Hubbry Logo
Samothrace temple complexSamothrace temple complexMain
Open search
Samothrace temple complex
Community hub
Samothrace temple complex
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Samothrace temple complex
Samothrace temple complex
Samothrace temple complex
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Samothrace among the main Greek temples

The Samothrace Temple Complex, known as the Sanctuary of the Great Gods (Modern Greek: Ιερό των Μεγάλων Θεών Ieró ton Megálon Theón), is one of the principal Pan-Hellenic religious sanctuaries, located on the island of Samothrace within the larger Thrace. Built immediately to the west of the ramparts of the city of Samothrace, it was nonetheless independent, as attested to by the dispatch of city ambassadors during festivals.

It was celebrated throughout Ancient Greece for its Mystery religion. Numerous famous people were initiates, including the historian Herodotus, one of very few authors to have left behind a few clues to the nature of the mysteries, the Spartan leader Lysander, and numerous Athenians. The temple complex is mentioned by Plato and Aristophanes.

During the Hellenistic period, after the investiture of Phillip II, it formed a Macedonian national sanctuary where the successors to Alexander the Great vied to outdo each other's munificence. It remained an important religious site throughout the Roman period. Hadrian visited, and Varro described the mysteries. The cult fades from history towards the end of Late Antiquity, when the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.

Cult of the Great Gods

[edit]

The identity and nature of the deities venerated at the sanctuary remains largely enigmatic, in large part because it was taboo to pronounce their names. Literary sources from antiquity refer to them under the collective name of "Cabeiri" (Greek: Κάβειροι Kábiroi), while they carry the simpler epithet of Gods or Great Gods, which was a title or state of being rather than the actual name, (Μεγάλοι Θεοί Megáloi Theoí) on inscriptions found on the site.

The pantheon of Samothrace

[edit]
Site plan of the sanctuary, showing chronology of major construction

The Pantheon of the Great Gods consists of numerous chthonic deities, primarily predating the arrival of Greek colonists on the island in the 7th century BC, and congregating around one central figure – the Great Mother.

  • The Great Mother, a goddess often depicted on Samothracian coinage as a seated woman, with a lion at her side. Her original secret name was Axiéros. She is associated with the Anatolian Great Mother, the Phrygian Mount, and the Trojan Mother Goddess of Mount Ida. The Greeks associated her equally with the fertility goddess Demeter. The Great Mother is the all-powerful mistress of the wild world of the mountains, venerated on sacred rocks where sacrifices and offerings were made to her. In the sanctuary of Samothrace, these altars correspond to porphyry outcroppings of various colours (red, green, blue, or grey). For her faithful, her power also manifested itself in veins of magnetic iron, from which they fashioned rings that initiates wore as signs of recognition. A number of these rings were recovered from the tombs in the neighbouring necropolis.
  • Hecate, under the name of Zerynthia, and Aphrodite-Zerynthia, two important nature goddesses, are equally venerated at Samothrace, their cult having been distanced from that of the Great Mother and more closely identified with deities more familiar to the Greeks.
  • Kadmilos (Καδμίλος), the spouse of Axiéros, is a fertility god identified by the Greeks as Hermes; a phallic deity whose sacred symbols were a ram's head and a baton (kerykeion), which was obviously a phallic symbol and can be found on some currency.
  • Two other masculine deities accompany Kadmilos. These may correspond to the two legendary heroes who founded the Samothracean mysteries: the brothers Dardanos (Δάρδανος) and Iasion (Ἰασίων), also called Eetion (Ηετίων). They are associated by the Greeks with the Dioscuri, divine twins popular as protectors of mariners in distress.
  • A pair of underworld deities, Axiokersos and Axiokersa, are identified to Hades and Persephone, but do not appear to be part of the original group of pre-Hellenic deities. The legend (familiar to the Greeks) of the rape of the goddess of fertility by the god of the underworld also plays a part in the sacred dramas celebrated at Samothrace; although less so than at Eleusis.
  • During a later period this same myth was associated with that of the marriage of Cadmos and Harmony, possibly due to a similarity of names to Kadmilos and Electra.

The rituals

[edit]
General view of the remains of Hieron, from the southwest (site plan, number 13)
A picturesque view of the Hieron

The whole of the sanctuary was open to all who wished to worship the Great Gods, although access to buildings consecrated to the mysteries was understood to be reserved for initiates. These rituals and ceremonies were presided over by the priestess in service to the people. The head priestess, and often a prophetess, was titled a Sybil, or Cybele.

The most common rituals were indistinguishable from practice at other Greek sanctuaries. Prayer and supplications accompanied by blood sacrifices of domestic animals (sheep and pigs) burnt in sacred hearths (εσχάραι eschárai), as well as libations made to the chthonic deities in circular or rectangular ritual pits (βόθρος bóthros). A large number of rock altars were used, the largest of which was surrounded by a monumental enclosure at the end of the 4th century BC (site plan, number 11).

The major annual festival, which drew envoys to the island from throughout the Greek world, probably took place in mid-July. It consisted of the presentation of a sacred play, which entailed a ritual wedding (ιερός γάμος hierós gámos); this may have taken place in the building with the Dancer's Wall which was built in the 4th century BC. During this era the belief arose that the search for the missing maiden, followed by her marriage to the god of the underworld, represented the marriage of Cadmos and Harmonia. The frieze (see photo below) on which the Temenos is indicated may be an allusion to this marriage. Around 200 BC, a Dionysian competition was added to the festival, facilitated by the construction of a theatre (site plan, number 10) opposite the great altar (site plan, number 11). According to local myth, it is in this era that the city of Samothrace honoured a poet of Iasos in Caria for having composed the tragedy Dardanos and having effected other acts of good will around the island, the city, and the sanctuary.

Numerous votive offerings were made at the sanctuary, which were placed in a building made for the purpose next to the great altar (site plan, number 12). Offerings could be statues of bronze, marble or clay, weapons, vases, etc. However, due to Samothrace's location on busy maritime routes the cult was particularly popular and numerous often very modest offerings found their way there: excavations have turned up seashells and fish hooks offered by mariners or fishermen who were likely thanking the divinities for having protected them from the dangers of the sea.

The initiation

[edit]

A unique feature of the Samothracean mystery cult was its openness: as compared to the Eleusinian Mysteries, the initiation had no prerequisites for age, gender, status or nationality. Everyone, men and women, adults and children, Greeks and non-Greeks, the free, the indentured, or the enslaved could participate. Nor was the initiation confined to a specific date and the initiate could on the same day attain two successive degrees of the mystery. The only condition, in fact, was to be present in the sanctuary.

The first stage of the initiation was the myesis (μύησις). A sacred account and special symbols were revealed to the mystes (μύστης); that is to say the initiate. In this fashion, Herodotus was given a revelation concerning the significance of phallic images of Hermes-Kadmilos. According to Varro, the symbols revealed on this occasion symbolized heaven and earth. In return for this revelation, which was kept secret, the initiate was given the assurance of certain privileges: Hope for a better life, and more particularly protection at sea, and possibly, as at Eleusis, the promise of a happy afterlife. During the ceremony the initiate received a crimson sash knotted around the waist that was supposed to be a protective talisman. An iron ring exposed to the divine power of magnetic stones was probably another symbol of protection conferred during the initiation.

Frieze with bulls from the Arsinoé rotunda (Samothrace Museum) (site plan, number 15)

The preparation for the initiation took place in a small room south of the Anaktoron (site plan, number 16; literally the House of the Lords), a type of sacristy where the initiate was dressed in white and was given a lamp. The myesis then took place in the Anaktoron, a large hall capable of accommodating numerous already initiated faithful, who would attend the ceremony seated on benches along the walls. The initiate carried out a ritual washing in a basin situated in the southeast corner and then made a libation to the gods in a circular pit. At the end of the ceremony, the initiate took his place seated on a round wooden platform facing the principal door while ritual dances took place around him. He was then taken to the north chamber, the sanctuary where he received the revelation proper. Access to this sanctuary was forbidden to non-initiates. The initiate was given a document attesting to his initiation in the mysteries and could, at least during the later period, pay to have his name engraved on a commemorative plaque.

The second degree of the initiation was called the epoptia (εποπτεία, literally, the contemplation). Unlike the one year interval between degrees which was demanded at Eleusis, the second degree at Samothrace could be obtained immediately after the myesis. In spite of this, it was only realized by a small number of initiates, which leads us to believe that it involved some difficult conditions, though it is unlikely that these conditions were financial or social. Lehman assessed that it concerned moral issues, as the candidate was auditioned and required to confess his sins. This audition took place overnight in front of the Hieron (site plan, number 13; literally the holy place). A foundation was recovered here which could have supported a giant torch; generally speaking, the discovery of numerous lamps and torch supports throughout this site confirms the nocturnal nature of the initiation rites. After the interrogation and the eventual absolution awarded by the priest or official the candidate was brought into the Hieron, which also functioned as an epoption (place of contemplation) where ritual cleansing took place and sacrifice was made into a sacred hearth located in the center of the "holy of holies". The initiate then went to an apse in the rear of the building, which was probably intended to resemble a grotto. The hierophant (ιεροφάντης hierophántes), otherwise known as the initiator, took his place on a platform (βήμα béma), in the apse where he recited the liturgy and displayed the symbols of the mysteries.

During the Roman era, towards 200 AD, the entrance to the Hieron was modified to permit the entrance of live sacrificial offerings. A parapet was constructed in the interior to protect the spectators and a crypt was fitted into the apse. These modifications permitted the celebration of the Kriobolia and the Taurobolia of the Anatolian Magna Mater, which were introduced to the epopteia at this time. The new rites saw the initiate, or possibly only the priest by proxy, descend into a pit in the apse. The blood of the sacrificial animals then flowed over him or her in the fashion of a baptismal rite.

Description of the sanctuary

[edit]
Foundation of the Arsinoé Rotunda and fragment of the dedication (site plan number 15)

The Samothrace site may appear to be somewhat confusing at first glance; this is due to a combination of the unusual topography and the two century long period over which the site was developed. The sanctuary occupies three narrow terraces on the west slopes of mount Hagios Georgios, separated by two steep-banked torrents. The entrance is in the east through the Ptolemy II propylaeum, also known as the Ptolemaion (site plan number 20), which used to span the eastern brook and function as a bridge, until destroyed by an earthquake. Remains of the former bridge can still be seen in the stream bed below. Immediately to the west, on the first terrace, there is a somewhat circular paved depression, containing an altar in the centre, which was undoubtedly a sacrificial area; although the precise function of this place has not further been determined.

Arlington Reservoir, Massachusetts, 1930s, a 2,000,000 gallon water tower based on the Arsinoeum

A winding path descends towards the main terrace, between two brooks, where the main monuments to the cult can be found. A large tholos, the Arsinoëion, or Arsinoë Rotunda (site plan number 15), the largest covered round space in the ancient Greek world (20 m in diameter), may have served to welcome the theoroi, sacred ambassadors delegated by cities and associations to attend the great festivals at the sanctuary. The decoration of rosettes and garlanded bull's heads leads some to believe that sacrifices may have also taken place here. The rotunda was built on an older building of which only the foundation has remained. The Arlington Massachusetts Reservoir, a 2,000,000 gallon water tank, is based on one of the reconstructions of the rotunda.

Right at the opening of the path leading to the sanctuary, one finds the largest building, the Building of the Dancer's Frieze (site plan number 14), sometimes called the Temenos, as it corresponds to a monumental enclosure marking a much older sacrificial area. There is a great deal of variance in reconstructed plans for this portion of the site (compare for example the different editions of Lehman's archeological guide — the plan used in this article reflects the 4th edition). It is in essence a simple court preceded by an ionic propylaeum decorated with the well-known dancer's frieze (photo below). The celebrated architect Scopas may have been the designer.

The most important building of the cult, the epopteion, is located to the south of the Temenos. This building bears the inscription of Hieron (site plan number 13). It is not known who dedicated this building, but given the magnificence was likely a royal. It is some type of temple, but there is no peripteros (surround of columns) and only a single prostyle (partly restored – see photo above). The architectural ornamentation of the facade is noteworthy for its elegance. The interior boasts the largest unsupported span in the ancient Greek world – 11 metres. The south end of this building is an apse (fr: abside inscrite), which constitutes the most sacred portion. This apse may represent, according to R. Ginouvès, a grotto for conducting chthonic rituals. The main altar, and the building for displaying votive offerings, are located to the west of the Hieron (site plan numbers 11 & 12).

Capital of the front of the west facade of the Ptolemy II Propylaeum: Griffons devouring a doe (site plan number 20)

The Anaktoron, the building for greeting the myesis is located north of the Arsinoë Rotunda, though the version currently visible dates to the imperial era.

The third and final terrace, West of the spiritual centre of the sanctuary, is primarily occupied by votive buildings such as the Miletean Building, so named as it was dedicated by a citizen of Miletus (site plan number 5), and the Neorion, or naval monument (site plan number 6). It is also the location of a banquet hall (site plan number 7). Three other small Hellenistic treasures are not well known (site plan, numbers 1 to 3). Overlooking the central terrace, the space is above all dominated by a very large portico (104 m long; site plan number 8) which acts as a monumental backdrop to the sanctuary, above the theatre.

It is in this area of the site that the most recent traces of occupation can be found: a square Byzantine fort in effect built of treasure; as it re-used building material from the original site.

Diodorus Siculus (III.55) relates a legend of the temple being founded by Myrina, before she was defeated by Mopsus and Sipylus, and slain:

After that, while subduing some of the rest of the islands, she was caught in a storm, and after she had offered up prayers for her safety to the Mother of the Gods, she was carried to one of the uninhabited islands; this island, in obedience to a vision which she beheld in her dreams, she made sacred to this goddess, and set up altars there and offered magnificent sacrifices. She also gave it the name of Samothrace, which means, when translated into Greek, 'Sacred Island', although some historians say that it was formerly called Samos and was then given the name of Samothrace by Thracians who at one time dwelt on it. However, after the Amazons had returned to the continent, the myth relates, the Mother of the Gods, well pleased with the island, settled in it certain other people, and also her own sons, who are known by the name of Corybantes; who their father was, is handed down in their rites as a matter not to be divulged; and she established the mysteries which are now celebrated on the island and ordained by law that the sacred area should enjoy the right of sanctuary.

A Macedonian national sanctuary

[edit]

And we are told that Philip, after being initiated into the mysteries of Samothrace at the same time with Olympias, he himself being still a youth and she an orphan child, fell in love with her and betrothed himself to her at once with the consent of her brother, Arymbas.
(Plutarch, Life of Alexander,[1] II, 2)

According to Plutarch, this is how Macedonian king Philip II met his future spouse Olympias, the Epirote princess of the Aeacid dynasty, during their initiation to the mysteries of Samothrace. This historical anecdote defines the Argead dynasty's allegiance to the sanctuary, followed by the two dynasties of the Diadochi: the Ptolemaic dynasty and the Antigonid dynasty, who continually attempted to outdo one another in the 3rd century BC, during their alternating periods of domination over the island and more generally the Northern Aegean.

The first sovereign of whom epigraphic traces remain was the son of Philip II and half-brother of Alexander, Philip III of Macedon, who would be the principal benefactor of the Sanctuary during the 4th century BC: he probably commissioned the Temenos by 340 BC, the Main Altar in the next decade, and the Hieron by 325 BC, as well as the Doric monument and the border of the eastern circular area; these were dedicated in his name as well as that of his nephew Alexander IV of Macedon, who jointly ruled from 323–317 BC.

Dancer's Frieze from the Temenos (site plan number 14)

The second surge of major construction commence started in the 280s with the Arsinoe II Rotunda, which may date from the period (288–281 BC) when this daughter of Ptolemy I was married to the Diadochus Lysimachus, then king of Macedon. Widowed after his death in battle in 281 BC, she married her half-brother, Ptolemy Keraunos and later her brother Ptolemy II in 274 BC. Of the monumental dedication which surmounted the door, only a single block remains, and it is thus not possible to determine the complete inscription. Ptolemy II himself had the Propylaeum built across the entrance to the sanctuary: the powerful Ptolemaic fleet which allowed him to dominate the bulk of the Aegean up to the Thracian coast, and the construction at Samothrace bear witness to his influence.

The re-establishment of the Antigonid dynasty on the Macedonian throne with Antigonus II Gonatas, soon led to a clash for maritime supremacy on the Aegean; Antigonus Gonatas celebrated his victory at the naval battle of Kos by dedicating one of his victorious ships to the shrine by 255–245 BC, displayed in a building constructed on an ad hoc basis on the west terrace: the Neorion (site plan number 6). It may have been inspired by another Neorion, at Delos, probably built at the end of the 4th century BC, which he re-used and dedicated to another of his ships at the same time.

The naval war between the Ptolemies and the Antigonids continued intermittently through the second half of the 3rd century BC, until Philip V of Macedon, the last Antigonid king to attempt to establish a Macedonian thalassocracy, was finally beaten by an alliance between Rhodes and Pergamon. A monumental column was dedicated to him in front to the large stoa of the upper terrace by the Macedonians by 200 BC. It was probably during one of these episodes that the monumental fountain containing a ship's prow of limestone and the famous Winged Victory of Samothrace statue were built. This could actually be a dedication from Rhodes rather than Macedon, as analysis of the limestone used for the prow and the type of vessel indicated that it came from Rhodes.

The sanctuary became the final refuge for the last king of Macedon, Perseus of Macedon, who went to the island after his defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and was there arrested by the Romans.

Site exploration

[edit]
Winged Victory of Samothrace, displayed in the Louvre (site plan number 9)

Fascination with mystery religions renewed interest in the site during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the 1863 discovery of the Winged Victory of Samothrace statue – now in the Louvre – by French consul Charles Champoiseau (posted to Adrianople), the French team of Deville and Coquart carried out the first archeological digs of the site in 1866. The Austrian A. Conze was next to excavate the site in 1873 and 1876: he cleared the Ptolémaion and the stoa and carried out some superficial digs at the Hiéron, the Arsinoéion as well as the Temenos. This work was published in two volumes of unusually high quality for the time. Under an agreement with the Turkish government, the Austrians shared their discoveries: numerous architectural fragments went to the Vienna Kunsthistorisch Museum, while others were sent to Gallipoli and then on to the Istanbul Archeological Museum — part of this material unfortunately disappeared in transit. Champoiseau returned in 1891 to look for the blocks which formed the ship's prow upon which the Winged Victory of Samothrace statue had been installed in Paris, and at this time discovered the theatre. The École française d'Athènes and the Charles University in Prague (Salač and Fernand Chapouthuer) also carried out joint work between 1923 and 1927, before the Institute of Fine Arts (at New York University) started their first excavations in 1938, which uncovered the Anaktoron. Interrupted by the war, during which time the site suffered greatly as a result of Bulgarian occupation, they returned in 1948 and continue to the present. In 1956 a partial reconstruction (anastylosis) of the Hiéron facade was carried out.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Samothrace temple complex

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Sanctuary of the Great Gods is an ancient Greek religious complex situated on the island of in the northern , serving as the primary site for a prominent mystery cult dedicated to the Megaloi Theoi (Great Gods) from the BCE until the CE. This sanctuary, nestled in a dramatic valley flanked by ridges and partially concealed from the island's shore, attracted pilgrims from across the Greek world for secret initiation rites promising divine protection, particularly for sailors, and was especially favored by Hellenistic royalty. The site's religious significance stemmed from its mystery cult, which emphasized esoteric rituals and initiations that remained confidential, as noted in ancient accounts like those of the 1st-century BCE historian , who highlighted its fame and appeal to notable figures such as . Construction of the sanctuary's monumental marble buildings peaked in the late 4th to 2nd centuries BCE, reflecting Hellenistic architectural innovation and royal patronage, which influenced subsequent Greek and Roman sacred designs. Key structures include the grand Propylon of Ptolemy II, a barrel-vaulted entrance gateway built around 280 BCE as a gift from the Ptolemaic dynasty; the Anaktoron, a large hall for initiation ceremonies; a Hellenistic theater seating up to 3,000 spectators; and an extensive stoa with over 1,400 limestone blocks and ornate terracotta roofing. The complex is also famed for the Nike Monument, which originally housed the Hellenistic statue Winged Victory of Samothrace (discovered in 1863 and now in the Louvre), commemorating a naval victory likely by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 305 BCE. Excavations began in earnest in 1938 under the Institute of Fine Arts at , led by figures such as Karl Lehmann and later James R. McCredie, with ongoing work by teams from since 2008 under Bonna Wescoat, employing advanced techniques like and to reconstruct the site's topography and structures. These efforts have revealed the sanctuary's integration with its rugged landscape, including a central and torrent channeled for purposes, underscoring its role as a transformative in antiquity.

Historical Background

Origins and Early Development

The island of has been inhabited since the period, with evidence of settlements dating to the late 6th millennium BCE, particularly on the coastal plains in the southwest at sites like Mikro Vouni, where fragments and vases indicate early human activity. During the Early , Mikro Vouni developed into a proto-urban settlement with connections to Minoan trade networks, featuring tools and ceramics that reflect a thriving local culture potentially tied to agrarian and fertility-oriented practices common in Aegean . These prehistoric occupations, initially by Thracian-speaking peoples, laid the groundwork for later religious developments at the site near the northern coast. In the Archaic period (7th–6th centuries BCE), the sanctuary began to emerge as a local center, influenced by interactions with Greek traders from the 7th century BCE and increased Ionian migration from in the BCE, blending Thracian indigenous traditions with elements. The mystery of the Great Gods, associated with the deities, took shape during this time, marked by the first dedications and the use of natural rock outcroppings as simple altars for offerings, as seen in early sacrificial deposits within the emerging sacred precinct. The earliest known inscription from the site, a documentary text tentatively dated to the late BCE around 540 BCE, records ritual or administrative details, signaling the cult's formalization. By the Classical period (5th century BCE), the expanded in response to its growing Pan-Hellenic appeal, attracting initiates seeking divine favor, particularly for maritime protection—a theme highlighted by , who recounts how the Samothracians attributed their survival at sea to their gods and notes the island's Thracian-influenced control over nearby mainland territories. Architectural development accelerated, with the construction of initial walls enclosing the sacred area by the mid-5th century BCE, transforming the rustic site into a more defined religious complex amid broader Greek cultural integration. This phase solidified the sanctuary's reputation as a beacon for seafaring devotees across the Aegean.

Peak and Decline

The Sanctuary of the Great Gods on Samothrace attained its peak prominence during the Hellenistic era, particularly from the 4th to 2nd centuries BCE, marked by a significant increase in pilgrims and ambitious construction initiatives funded by royal patrons. Under Macedonian influence following II's initiation around 340 BCE, the site transformed into a major Panhellenic center, with structures like the Propylon of Ptolemy II (built ca. 280 BCE) and the Hall of Choral Dancers (ca. 340 BCE) exemplifying the era's architectural innovation and devotion to the mystery cult. The cult's promise of divine protection at sea drew sailors and elites amid regional conflicts, including the of the Hellenistic kingdoms, enhancing the sanctuary's role as a spiritual bulwark. Following Roman conquest of Macedonia in 168 BCE, the sanctuary was integrated into the empire's religious landscape, thriving from the 2nd century BCE through the 3rd century CE as Roman officials and emperors embraced its initiatory rites. High-ranking figures, including consuls and the emperor Hadrian during his visit in 123 CE, underwent initiation, aligning the cult with imperial piety and perpetuating its appeal across the Mediterranean. Dedications and repairs, such as those to the Nike monument in the 2nd century CE, underscored continued patronage, with initiate lists documenting diverse participants until at least the late 2nd century CE. The 's decline commenced in amid the empire's , accelerated by Emperor Theodosius I's edicts prohibiting pagan practices, which led to temple closures across the Roman world around 391 CE. Activity persisted sporadically into the CE, but an around 200 CE had already damaged key structures like the Eastern Hill monuments, hindering full recovery. By the CE, the site's religious functions waned, and in the Byzantine period, from the were repurposed for fortifications, including a 10th-century fort near the , signaling its repurposing as a defensive outpost rather than a center.

The Cult of the Great Gods

Pantheon and Deities

The pantheon of the Samothrace sanctuary, known collectively as the Theoi Megaloi or Great Gods, comprised a syncretic group of deities with roots in pre-Greek traditions, adapted into the Greek religious framework during the . The core figures included Axiéros, the goddess embodying and the earth, who was equated by Greek interpreters with and the Phrygian ; her attributes appeared on sanctuary coins as a figure holding a phiale and scepter. Her consort, Kadmilos, functioned as a protective fertility deity with phallic symbolism, syncretized with Hermes and often represented by a or ram's head in votive offerings and inscriptions. The divine offspring, Axiokersos and Axiokersa—male and female siblings linked to the underworld—were associated with and , reflecting chthonic themes of death and rebirth evident in sanctuary bothroi and escharai for libations. Recent studies, such as 2023 Princeton analyses, emphasize Thracian metallurgical influences on the Kabeiroi parallels. Associated with this triad were ancestral heroes Dardanos and Iasion, regarded as cult founders and eponymous figures in mythic traditions; Iasion, brother of , connected the pantheon to broader Aegean lore, while Dardanos tied it to Trojan origins. The deities showed influences from Thracian cults, with parallels to the twin gods of and , emphasizing metallurgy and seafaring protection; may have served as a torch-bearing in rituals, aligning with her role in other mystery contexts as a guide through liminal spaces. These figures lacked public anthropomorphic images, instead represented by abstract symbols such as phalli for Kadmilos's generative power and iron rings distributed to initiates as tokens of salvation and maritime safety—evidenced by votive deposits like a 3rd-century BCE in the Neorion and ring hoards from the site. Symbolic roles of the pantheon centered on at , agricultural , and eschatological , promises that drew initiates seeking divine favor amid perils; these attributes are corroborated by inscriptions honoring seafaring dedicants and votives invoking safe voyages. Scholarly interpretations debate the deities' origins, with evidence from 6th–4th-century BCE Thracian ceramic inscriptions suggesting autochthonous pre-Greek elements—such as the "Axio-" prefix linking Axiéros to the Thracian Axios—versus Hellenistic Greek overlays that integrated them into Olympian theology. Seminal analyses, including Susan Guettel Cole's examination of epigraphic and mythic sources, highlight the cult's resistance to full , preserving enigmatic identities that enhanced its mystery appeal. In the initiation rites, the Great Gods were invoked as guarantors of postmortem benefits, underscoring their theological emphasis on transcendence.

Rituals and Festivals

The rituals and festivals at the Sanctuary of the Great Gods on encompassed both public celebrations and periodic cultic practices, drawing participants from across the Greek world during the sailing season from to . The major annual festival, likely peaking in mid-summer, featured grand processions along the , often conducted at night, accompanied by sacrifices of domestic animals such as sheep and pigs on dedicated altars and hearths, as well as libations poured into ritual channels known as bothroi. These events culminated in a sacred dramatic performance, possibly enacting the of Kadmos and Harmonia's , performed in the sanctuary's theater to invoke the protective powers of the Great Gods. Daily and periodic rites emphasized communal devotion through animal sacrifices at outdoor altars, where burnt offerings created ash deposits indicative of chthonic worship, and nocturnal torch-lit ceremonies illuminated by numerous oil lamps and marble fixtures to facilitate secretive yet inclusive gatherings. Purification played a key role, with terracotta perirrhanteria—basins for ritual washing—installed from the mid-5th century BCE onward to prepare participants before sacrifices and other acts of piety, blending local Thracian traditions with Greek practices. Post-ritual distributions included iron rings, often magnetized and sourced locally, and purple sashes tied as talismans symbolizing divine favor and protection at sea, evidenced by archaeological finds and ancient accounts. These observances were remarkably inclusive, welcoming men, women, free individuals, and slaves of Greek and non-Greek origin, provided they bore no bloodguilt, with no requirement for oaths but a focus on shared feasting in dining halls equipped with stone couches and from flutes, cymbals, and chants to foster communal harmony.

Initiation Rites

The rites of the Samothracian mysteries formed a two-tiered unique to the of the Great Gods, consisting of the myesis, or lesser mysteries, and the epoptia, or greater mysteries. The myesis served as the initial stage, involving basic purification rituals, sacrifices, and introductory revelations to prepare participants for deeper engagement with the divine. This was followed by the epoptia, which offered profound visions and sacred disclosures, typically conducted within the sanctuary's designated spaces. These stages could occur on the same night, allowing for rapid progression, though the epoptia required prior completion of the myesis. The rites were performed exclusively at night, aligning with the secretive nature of mystery cults and enhancing the sensory experience through torchlight and darkness. Participants donned white robes symbolizing purity and entered the sanctuary via a propylon, undergoing ecstatic dances accompanied by cymbals and tambourines, along with a ritual search for the goddess Harmonia. Central to the ceremonies were revelations of symbolic objects, such as a purple fillet as a protective talisman and a magnetized iron ring denoting divine favor. These elements promised initiates salvation in the afterlife and safe passage at sea, reflecting the cult's appeal to mariners. The benefits of were lifelong, granting divine against perils at and a more favorable fate in the , fostering greater and among participants. Notable initiates included and his wife , who underwent the rites together in their youth, as well as Hellenistic figures such as the Spartan admiral , and later Roman consuls and generals, underscoring the cult's prestige across Hellenistic and Roman elites. These protections were believed to extend indefinitely, distinguishing Samothracian initiation from one-time events in other mysteries. Archaeological and epigraphic evidence supports the rites' structure and inclusivity, with over 138 inscriptions from the Hellenistic and Roman periods listing mystai (myesis initiates) and epoptai (epoptia participants) from diverse regions, including , Macedonians, and Romans, barring only the uninitiated from sacred areas. Votive offerings like and fillets corroborate the symbolic elements, while the sanctuary's layout facilitated nighttime processions. The cult's openness to all genders, free and slave alike, is inferred from these records and the absence of restrictive criteria, promoting broad participation during festivals.

Sanctuary Layout and Architecture

Site Topography and Terraces

The Sanctuary of the Great Gods on is situated on the west slopes of Mount Hagios Georgios, a prominent peak on the rugged, forested island in the northern , at an elevation of approximately 50 meters above . This location integrates natural features such as cliffs, springs, and sacred groves into the sacred landscape, enhancing the site's mystical atmosphere while overlooking the sea to the north, where a steep cliff drop emphasizes its dramatic . A seasonal torrent, up to 13 feet deep and wide, flows south to north through the central ravine, dividing the area and contributing to flood-prone conditions in the lower zones during heavy rains. The sanctuary's layout spans roughly 1 kilometer across three principal terraces— the Eastern Hill, Central Terrace (or ), and Western Hill—carved into the hillside and connected by winding paths that exploit the terrain for processional movement. Pilgrims typically approached from the ancient harbor near the ruins of Palaeopolis on the southeast coast, ascending via coastal paths during the April-to-October sailing season, before entering the Eastern Hill and descending the into the central area. These routes cross the torrent at least twice, creating a deliberate, disorienting ascent with restricted views that culminate in sudden revelations of structures, while the overall orientation toward the underscores maritime symbolism tied to the cult's protective role for sailors. Modern visitors access the site via improved paths from the nearby road, allowing navigation of the terraces despite the challenging terrain. Hellenistic expansions further adapted the , with retaining walls and terraces stabilizing the slopes to accommodate larger crowds and monumental additions.

Key Buildings and Structures

The Sanctuary of the Great Gods on features several monumental structures constructed primarily between the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BCE, utilizing local and imported Thasian to create a blend of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian elements influenced by both Greek mainland traditions and eastern Hellenistic innovations. These buildings served , initiatory, and communal functions within the mystery , with many funded by royal patrons from Macedonia and Ptolemaic . Key examples include halls, grand entrances, and supporting facilities, all adapted to the site's terraced . The Hieron, located at the southern end of the central valley adjacent to the , is a prominent elongated hall measuring approximately 40 meters long by 13 meters wide, oriented north-south with a rectilinear exterior concealing an eastern . Constructed around 325 BCE with foundations and Thasian superstructure, it features a Doric double facade, wooden roof trusses spanning the wide interior, and elaborate decorations including pedimental sculptures, akroteria, and lion-head waterspouts. Its purpose centered on the epoptia, the second stage of in the Samothracian mysteries, accommodating participants on interior benches for viewing and libations, with lateral doors and a possible area enhancing the secretive experience; five columns were re-erected in 1956 based on archaeological evidence. The Anaktoron, situated at the northern end of the central sanctuary, evolved through multiple phases, culminating in a rectangular structure roughly 27 meters long by 11.6 meters wide built in the early 1st century CE after an earthquake destroyed its Hellenistic predecessor. Earlier versions from the 4th and early 3rd centuries BCE used local andesite fieldstone and tufa, while the final phase employed polygonal limestone blocks, a timber roof, and white stucco interiors. Designed for the initial myesis initiation rite, it included three western doorways, internal benches, a sacrificial pit in earlier iterations, and a marble stele prohibiting uninitiated entry, creating a restricted inner sanctuary for the rite's dramatic revelations. The Propylon of Ptolemy II, a grand gateway on the eastern hill, measures 11.5 by 17.2 meters at its and was erected between 285 and 281 BCE as a royal dedication by the Ptolemaic king. Built with substructures and Thasian , it incorporates an Ionic east porch and Corinthian west porch, both hexastyle with pediments, friezes of bukrania and rosettes, and a diagonally oriented to channel seasonal torrents; Proconnesian capitals add eastern flair. As the primary entrance, it symbolized the transition from profane to , with inscribed epistyles honoring Ptolemy and a mysterious internal , making it one of the earliest Hellenistic uses of mixed orders in monumental . Among supporting structures, the Rotunda of stands as a circular 20.2 meters in diameter and 12.7 meters high, constructed around 288–270 BCE of Thasian marble with a Doric gallery and single entrance, possibly dedicated to the Ptolemaic queen for ritual or votive purposes. The Nike Fountain, a rectangular basin complex measuring 10 by 13 meters without a roof, divided into two water features, was integrated with the nearby Nike where the famed Winged originally overlooked the , providing ablutions for initiates in the BCE. The Doric along the western hill ridge extends 104 by 13.4 meters, built ca. 300–250 BCE with dolomitic and plaster walls mimicking masonry, featuring 35 prostyle columns and internal Ionic colonnades to shelter festival crowds and display votives. Nearby, the Theater, dating to ca. 200 BCE, comprises a koilon with about 16 rows divided by a diazoma, an 12.5–13 meters in diameter, and a capacity for approximately 2,500 to 3,000 spectators, used for performances tied to the annual rites with views toward the Nike area. Votive terraces, scattered across the site, held numerous dedications including and inscriptions from initiates, constructed with local stone and marble imports to accommodate offerings from the BCE onward.

Political and Cultural Significance

Macedonian Royal Patronage

The Sanctuary of the Great Gods on emerged as a key site of patronage under the Macedonian Argead dynasty, beginning with Philip II's initiation around 357 BCE, during which he reportedly first encountered , the Epirote princess who would become his wife and the mother of . This personal connection elevated the sanctuary's prestige within the royal family, as Philip and Olympias underwent the rites together, forging ties that linked Macedonian legitimacy to the mystery cult's protective powers, particularly for seafaring endeavors. Philip II further demonstrated patronage by consecrating sacred territories on the Thracian mainland to the Great Gods, a grant later restored and honored in a Hellenistic , underscoring the king's role in expanding the cult's influence beyond the island. These actions positioned as a dynastic emblem, where royal participation in the initiations symbolized divine favor and political authority for the Argeads. , though lacking direct epigraphic evidence of personal initiation, maintained strong familial ties to the sanctuary through his parents' involvement, which enhanced its status as a center of Macedonian prestige during his campaigns. The sanctuary's appeal extended to his successors, who leveraged it to assert continuity of the Argead line amid the Wars of the . Following Alexander's death, Philip III Arrhidaeus and his co-ruler Alexander IV dedicated a prominent Doric temple-like structure on the Eastern Hill around 323 BCE, inscribed with their names and offering it "to the ," serving as a monumental affirmation of their joint rule and the dynasty's piety. This pavilion, constructed in Pentelic and Thasian marble with a floor, exemplified early Hellenistic architectural innovation while reinforcing the successors' legitimacy against rival claimants. Later Macedonian rulers continued this tradition, with Demetrius I Poliorcetes associated with the Nike monument, which likely commemorated his naval victory at Salamis in 306 BCE through ship dedications visible from key ritual spaces, symbolizing royal naval dominance. By the 2nd century BCE, the sanctuary provided refuge to , the last Argead king, after his defeat at the in 168 BCE, where he sought sanctuary's protection before Roman capture, marking the end of Macedonian independence. Macedonian patronage extended to major architectural enhancements, including the 4th-century BCE Temenos wall enclosing the sanctuary's perimeter and the Propylon of the Temenos as its grand entrance, both likely funded from royal treasuries to secure and monumentalize the sacred precinct. These investments transformed into a political tool for dynastic legitimacy, where royal dedications and initiations publicly advertised the Argeads' divine endorsement and unity. The site's role in broader Hellenistic networks amplified this symbolism, attracting from successor kingdoms while rooted in Macedonian foundations.

Broader Hellenistic and Roman Influence

The Sanctuary of the Great Gods on extended its influence beyond Macedonian patronage during the , attracting support from the of Egypt, which contributed to its architectural and dedicatory landscape. commissioned the construction of the Propylaeum around 280 BCE, a grand gateway spanning the sanctuary's entrance, featuring Ionic columns on the exterior facade and Corinthian on the interior, that exemplified Hellenistic architectural innovation while reflecting Ptolemaic maritime dominance in the Aegean. This structure, funded by the Egyptian dynasty, incorporated subtle stylistic elements reminiscent of Egyptian monumental forms, such as the emphasis on and imposing scale, which blended with local Greek traditions to enhance the site's prestige. Additionally, Ptolemaic naval dedications, including ship prows and anchors offered in gratitude for safe voyages, underscored the cult's role as a protector of seafarers, aligning with the dynasty's thalassocratic ambitions. In the Roman era, the sanctuary's appeal broadened further, integrating into the empire's religious fabric through high-profile and widespread votive offerings. Prominent Romans viewed participation as a means to secure divine favor for endeavors, particularly naval ones. Hadrian's in 128 CE further elevated the site's status, linking it to imperial worship as he promoted the across provinces, with dedications invoking the Great Gods alongside Roman deities. Votives from across the empire, ranging from statues and inscriptions to maritime artifacts like helms and figurines of deities, illustrate this integration, as initiates from , Asia Minor, and sought the mysteries' promise of protection and salvation, often dedicating items that symbolized their journeys and loyalty to . The sanctuary's pan-Hellenic status drew visitors from diverse Greek poleis, fostering alliances and oaths of safe passage that reinforced its Mediterranean-wide significance. Pilgrims from and , among others, flocked to the site for initiation, as evidenced by dedicatory inscriptions recording theoroi (sacred envoys) who represented their cities and swore oaths invoking the Great Gods for mutual protection at sea—a practice vital for and in the Hellenistic world. These oaths not only bound participants in networks of reciprocity but also elevated as a neutral, supra-polis hub for interstate relations. Cultural exchanges at manifested in syncretic elements that paralleled other mystery cults, notably the , while inscriptions in multiple languages highlighted its cosmopolitan reach. The rites' emphasis on nocturnal initiation and promises of otherworldly benefits echoed Eleusis' focus on and , leading to interpretive overlaps where Samothracian deities like the Cabiri were sometimes equated with Eleusinian figures for shared themes of salvation and fertility. Surviving inscriptions—over 130 from the Hellenistic and Roman periods—include Greek texts detailing local practices and Latin dedications by Roman elites, attesting to the cult's appeal to non-Greek traders and its role in cross-cultural religious dialogue. Ongoing excavations by teams from , employing digital modeling as of 2023, continue to reveal details of the site's political and cultural role in antiquity.

Archaeological Exploration

Initial Discoveries and Excavations

The modern exploration of the Samothrace temple complex, known as the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, began in 1863 when French diplomat and amateur archaeologist Charles Champoiseau discovered the fragmented statue of the Winged Victory (Nike) during excavations on the island's northeastern coast. The statue, depicting a winged female figure descending a prow, was unearthed in pieces near what is now identified as the Nike Fountain, overlooking the sanctuary's central valley, and was subsequently transported to the in after partial reconstruction. This find sparked international interest in the site, highlighting its Hellenistic significance. In , a French team led by geographer Gabriel Deville and architect Edmond Coquart conducted further investigations, focusing on mapping the sanctuary's layout, including the monumental Propylaea entrance and the Hieron (a large covered hall used for initiation rites), while performing trial digs across the central area. Their work produced early topographical plans and identified key architectural features, with additional artifacts, such as marble fragments and architectural elements, shipped to the to complement the Nike statue. Austrian archaeologist Alexander Conze directed the first systematic excavations from 1873 to 1876 under the auspices of the Austrian Archaeological Institute, targeting the sanctuary's core structures and uncovering evidence of its ritual functions. Conze's campaigns revealed portions of the theater's cavea and surrounding terraces, along with numerous votive offerings; findings were documented in detailed publications with architectural drawings and photographs, though some artifacts were lost en route to . By 1891, Champoiseau returned for a third expedition, fully uncovering the theater's seating area (koilon) while searching for additional Nike fragments, and noting Byzantine-era overbuilding, including fortifications and burials that had repurposed ancient structures. This effort exposed the theater's Hellenistic design and its integration with the sanctuary's . Early excavations yielded key artifacts such as and votive statues depicting deities and initiates, alongside Greek and Latin inscriptions detailing dedications and prohibitions for the uninitiated, leading scholars to interpret the site as a center for the Cabeirian mystery cult honoring chthonic fertility gods.

Ongoing Research and Findings

Excavations at the Sanctuary of the Great Gods on have been conducted systematically by the Institute of Fine Arts of since 1938, initially under the leadership of Karl Lehmann, who directed campaigns until his death in 1960. These efforts fully revealed the Anaktoron, the sanctuary's primary initiation hall, uncovering its walls, piers, and evidence for a timber roof with white interior finishes. Lehmann's team also advanced studies of the Hieron's roof system, identifying its enhanced silhouette with floral akroteria at the apex and Nike figures on the raking simas, as later detailed in Phyllis Williams Lehmann's comprehensive analysis. Succeeding Lehmann, directors such as James R. McCredie and Bonna D. Wescoat have sustained fieldwork into the 21st century, shifting emphasis to underrepresented areas. Post-1950s campaigns further excavated the theater on the western hill in 2018—highlighted in 2021 publications—with seating tiers built from local white limestone and purple porphyritic rhyolite, suggesting a capacity of approximately 1,500 and integration with paths to the Nike precinct. Surface collections of pottery east of the Anaktoron during the 2020s have yielded diagnostic sherds illuminating post-Hellenistic activity and settlement patterns adjacent to the core sanctuary. Recent field seasons, including 2024, have continued surface surveys and conservation efforts. Methodologies have evolved to include stratigraphic excavation for precise layering, geophysical techniques like and digital point-cloud surveys (capturing over 20,000 data points in early phases), and materials analysis of architectural fragments. Notably, intensive examination of more than 1,400 blocks, alongside over 1,000 terracotta roof tiles and thousands of plaster pieces, has refined reconstructions of its Doric-Ionic design and decorative program. These investigations have yielded new interpretations of the site's early history, including evidence from beneath the Arsinoeion for a 7th-century BCE double precinct—comprising orthostate walls and a sacrificial bothros—destroyed by around 600 BCE, with subsequent cult continuity in an open area before 6th-century rebuilding. Ongoing analyses address interpretive gaps, such as the 's inclusivity, through bioarchaeological study of skeletal remains to assess participant diversity in age, , and ethnicity, complementing epigraphic and votive evidence of broad accessibility.

Preservation and Legacy

Conservation Challenges and Efforts

The Sanctuary of the Great Gods on faces significant environmental threats, primarily from recurrent flooding caused by heavy rainfall and river overflows, which severely damaged , retaining walls, and archaeological features during the 2017 deluge. on the site's steep slopes exacerbates these issues, as the rugged and seasonal torrents accelerate loss and structural , particularly around exposed monuments like the theater and . Seismic activity in the seismically active northeastern Aegean region poses additional risks, with historical s—such as the early first-century A.D. event that damaged the Arsinoeion and Hieron, and the 2014 —highlighting the vulnerability of ancient masonry to tectonic shifts. , while boosting visibility, contributes to wear on paths and increased human-induced degradation, straining the site's fragile amid rising visitor numbers on this remote . Early conservation efforts focused on structural reinforcement, including the 1956 partial of the Hieron's facade, where five Doric columns and central architraves were re-erected by the excavation team under Karl Lehmann, with funding from the Bollingen Foundation to restore visibility and stability to this key Hellenistic building. In the 1980s, the Greek Archaeological Service undertook site-wide stabilization measures as part of broader maintenance, including surveys and reinforcements to address post-excavation exposures, though detailed records emphasize collaborative geophysical work rather than isolated projects. Recent initiatives underscore proactive intervention, with the Greek announcing a €6.5 million restoration project in July 2025, funded by the Recovery and Resilience Fund and ESPA 2021-2027, to implement flood barriers, hydraulic stream stabilization, and rainwater diversion from Mount Saos, alongside path upgrades and new bridges for safer access. As of November 2025, the project remains in the planning or early implementation phase, with no major progress reports released. Although protective roofing was not specified in the announcement, the project includes restorations to combat . International collaboration plays a vital role, particularly through New York University's Institute of Fine Arts, which has conducted ongoing conservation since 1938, including for documentation, stone treatment, and joint work with the on the Nike Monument's context to inform site preservation. The island of Samothraki is a candidate for UNESCO Reserve designation, building on nominations submitted in 2013 and 2016 that considered the sanctuary's integration with its natural surroundings and prompted discussions on enhanced protections. Specific measures address immediate threats, such as improved drainage systems integrated into the 2025 project to channel water away from vulnerable areas, and control efforts tied to initiatives to prevent root damage and soil destabilization on slopes. Debates over artifact repatriation persist, notably regarding the Nike of Samothrace statue in the —discovered on the island in 1863—which Greek advocates argue should return to enhance site integrity and cultural context, fueling broader conversations on Hellenistic heritage restitution.

Modern Interpretations and Access

Contemporary scholars have increasingly reassessed the surrounding the mystery cult of the Great Gods at , viewing it not as absolute concealment but as a strategic that enhanced the cult's political and social power through selective and ambiguity. This approach draws on archaeological evidence to explore how functioned in ancient contexts, challenging earlier assumptions of total inaccessibility and highlighting the cult's in fostering communal bonds among initiates. The 2025 exhibition "Imag(in)ing Samothrace: From to the HoloLens" at the American School of Classical Studies at exemplifies these interpretive shifts by showcasing artistic depictions of the island and its across two and a half millennia, from ancient poetry to modern digital visualizations. Running from February 20 to June 29, 2025, the display integrates objects, texts, and interactive elements to illustrate how creators have evoked the sanctuary's mystique, emphasizing its enduring cultural resonance beyond strict historical analysis. The Archaeological Museum of Samothrace complements these efforts with a redesigned in the that prioritizes the cult's , presenting artifacts in an informal manner to demystify rites for broader audiences. Reopened fully in 2024 after over a decade of upgrades, the incorporates recent excavations and digital aids to contextualize the sanctuary's religious practices without perpetuating outdated notions of impenetrable secrecy. Visitors can access the year-round, with guided tours available along its terraces to trace the ancient pilgrim's path through key structures. Digital reconstructions enhance the experience, including 3D walkthroughs and animations developed by the American Excavations at project, which simulate day and night views of the site via online platforms and museum apps. The sanctuary's legacy extends to modern esotericism, where its mystery cult traditions inspire contemporary spiritual practices emphasizing personal transformation and natural symbolism in sacred spaces. driven by the site's allure has bolstered the local , employing about two-thirds of the island's active in related services while promoting sustainable eco-tourism that preserves Samothrace's remote . Looking ahead, 2025 restorations at the sanctuary, including new pedestrian bridges and flood protections, will integrate with enhanced interpretive features to improve public engagement, building on digital tools and exhibitions for more immersive educational experiences.

References

  1. https://news.emory.edu/stories/2016/04/emag_cult_following/campus.html
  2. https://artandarchaeology.princeton.edu/whats/news/ancient-trade-secrets-princetons-discovery-magazine
  3. https://www.ifa.nyu.edu/study/archaeology/samothrace.html
  4. https://www.wm.edu/news/stories/2019/wm-faculty%2C-students-excavate-sanctuary-of-the-great-gods.php
  5. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/passage-and-perception-in-the-sanctuary-of-the-great-gods-samothrace-visualization-and-animation/
  6. https://topostext.org/place/405255PSam
  7. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/altar-court/
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250177741_An_Archaic_Inscription_from_Samothrace
  9. https://archaeology.org/issues/september-october-2021/features/greece-samothrace-mystery-cult/
  10. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-5690
  11. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/inscriptions/
  12. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/the-byzantine-mysteries/
  13. https://brill.com/view/title/2237
  14. https://discovery.princeton.edu/2023/12/01/trade-secrets/
  15. https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ElAnt/V11N1/pdf/blakely.pdf
  16. https://www.theoi.com/Georgikos/Kabeiroi.html
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236779700_Theoroi_and_Initiates_in_Samothrace_The_Epigraphical_Evidence
  18. https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/hesperia/146936.pdf
  19. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/718185
  20. https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/hesperia/146794.pdf
  21. https://www.academia.edu/2968742/Altar_or_Perirrhanterion_were_there_water_purification_rites_in_the_Sanctuary_of_the_Great_Gods_on_Samothrace
  22. https://topostext.org/place/405255SMeg
  23. https://ajaonline.org/book-review/664/
  24. https://greekreporter.com/2025/07/19/ancient-greek-sanctuary-samothrace/
  25. https://www.insamothraki.com/the-sanctuary-of-the-great-gods.html
  26. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/architecture-of-the-sacred/coming-and-going-in-the-sanctuary-of-the-great-gods-samothrace/1F43831628AC52B8BE995C49FD7BEAF8
  27. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/hieron/
  28. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/anaktoron/
  29. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/propylon-of-ptolemy-ii/
  30. https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/hesperia/147020.pdf
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233986362_THE_SANCTUARY_OF_THE_GREAT_GODS_ON_SAMOTHRACE_GREECEAN_EXTENDED_MARBLE_PROVENANCE_STUDY
  32. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/rotunda-of-arsinoe-ii/
  33. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/stoa/
  34. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/theater/
  35. https://www.academia.edu/4174571/_The_Sanctuary_of_the_Great_Gods_on_Samothrace_An_extended_marble_provenance_Study
  36. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/dedication-of-philip-iii-and-alexander-iv/
  37. https://smarthistory.org/nike-winged-victory-of-samothrace/
  38. https://www.samothracemuseum.gr/en/timeline-of-samothrace/
  39. https://www.academia.edu/45101627/STARRY_TWINS_AND_MYSTERY_RITES_FROM_SAMOTHRACE_TO_MITHRAS
  40. https://news.emory.edu/stories/2023/07/er_samothrace_excavations/index.html
  41. https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2017/summer/curio/searching-the-true-origins-the-louvres-winged-victory
  42. https://www.samothracemuseum.gr/en/timeline-of-archaeological-research-on-samothrace/
  43. https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12619461/index.pdf
  44. https://www.getty.edu/publications/resources/virtuallibrary/0892368055.pdf
  45. https://www.instagram.com/aesamothrace/
  46. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/excavations/
  47. https://greekcitytimes.com/2025/07/18/samothrace-sanctuary-great-gods/
  48. https://news.emory.edu/stories/2012/10/er_wescoat_q_and_a/campus.html
  49. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339664895_Samothraki_in_Transition_A_Report_on_a_Real-World_Lab_to_Promote_the_Sustainability_of_a_Greek_Island
  50. https://www.academia.edu/103501125/Matsas_et_al_Samothrace_Archaeological_Survey_SAS_1985_1987_revisited_towards_a_final_publication
  51. http://sustainable-samothraki.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/MAB-2013-Full-Application.pdf
  52. https://greekcitytimes.com/2023/11/07/greek-sculptures-motherland-stolen/
  53. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260323018_5_Toward_an_Archaeology_of_Secrecy_Power_Paradox_and_the_Great_Gods_of_Samothrace
  54. https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1551-8248.2012.01037.x
  55. https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/events/details/imagining-samothrace-from-homer-to-the-hololens
  56. https://www.greeknewsagenda.gr/imagining-samothrace-the-mystique-of-an-island-at-the-american-school-of-classical-studies-at-athens/
  57. https://www.samothracemuseum.gr/en/
  58. https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/ecds/samothrace-museum-ecds/
  59. https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g2704123-d8341943-Reviews-Sanctuary_of_the_Great_Gods-Palaiopoli_Samothraki_Northeast_Aegean_Islands.html
  60. https://www.samothrace.emory.edu/3d-walkthroughs/
  61. https://www.greekhistoryhub.com/pages/the-samothrace-mysteries-ancient-practices-and-their-modern-interpretations-a072e984.php
  62. http://sustainable-samothraki.net/project/samothraki-tourism-dynamics/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.