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Tomol
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Tomol
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A tomol out at sea pictured in 2015. Each year, the Chumash community crosses from Channel Islands Harbor to Limuw (Santa Cruz Island) in a 17.2-mile journey (27.7 km).

A tomol or tomolo (Chumash) or te'aat or ti'at (Tongva/Kizh) are plank-built boats, historically and currently in the Santa Barbara, California and Los Angeles area. They replaced or supplemented tule reed boats. The boats were between 10–30 feet (3.0–9.1 m) in length and 3–4 feet (0.91–1.22 m) in width. The Chumash refer to the tomol as the "House of the Sea" for their reliability. Double-bladed kayak-like paddles are used to propel the boat through the ocean. Some sources suggest the boats may have origins at Catalina Island and have been in use for thousands of years.[1] Others suggest an origin on the Northern Channel Islands during the first millennium CE.[2][3][4] The tomol has been described as "the single most technologically complex watercraft built in North America" and as being unique to "the New World."[5]

The boats are still constructed by Chumash, Tongva/Kizh, and Acjachemen people today.[5][6]

Construction

[edit]

Tomols were preferably built out of redwood that had drifted down the coast.[7] When supplies of redwood were lacking, local native pine was used. When splitting the wood with whalebone or antler wedges the crafters would seek straight planks without knotholes, then sand them with sharkskin. To bind the wood together, small holes were drilled in the planks so they could be lashed to one another. Finally, the seams were caulked with 'yop', a mixture of hard tar and pine pitch melted and then boiled. A crossplank at midship reinforced the boat and functioned as a seat. Another coat of 'yop' was used to waterproof the boat, followed by a coat of red ochre paint, followed by a final coat of sealant. Shell mosaics were often added as decorations.[1]

This style of boat is unique in the Americas, though researcher Yorem Meroz notes that a simpler plank boat is found in Chile and strakes were sewn onto dugout boat bases in the Pacific Northwest and Caribbean. The boats could take up to 500 days to be constructed by an experienced boatmaker.[8] Tomols are propelled with kayak-like paddles with the user in a crouching position, unlike kayaks where sitting is the norm. They are highly maneuverable.[1]

Significance

[edit]

Eva Pagaling (Santa Ynez Chumash) described the process of paddling in 2018: "During the crossing, a deep memory that’s shared among paddlers is that each pull of the oar is a prayer. And this year, I prayed for my loved ones, as well as everyone else in this world. I prayed for strength and healing for all people, wherever they may be on their path in life. Historically, we are water people and our medicine for the world can be found in the sacred and life-sustaining power of water."[9]

Cindi Alvitre, co-founder of Ti'at Society, described the boat in 2019 as "a vessel that allows humans to connect to the underworld." According to an Indigenous worldview, as Alvitre describes: "You have the underworld, which is watery existence, those deities that live underneath the ocean in their caves, the middle world, that's the existence of human beings, to the upper world, that's ancestral space. The ti'at is like an observation point, it's like you're hovering over the heavens of the underworld and being able to still have that connection to that ancestral space, to the stars, to the Milky Way."[6]

History

[edit]
Artist rendition of a historical Chumash tomol.

Tomols were an integral part of a widespread trading network between tribes who lived at what is now referred to as Point Conception, Santa Monica Bay, and the Channel Islands. There were designated shipping routes and signal fires were utilized on the land were used as aides for navigation. Most trade occurred between what are now two of the largest trading ports, Los Angeles and Long Beach, which was about a day's paddle.[1] The use of plank canoes would have been critical for reaching the most outlying Channel Islands including San Nicolas and San Clemente.[10]

Tomols were so useful as to give rise to a new class in Chumash society: a guild known as the 'Brotherhood of the Canoe' which was "responsible for the construction of each new tomol, its boat-building knowledge handed down through the generation from senior craftsman to apprentice. Only male members of leading families were allowed to own tomol. Grizzly or black bearskin identified the owners. When carefully maintained, the boats could last for decades and were passed down from one generation to the next.[1]

By 650 A.D., it is believed the tomol or te'aat was already of central importance to the Chumash and Tongva/Kizh respectively.[1] In 1542, Spanish explorer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo recorded that he saw so many tomols hauled up at a particular wealthy village—a location eventually to be referred to by later settlers as Malibu—that he named it pueblo de las canoas or "town of canoes." Another explorer recorded the brotherhood doing boat carpentry in another village, and named it Carpinteria.[1]

Some scholars report that sewn plank technology may have been introduced by early Polynesian navigators sometime late in the first millennium, who had constructed sewn plank boats and had been known to have reached South America. Scholars state that "three native Californian boat terms are argued to be Polynesian loans: Chumashan tomol(o), and Gabrielino tarainxa (or taraina) and ti?at."[8] Some modern Chumash and Tongva/Kizh state that “this is something we have always known happened."[5] This was further explained in a short documentary episode by KCET produced in 2019.[6]

Partially intact tomols have been found in ancient Channel Islands middens along with dolphin bones, seal and fish bones, and abalone, clam, and limpet shells. The Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, the Santa Barbara Maritime Museum, and The Chumash Maritime Association of California house reconstructed tomols created by contemporary Chumash.[1]

[edit]
  • Paddlers making the crossing to Santa Cruz Island aboard the reconstructed tomol ‘Elye’wun, in 2006.
    Paddlers making the crossing to Santa Cruz Island aboard the reconstructed tomol ‘Elye’wun, in 2006.
  • Tomol crossing Channel Islands in 2012
    Tomol crossing Channel Islands in 2012

References

[edit]

Resources

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chumash tomols.
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Tomol

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The tomol is a traditional plank-built, ocean-going central to the heritage of the , indigenous to the coastal regions of Central and , including the Islands. Constructed without internal ribs or frames, it represents one of the oldest examples of plank technology in , with origins dating back over 1,000 years. Chumash builders crafted tomols primarily from redwood planks sourced from driftwood logs that washed ashore, splitting them using wedges and tools before shaping with adzes, chert knives, and abrasives. These planks were then drilled and lashed together using —cordage made from dogbane or milkweed fibers—and caulked with tule reeds, with seams sealed waterproof using , a mixture of pine pitch and natural asphaltum. Ranging from 8 to 30 feet in length, tomols typically accommodated 3 to 10 paddlers or up to 2,000 pounds of cargo, featuring a flat bottom, curved sides, and double-ended design for stability in open waters. Historically, tomols served essential roles in Chumash daily life and , enabling ocean fishing, of marine mammals, inter-village travel along the coast, and vital trade expeditions across the between the mainland and islands like Santa Cruz and San Miguel. These voyages, often ceremonial or economic, were paddled exclusively by skilled members of the Brotherhood of the Tomol, a revered whose knowledge was passed down through generations, underscoring the canoe's profound cultural and spiritual significance as a link between communities and the sea. Regular maintenance, including bailing seawater and storing in shaded, moist environments, ensured their durability, though heavy use could limit lifespan to a few years. The tradition waned with European colonization, with the last known fishing tomol in use around 1850 and the Brotherhood disbanding in 1834, but revival efforts began in the . In 1913, Chumash elder Fernando Librado built one for demonstration, now exhibited at the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History; modern reconstructions, such as the 1976 Helek and 1996 ‘Elye’wun, have enabled annual crossings by the Chumash Maritime Association, including the 2023 crossing with the tomol Muptami and a 2025 paddle from Ventura to , fostering cultural preservation and engaging youth in paddling the 21-mile channel routes as of November 2025. Today, tomols symbolize resilience and connection to ancestral waters, with ongoing builds incorporating traditional techniques adapted for contemporary materials where needed.

Overview

Description and Design

The tomol is a seaworthy plank canoe developed by the for navigating the challenging waters of the , serving as a versatile vessel for transportation and resource gathering. This frameless watercraft features a multi-plank construction, with individual planks sewn together using natural fibers to form a flexible, durable hull capable of withstanding swells. Its overall design emphasizes balance between stability, speed, and load-bearing capacity, making it suitable for both crewed voyages and heavy cargo transport. Physically, the tomol measures 12 to 30 feet in length and 3 to 4 feet in width, with a V-shaped hull that enhances stability and hydrodynamic in open-ocean conditions. The bow and stern are symmetrically arched to slice through waves effectively, often augmented by crescent-shaped extensions at the ends to deflect spray and maintain dryness during travel. Without outriggers or internal ribs, the vessel depends on coordinated paddling for propulsion and steering, allowing for agile maneuvers in coastal and channel waters. In terms of capacity, a typical tomol accommodates 3 to 8 paddlers while carrying up to 2 tons of , such as goods or fishing yields, demonstrating its role as a high-volume transporter. This engineering sophistication set the tomol apart as one of the most advanced pre-contact watercraft in , uniquely enabling routine open-ocean crossings that connected Chumash communities across islands and the mainland.

Cultural Significance

The Brotherhood of the Tomol represented an elite within Chumash society, comprising skilled men responsible for the construction, maintenance, and paddling of tomols, which were essential for maritime activities. Membership in this brotherhood conferred significant prestige, as only affluent individuals could own tomols, and the restricted knowledge of building techniques to select apprentices, ensuring exclusivity and control over canoe production. Membership in the brotherhood was tied to the broader 'antap ceremonial society, which emphasized ritual knowledge and ethical conduct to honor ancestral traditions. Symbolically, the tomol served as a vital connector between the mainland and the , embodying Chumash cosmology where sea voyages represented pathways to the spiritual realm and ancestral origins. In Chumash worldview, these crossings evoked ancestral journeys that linked sacred geographies, such as the intervisible ridgelines between islands like Santa Cruz (Limuw) and mainland sites, reinforcing a cosmology of between , , and forces. The tomol thus symbolized cultural continuity and identity, with its use in rituals underscoring the Chumash as a maritime people whose heritage was deeply intertwined with ocean navigation. Economically, the brotherhood's monopoly on tomol operations elevated members' , granting them over access to offshore resources like , , and goods from island communities. This control not only facilitated inter-village exchange networks but also positioned guild members as key figures in Chumash , where proficiency in paddling and signified and communal responsibility. Through these roles, the tomol reinforced the brotherhood's influence, perpetuating a system where maritime expertise underpinned both economic vitality and cultural prestige.

Construction

Materials

The Chumash constructed tomols primarily using planks of redwood (), sourced from logs that washed down rivers and onto the beaches of the region. These planks were selected for their lightweight yet durable qualities, which allowed the vessels to achieve speeds up to 8 knots while supporting heavy loads, demonstrating Chumash resourcefulness in utilizing naturally available, rot-resistant timber without extensive . Although redwood was preferred, wood occasionally supplemented the construction where driftwood was scarce, reflecting adaptive material choices in a coastal environment. For fastening the planks, the Chumash employed strong cordage made from plant fibers, particularly twisted strands of red milkweed (Asclepias fascicularis) or dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), known in Chumash as tok, which provided flexible yet tensile strength to sew the hull together without metal fasteners. Yucca (Yucca whipplei) fibers were also used for reinforcements and general cordage in Chumash crafting traditions. Sealing the seams and cord holes relied on natural asphaltum, or woqo, harvested from coastal seeps near Point Conception, which was heated and applied to waterproof the vessel's joints. Additional sealing was achieved by mixing the asphaltum with pine pitch to form , a viscous compound that enhanced adhesion and prevented leaks as the wood swelled in water. For preparation, Chumash artisans used tools fashioned from natural resources, such as chert or stone drills for boring holes, shell scrapers for shaping, and occasionally whalebone or deer wedges for splitting logs, underscoring their innovative integration of marine and terrestrial materials. These material selections not only ensured the tomol's seaworthiness but also exemplified sustainable harvesting practices tied to the Chumash's deep ecological knowledge.

Building Process

The construction of a tomol canoe is a labor-intensive endeavor traditionally undertaken by skilled members of the Chumash Brotherhood of the Tomol, requiring 7 to 10 artisans working collaboratively over a period of 2 to 6 months. Tasks are divided among the group, with individuals specializing in areas such as plank shaping, , and sealing to ensure precision and structural integrity. This division of labor reflects the canoe's complexity as a sewn-plank vessel, built without metal tools or nails using only stone-age implements. The process begins with splitting driftwood logs—primarily redwood—into planks using whalebone wedges and hammerstones, followed by shaping and trimming with adzes, scrapers, and abrasives. To form the curved hull, planks are bent or "sprung" by steaming them with hot rocks and , allowing the to conform to the vessel's contours without cracking. Holes are then drilled along the plank edges using hand drills tipped with chert, , or shell bits, through which the planks are laced together with strong cords made from milkweed or dogbane fibers, twisted into three-ply ropes and secured with knots. Seams are caulked with additional fiber, and the entire structure is waterproofed by applying multiple layers of —a heated mixture of asphaltum (natural ) and pitch—along joints, holes, and the exterior, often reinforced with fiber wicking for adhesion. Once assembled, the tomol undergoes quality control to verify seaworthiness, including dry-docking on supports to inspect for leaks and structural weaknesses. These steps, derived from ethnographic accounts and modern replications faithful to traditional methods, confirm the canoe's ability to withstand crossings despite requiring periodic bailing during use.

Historical Development

Origins and Evolution

Archaeological evidence indicates that the tomol, the sewn-plank canoe of the , emerged around 500 CE in the region of . Recent modeling supports this dating, attributing the invention to environmental pressures like stormy seas that necessitated more seaworthy vessels than earlier tule reed boats and dugout canoes. Early indicators include asphaltum canoe plugs, lithic tools for , and boat effigies recovered from island and coastal sites such as those on (Limuw) and the mainland near Carpinteria. These artifacts, dated through radiocarbon analysis to between 500 and 1000 CE, mark a transition from earlier like tule reed boats and dugout canoes, which were less seaworthy for open-ocean voyages. Faunal remains of pelagic species, such as and , appearing in middens from this period, further corroborate the tomol's role in enabling offshore exploitation. Debates persist regarding the tomol's origins, with scholars divided between local Chumash innovation and potential external influences. Proponents of indigenous development argue that the canoe's plank , utilizing locally available redwood and asphaltum () for sealing, evolved gradually from existing maritime traditions without foreign input, supported by the absence of non-local materials or techniques in early assemblages. residues on plugs and caulking from sites like Goleta and La Brea provide direct of this adaptation to regional resources. Conversely, a 2005 suggested Polynesian contact around 400–800 CE, based on linguistic similarities between Chumashan terms like "tomol" and Proto-Polynesian words for canoes, alongside parallels in sewn-plank designs and composite fishhooks. This diffusionist view has been largely refuted by subsequent , including refined Polynesian colonization timelines post-800 CE and the lack of genetic or narrative for contact. A 2024 genetic study of Chumash and descendants found no of Polynesian ancestry, further supporting local innovation. No substantial archaeological support exists for direct Asian or Mesoamerican influences on the tomol's core design, though broader Pacific parallels highlight in plank canoe technology. By 1500 CE, technological refinements had transformed the tomol into a more robust vessel, with advanced techniques using milkweed cordage to join larger planks, enhancing stability and capacity for up to 15 passengers. These advancements, evidenced by ethnographic accounts corroborated by archaeological plank fragments, allowed for sustained speeds of 3–4 knots and facilitated expanded maritime networks across the and beyond.

Role in Chumash Society

The tomol served as the economic backbone of Chumash society, particularly through its role in facilitating the of shell beads, which functioned as a standardized and across regional networks. Produced in vast quantities on the from around C.E. 900, millions of Olivella biplicata shell beads were exported via tomols to mainland groups like the and Gabrielino-Tongva, and even farther to Southwestern Pueblos, in exchange for goods such as textiles and ceramics. This maritime trade, reliant on the tomol's capacity for long-distance voyages, enabled elites to control resource distribution and wealth accumulation among villages, intensifying and supporting a market-oriented economy in the region. In terms of , tomol operation involved specialized crews organized under the Brotherhood of the Tomol, a prestigious group of 300–500 members who managed the canoes' use, maintenance, and associated profits, comprising about 3% of the coastal Chumash . Paddlers, trained from youth in maritime skills, formed dedicated units that required collaboration across villages, acting as a mechanism for social leveling by preventing any single chief from monopolizing power. This domain was primarily male, with men handling paddling and navigation, reflecting gendered divisions of labor that reinforced hierarchical structures while linking religious specialists and chiefs through shared maritime expertise. Tomols also played a key role in community events, including ceremonies, rituals, and pilgrimages that strengthened inter-community alliances between mainland and island groups. These voyages transported people for feasts and exchanges, fostering opportunistic political ties through intermarriage among chiefly families and collaborative trade endeavors, thereby reinforcing sociopolitical networks without centralized authority. Such events, often involving elite oversight, highlighted the tomol's integral position in maintaining cultural cohesion and regional interdependence during the pre-contact period.

Traditional Uses

Transportation and Trade

The tomol served as the primary vessel for inter-community transportation among the Chumash, enabling regular crossings of the , a distance of approximately 20 to 30 miles between the mainland and the such as (known as Limuw). These voyages followed established routes, often hugging coastlines for shorter trips or venturing directly across open waters for island access, facilitating the movement of people and goods essential to Chumash social and economic networks. Navigation relied on intimate knowledge of natural cues, including celestial bodies like for directional guidance, ocean currents for propulsion and positioning, and coastal landmarks for orientation during voyages that could span hours or days depending on weather conditions. In , tomols transported a variety of goods across these routes, including asphaltum sourced from coastal seeps for and crafting, shell beads and ornaments made from olivella and for currency and decoration, as a staple foodstuff, and prestige items such as steatite vessels quarried from island sources. With a capacity reaching up to 3,200 pounds—equivalent to supporting around 12 passengers or substantial loads of non-perishable items—in larger examples up to two tons, these canoes supported extensive exchange networks that connected coastal villages, islands, and even interior regions via overland relays. Such often culminated in organized gatherings on the islands, where communities bartered luxury and utilitarian items, reinforcing alliances and cultural ties without reliance on formal markets. Crew operations emphasized coordinated effort, typically involving 4 to 6 members including a designated (tomolelu), primary paddlers, and a bailer to manage water ingress. Paddlers knelt on matting amidships, wielding long double-bladed paddles in staggered formations to optimize thrust and balance during long-haul voyages. Synchronization was achieved through rhythmic chants and songs, which aligned strokes for efficiency and prevented in choppy seas, a practice that underscored the tomol's role in fostering crew discipline and communal harmony.

Fishing and Hunting

The tomol's design enabled Chumash fishers to employ a variety of techniques for harvesting in coastal and open waters, including dip nets, harpoons, and hook-and-line conducted directly from the vessel. Larger fish such as , weighing up to 600 pounds, were pursued and harpooned using detachable foreshafts during seasonal voyages that followed migrations, particularly in winter and spring when peaked. Smaller species from kelp forests, including and , were targeted with shell hooks, lines, sinkers, and seines, allowing access to diverse habitats beyond nearshore areas. Seals and other sea mammals were opportunistically with harpoons from the stable platform of the tomol, supporting local provisioning through these offshore excursions. The tomol's seaworthiness and stability facilitated approaches to larger game, including whales, where crews of up to 10 used spears or lances to target ailing or stranded individuals in the . This adaptability extended to island voyages, where Chumash hunters collected driftwood essential for canoe construction and pursued seabirds alongside other resources. Such hunts integrated the vessel's capacity for multi-day trips, enabling crews to navigate open waters while maintaining balance during active pursuits. Chumash fishing practices emphasized through diversified targeting of mid-trophic level species in forests and reefs, which minimized disruption and promoted long-term stability over . Tomol voyages supported this by enabling exchanges between nearshore and offshore zones, integrating marine harvesting with land-based gathering to foster ecological balance. Archaeological evidence from the reveals consistent practices that avoided , providing models for modern .

Decline and Modern Revival

Colonial Decline

The establishment of Spanish missions in Chumash territory beginning in the late 18th century profoundly disrupted traditional tomol construction and use. The first missions affecting Chumash communities, such as in 1782 and in 1786, imposed forced labor and relocation systems that undermined the Brotherhood of the Tomol, the specialized responsible for building and maintaining these plank canoes. By the 1770s and 1780s, European-introduced diseases like had already begun decimating the population, reducing it from an estimated 15,000–22,000 pre-contact individuals to around 2,788 by 1831. This demographic collapse, combined with mission policies that prioritized agricultural labor over maritime activities, eroded the guild's membership and resources, leading to its formal disbandment in 1834. Cultural suppression further accelerated the tomol's decline as Spanish authorities banned or restricted traditional ocean voyages to prevent escapes and uprisings, such as during the when tomols were used to flee missions. Missionaries encouraged a shift to European-style boats for coastal transport and trade, which were simpler to produce and aligned with colonial economic needs, gradually supplanting the labor-intensive tomol. The breakdown of intergenerational knowledge transmission was exacerbated by the separation of families in mission dormitories and the high mortality rates among skilled builders, resulting in the loss of proprietary techniques passed down within the Brotherhood. Historical records from the document the tomol's fading presence, with accounts from elders like Palatino Saqt'ele, a Brotherhood leader, describing a tragic that sank vessels and killed key members, prompting him to declare the guild's end in a ceremonial speech: "Do not hope that the brotherhood will return again, for it will not. It is over." While some tomols persisted for fishing into the mid-, the last known traditional builds occurred around 1850, after which the craft nearly vanished due to ongoing poverty and cultural erosion following mission secularization in .

Contemporary Reconstruction Efforts

In the late 20th century, Chumash communities initiated efforts to reconstruct tomols using traditional plank-building techniques, incorporating modern adaptations such as safety equipment for ocean voyages. The Brotherhood of the Tomol, a traditional men's society that disbanded in the , was revived in the to oversee these projects and pass down maritime knowledge. In 1976, the Quabajai Chumash Indian Association constructed Helek (Peregrine Falcon), the first functional tomol replica in 142 years, based on ethnographic records and archaeological evidence. This was followed by the Chumash Maritime Association's completion of 'Elye'wun (Swordfish) in 1997, a 26-foot vessel that undertook its inaugural channel crossing from the mainland to (Limuw) in 2001, marking the first such voyage in over a century. The Chumash Maritime Association and the revived Brotherhood of the Tomol have led ongoing reconstruction and sailing initiatives, emphasizing cultural preservation through hands-on participation. Since 2005, these groups have organized nearly annual crossings to Limuw, covering approximately 21 miles across the in about 10 to 13 hours, depending on conditions; these events foster intergenerational exchange, with rotating crews including youth and elders reconnecting with ancestral homelands. By 2022, the 20th modern crossing highlighted the program's endurance, drawing over 100 community members for ceremonies and reinforcing tomol paddling as a living tradition; subsequent crossings continued in 2023 and 2024 using the tomol Muptami ("Deep Memories"). Modern builds adhere to historical designs—sewn redwood planks sealed with natural asphaltum—while adding life jackets and aids to ensure . In October 2024, the designation of the Chumash Heritage National Marine Sanctuary protected approximately 7,400 square miles of ancestral waters, further supporting tomol voyages and maritime cultural practices. Reconstruction faces challenges, including the ethical sourcing of redwood, the preferred material for its lightweight durability and water resistance; clear-heart redwood, comprising only 3-4% of a tree, is now scarce due to historical overharvesting, leading builders to rely on salvaged or sustainably harvested logs from . Training new paddlers requires rigorous physical preparation and cultural immersion, often starting with youth programs to build endurance for open-water . Despite these hurdles, successes include expanded educational outreach: the Santa Barbara Museum of offers tomol-focused exhibits and school programs teaching and significance, while crossings serve as live demonstrations for community workshops, engaging hundreds annually in Chumash maritime heritage.

References

  1. https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/historyculture/tomolcrossing.htm
  2. https://sbmm.org/chumash-tomol-plank-canoe/
  3. https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/daily-life
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  5. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40035811
  6. http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Chumash/Fagan_95.html
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  10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271695439_Credit_Where_Credit_Is_Due_The_History_of_the_Chumash_Oceangoing_Plank_Canoe
  11. https://www.malibucity.org/DocumentCenter/View/397
  12. http://indigenousboats.blogspot.com/2013/02/tomol-construction.html
  13. https://www.visitcalifornia.com/experience/native-american-boatmaking-traditions/
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  16. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10872549/
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  33. https://www.nps.gov/places/000/chumash-midden.htm
  34. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/287.html
  35. http://education.maritime-museum.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Chumash-history-and-tomol.pdf
  36. https://www.nps.gov/places/000/chumash-on-anacapa-island.htm
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  45. https://www.nps.gov/orgs/1207/channel-islands-national-park-hosts-nps-director-during-visit-with-the-chumash-indian-community.htm
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  48. https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life
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