18.18–28). From a devotional perspective, the guṇas constitute part of Krishna's māyā (illusory energy), binding souls to materiality, yet (devotion) offers liberation by elevating one beyond them. Krishna declares unwavering devotion to Him as the path to guṇātīta, merging the self with and transcending māyā's grip ( 14.26, 18.54–55, 18.66). This bhakti-infused transforms worldly duties into offerings, freeing the devotee from guṇic entanglements toward ultimate mokṣha (liberation).

Vedanta Perspectives

In , as articulated by , the guṇas are regarded as components of māyā, the principle of apparent transformation (vivarta) that superimposes the illusory world on the of nirguṇa , the attributeless absolute. The guṇas—, , and tamas—constitute the fabric of this phenomenal realm but lack independent reality, serving merely as ephemeral modifications within the non-dual essence of . Transcendence of the guṇas is achieved through (discriminating knowledge), which reveals the as identical with nirguṇa , beyond all qualities. 's commentary on 14.19 elucidates the state of being guṇātīta (beyond the guṇas), where the illumined seer perceives no agent other than the guṇas in actions and realizes the supreme reality untouched by them. Similarly, in his Brahma Sūtra Bhāṣya, the method of (not this, not that) negates all attributes, including the guṇas, to affirm the undifferentiated . In contrast, Vedanta, propounded by Ramanujacharya, posits the guṇas as real and integral attributes of , which is saguṇa (with qualities) and embodies infinite auspicious attributes (kalyāṇa guṇas). Here, is the qualified whole encompassing conscious souls (cit) and insentient matter (acit), with the guṇas manifesting as essential properties rather than illusions. guṇa predominates in the divine body and souls, facilitating qualities like knowledge and bliss, while rajas and tamas operate within the cosmic order under 's control. Ramanujacharya's Śrī Bhāṣya on the Brahma Sūtras emphasizes that the guṇas are not extrinsic but inherent to 's substantive nature, ensuring the reality of the world as 's body. This view integrates devotion () as the means to realize unity with this attributive , without negating the guṇas' substantive role. Dvaita Vedanta, as developed by Madhvacharya, treats the guṇas as eternal distinctions that underpin a hierarchical , differentiating entities in a graded reality where (as supreme ) possesses all guṇas in their purest form. Souls (jīvas) and matter exhibit varying innate configurations of guṇas (virtues) and doṣas (faults), establishing five fundamental differences (pañca-bheda) that persist even in liberation. This hierarchy influences graded mokṣa, with higher souls attaining closer proximity to through and grace, while lower ones experience varying degrees of felicity based on their guṇic predispositions. Madhvacharya's commentaries, such as on the , affirm these eternal distinctions as divinely ordained, rejecting any illusory status for the guṇas. Vedanta schools collectively resolve the dualism of Sāṃkhya—where guṇas are real constituents of opposed to puruṣa—by subordinating or integrating them into a non-dual or qualified non-dual framework, with Advaita absorbing them as apparent within māyā to uphold absolute unity. The foundational teachings of the on the guṇas thus receive philosophical refinement across these traditions, emphasizing their ontological subordination to .

Ethical and Soteriological Roles

Influence on Character and Morality

In Hindu philosophical traditions, the three guṇas—sattva, , and tamas—fundamentally shape by influencing mental states, emotional responses, and behavioral tendencies. , the guna of purity and equilibrium, promotes virtues such as truthfulness, , and clarity of , enabling harmonious and ethically grounded thought processes. , the guna of activity and dynamism, fuels ambition, initiative, and engagement with the world, yet it often engenders attachment to outcomes, restlessness, and desire-driven impulses that disrupt inner balance. Tamas, the guna of and obscurity, conversely fosters vices including , , emotional withdrawal, and tendencies toward or harm, leading to negligence and moral stagnation. These psychological mappings underscore how the guṇas determine one's predisposition toward constructive or destructive patterns in daily life. The guṇas serve as the foundational framework for ethical theory in Hinduism, particularly as the basis for dharma, or right action aligned with cosmic order. In this system, moral conduct is prescribed according to an individual's dominant guna, ensuring actions reflect innate qualities while advancing personal and societal harmony. For example, sattvic duties emphasize intellectual pursuits, selflessness, and non-harm for those inclined toward purity, such as brahmins focused on teaching and ritual; rajasic duties, suited to kshatriyas, involve vigorous protection of society and governance, balanced against the risk of egoistic ambition. This guna-based approach to dharma integrates personal temperament with universal ethics, preventing discord by tailoring responsibilities to psychological makeup. Moral development in Hindu thought entails a deliberate progression from tamasic dominance—marked by and —to a sattvic state of and , achieved through disciplined practices like and ethical living. Hindu texts illustrate this evolution by linking societal decline across cosmic ages to increasing tamasic influences like falsehood and , while ideal eras embody sattvic qualities such as and , urging individuals to cultivate higher guṇas via righteous conduct and restraint. This upward trajectory not only refines character but also aligns personal with broader . Socially, the guṇas inform the varnashrama system, where divisions of labor and life stages are structured by guna-karma (qualities and actions), thereby shaping laws, roles, and interpersonal conduct to maintain order. Brahmins, dominated by , uphold advisory and spiritual functions; kshatriyas, influenced by , enforce justice; vaishyas balance both in ; and shudras contribute through service, all moderated to avoid tamasic excess. This framework ensures ethical and community cohesion by assigning duties that leverage natural inclinations. A distinctive aspect of guna ethics is the positioning of (non-violence) as an exemplary quality, extending beyond physical restraint to encompass mental and verbal non-harm, thereby fostering as the cornerstone of moral interaction.

Path to Spiritual Liberation

In , the state of gunatita (beyond the guṇas) represents the pinnacle of spiritual transcendence, where the individual remains amid the fluctuations of , , and tamas, unattached to their influences. This condition is vividly described in the (14.22–25), where Lord Krishna characterizes the gunatita person as one who neither resents nor desires the presence of illumination (), activity (), or delusion (tamas), maintaining steady self-establishment without oscillation. Such equanimity arises from discerning the guṇas as mere agents of , allowing the self to abide in pure consciousness. Achieving gunatita involves deliberate practices to elevate sattva while detaching from rajas and tamas, often through yogic disciplines. and a —emphasizing pure, nourishing foods—cultivate clarity and harmony, reducing the dominance of inertia and passion. Detachment () from sensory attachments and ego-driven actions further diminishes rajasic and tamasic pulls, fostering inner balance. offers a direct path, wherein unwavering devotion to the divine transcends guṇa bondage by surrendering the self to God's grace, as emphasized in the Gita's synthesis of paths (14.26). The progression unfolds in stages: initial recognition of guṇa dominance in one's psyche, followed by enhancement to achieve temporary equilibrium, and culminating in full transcendence where the witnesses the guṇas without identification. Disciplined practices such as study of scriptures and ethical living refine the mind, enabling viveka (discriminative knowledge) that severs the puruṣa's apparent entanglement with . In classical Samkhya-Yoga, this emphasizes intellectual discrimination over devotional paths, achieving through viveka-khyāti that isolates puruṣa from 's modifications. This transcendence yields soteriological liberation (mokṣa or kaivalya), freeing the soul from saṁsāra's cycle of rebirth by realizing puruṣa (or Brahman in Vedantic terms) as eternally unaffected by guṇas. Puranic narratives illustrate devotion leading to liberation, such as the Bhagavata Purana's account of young Dhruva's meditation and bhakti, guided to divine vision beyond material bonds. Similarly, Prahlāda's devotion amid trials in the Viṣṇu Purana leads to perceiving the divine and attaining liberation from suffering.

Cosmological Significance

Composition of Prakriti

In philosophy, Prakriti represents the unmanifest primordial matter that constitutes the foundational substance of the material universe, existing in a state of perfect equilibrium among its three constituent guṇas: , , and tamas. This equilibrium renders Prakriti inert and undifferentiated, serving as the potential source from which all manifest phenomena arise without any creation emerging from absolute nothingness. The guṇas themselves are subtle, eternal, and indestructible principles—neither substances nor qualities in the conventional sense but dynamic forces that are omnipresent and inseparable, permeating every aspect of material existence. When the equilibrium of the guṇas is disturbed—prompted by the proximity of Puruṣa, the conscious observer—Prakriti begins its transformative process, first evolving into mahat, or the cosmic intellect (), which embodies the collective mental faculty capable of discrimination and . From mahat emerges ahaṃkāra, the principle of ego or , which further differentiates into the subjective (sāttvika) and objective (tāmasa) aspects under the influence of the guṇas, facilitating the sense of self and the basis for perception. The tāmasa ahaṃkāra then gives rise to the tanmātras, the five subtle elements—śabda (sound), sparśa (touch), rūpa (form/color), rasa (taste), and gandha (smell)—which represent the primordial sensory potentials inherent in matter. These tanmātras, still suffused with the three guṇas in varying proportions, coalesce and transform into the pañca mahābhūtas, the five gross elements that form the tangible physical world: ākāśa (ether), vāyu (air), tejas (fire), āpas (water), and pṛthivī (earth). The guṇas remain inherently present within these gross elements, determining their specific qualities—for instance, sattva contributing lightness and clarity to ether, while tamas imparts density and stability to earth—thus ensuring that all material forms, from the subtlest to the most concrete, are compositions of the same eternal guṇic matrix. This cosmological framework underscores the indestructibility of the guṇas, which neither originate nor perish but eternally cycle through states of balance and imbalance, manifesting the diversity of the universe from Prakriti's singular, unmanifest unity.

Dynamics of Universal Evolution

In philosophy, the dynamics of universal commence with a disequilibrium among the three guṇas—, , and tamas—within , the primordial material principle composed of these qualities in balanced equilibrium. , the principle of activity and dynamism, predominates and disturbs this balance, propelling the manifestation or sṛṣṭi (creation) of the cosmos from its unmanifest state. This disruption initiates the evolutionary process, where the guṇas interact to produce successive tattvas (principles or evolutes), transforming potential into actual forms. The guṇas drive cyclical processes of creation, preservation, and dissolution as described in texts and elaborated in the Purāṇas. During creation, leads the evolution of tattvas such as mahat (cosmic intellect) and ahaṃkāra (ego-sense), with providing clarity and tamas offering stability to the emerging structures. Preservation occurs under 's dominance, fostering harmony and sustenance amid balanced guṇa interplay to maintain cosmic order. Dissolution, or , arises from tamas's resurgence, causing the evolutes to regress into through reverse transformation, restoring equilibrium until the next cycle. These phases repeat eternally, reflecting the guṇas' inherent tendency toward modification and balance. Puruṣa, the pure , remains a passive to this guṇa play without direct involvement, as its proximity to subtly prompts the initial disequilibrium while observing the unfolding . This non-intervention ensures that cosmic changes serve puruṣa's experiential isolation, culminating in discriminative knowledge () for liberation. A key distinction in this evolution is between , the unchanging primordial state of guṇa equilibrium, and vikṛti, the modified or manifested forms arising from guṇa imbalance, which constitute the transient . Vikṛti encompasses all evolutes and phenomena, perpetually shifting until resorption into during dissolution, underscoring the impermanent nature of cosmic manifestation.

Applications in Traditional Systems

Ayurveda

In Ayurveda, guṇas refer to a set of 20 specific physical qualities or attributes that describe the inherent properties of substances, including foods, herbs, and bodily tissues, influencing their therapeutic effects on health. These guṇas are enumerated primarily in pairs of opposites, such as (heavy) and laghu (light), shīta (cold) and uṣṇa (hot), snigdha (unctuous) and rukṣa (dry), manda (slow/dull) and tīkṣṇa (sharp), sthira (stable) and sara (mobile), mṛdu (soft) and kathina (hard), viṣada (non-slimy/clear) and picchila (slimy), ślakṣṇa (smooth) and khara (rough), sthūla (gross) and sūkṣma (subtle), and saṃdra (solid) and drava (liquid). This framework, detailed in classical texts like the Saṃhitā (Sūtra Sthāna 1.49), allows practitioners to classify dravyas (substances) based on their sensory and functional impacts, distinct from yet analogous to the philosophical triad of , , and tamas that inspires broader conceptual understanding. The Suśruta Saṃhitā further expands on these by adding qualities like additional sensory attributes, emphasizing their role in surgical and pharmacological applications. These 20 guṇas interact closely with the tridoṣa system—vāta, , and kapha—where each doṣa exhibits dominant guṇas that govern physiological functions and imbalances. Vāta, associated with movement and /air elements, aligns with rajas-like qualities such as sara (mobile), rukṣa (dry), and laghu (light), promoting dynamism but potentially leading to instability if excessive. , linked to transformation and / elements, incorporates sattva-rajas influences like tīkṣṇa (sharp), uṣṇa (hot), and drava (), supporting and yet risking . Kapha, rooted in stability and / elements, reflects tamas-like traits including (heavy), snigdha (unctuous), and sthira (stable), fostering cohesion but contributing to stagnation when imbalanced. Balancing these guṇas through diet, , and —such as using laghu foods to counter kapha excess or snigdha oils for vāta dryness—restores doṣa equilibrium and prevents disease. In diagnosis, guṇas are assessed to determine an individual's (innate constitutional type) and vikṛti (current state of imbalance), guiding personalized interventions. , fixed at conception, reflects dominant doṣa-guṇa combinations (e.g., a prakṛti may show tīkṣṇa and uṣṇa traits, predisposing to metabolic disorders), while vikṛti reveals temporary shifts, such as increased rukṣa guṇas indicating vāta aggravation. Practitioners evaluate these through , observation of physical traits, and patient history, as outlined in the Saṃhitā, to predict disease susceptibility and tailor treatments like pañcakarma therapies. Therapeutically, the principle of (viruddha) applies guṇas directly: an excess of one is countered by its opposite to restore harmony, as emphasized in both and Suśruta Saṃhitās—for instance, administering uṣṇa (hot) substances to alleviate shīta ()-induced disorders or rukṣa (dry) agents against snigdha (unctuous) accumulations. This approach underpins formulations in herbo-mineral preparations and dietary regimens.

Sanskrit Grammar

In Paninian Sanskrit grammar, guṇa denotes one of three primary vowel classes—alongside and dīrgha—used for phonetic strengthening and substitution to ensure euphonic harmony in saṃdhi (junctional combinations) and morphological processes. Defined in the (1.1.2: adeṅ guṇaḥ), guṇa encompasses the vowels a, e, and o, serving as replacements for the simpler ik vowels (i, u, ṛ, ḷ) under specific conditions outlined in 1.1.3 (iko guṇavṛddhī). This substitution elevates short vowels to their guṇa forms: i or ī to e, u or ū to o, ṛ or ṝ to ar, and ḷ or ḹ to al, while a remains unchanged. The core rule for guṇa substitution in saṃdhi is articulated in Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.87 (ād guṇaḥ), which prescribes that when a or ā precedes an ik vowel, both are replaced by the single guṇa form of the following vowel to avoid hiatus and promote smooth articulation. For instance, in the compound deva + indra ("god + "), the final a of deva combines with the initial i of indra to yield devendra, where a + i becomes e. Similarly, tava + idam ("your + this") results in tavedam. These rules facilitate clarity in spoken and written by standardizing vowel interactions at word boundaries. Guṇa differs from vṛddhi (1.1.1: vṛddhir ādi ai au), which involves further strengthening to ā, ai, or au for intensified emphasis, and from dīrgha (long vowels like ā, ī, ū), which primarily denotes duration without qualitative change. Beyond saṃdhi, guṇa plays a crucial role in word formation, declension, and verb conjugation, particularly when roots or stems precede certain suffixes. In verb morphology, guṇa is applied in the present tense stems of several conjugational classes (e.g., 7.3.84–86), replacing the root vowel to create derived forms. A representative example is the root bhū ("to be"), which undergoes guṇa substitution of ū to o when followed by the suffix śap, yielding bhava ("becoming" or "existence") as in bhavati ("he becomes"). This process ensures morphological regularity and phonetic balance in derivations, such as nominal forms and infinitives. Guṇa thus underpins the systematic derivation of words, enabling precise expression in Sanskrit's inflectional system. Pāṇini's codification of guṇa as a , circa the BCE, standardized these phonetic and morphological principles in the , a foundational comprising nearly 4,000 aphoristic rules that revolutionized linguistic analysis by prioritizing derivational efficiency and exception handling.

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  30. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/brahma-sutras-thibaut/d/doc63674.html
  31. http://vedamu.org/Veda/KRP-Sir/Visistadvaita.pdf
  32. https://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe48/sbe48389.htm
  33. https://iep.utm.edu/madhva/
  34. https://sreenivasaraos.com/2012/10/03/samkhya-part-six-samkhya-buddhism-vedanta/
  35. https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/14/verse/22-23/
  36. https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/14/verse/24-25/
  37. https://yogainternational.com/article/view/the-gunas-natures-three-fundamental-forces/
  38. https://www.irjmets.com/uploadedfiles/paper//issue_12_december_2024/65716/final/fin_irjmets1735966042.pdf
  39. https://www.humanitiesjournals.com/assets/archives/2025/vol7issue4/7039.pdf
  40. https://files.core.ac.uk/download/pdf/144519997.pdf
  41. https://www.academia.edu/74453420/The_Ultimate_Reality_and_Meaning_of_Samkhya
  42. https://ia801609.us.archive.org/14/items/samkhyakarikasof00weldrich/samkhyakarikasof00weldrich.pdf
  43. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/essay/samkhya-elements-in-the-bhagavata-purana/d/doc1502510.html
  44. https://fiveable.me/introduction-indian-philosophy/unit-9/evolution-universe-sa%E1%B9%83khya/study-guide/GEn2c4OxTVj5aXN9
  45. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/essay/samkhya-elements-in-the-bhagavata-purana/d/doc1502505.html
  46. https://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/index.php/Guna
  47. https://www.easyayurveda.com/2019/06/10/guna-qualities/
  48. https://ijrap.net/admin/php/uploads/3179_pdf.pdf
  49. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3296341/
  50. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4012357/
  51. https://www.learnsanskrit.org/vyakarana/tinanta/guna/
  52. https://ashtadhyayi.com/sutraani/1/1/2
  53. https://sanskritdictionary.com/panini/6-1-87
  54. https://www.learnsanskrit.org/panini/vowel/
  55. https://ashtadhyayi.com/sutraani/7/3/84
  56. https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Panini/
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