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Achziv
View on WikipediaAchziv (Hebrew: אַכְזִיב ʾAḵzīḇ) or Az-Zeeb (Arabic: الزيب, romanized: Az-Zīb) is an ancient site on the Mediterranean coast of northern Israel, between the border with Lebanon and the city of Acre. It is located 13.5 kilometres (8.4 mi) north of Acre on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, within the municipal area of Nahariya. Today it is an Israeli national park.
Key Information
Excavations have unearthed a fortified Canaanite city of the second millennium BCE. The Phoenician town of the first millennium BCE is known both from the Hebrew Bible and Assyrian sources. Phoenician Achzib went through ups and downs during the Persian and Hellenistic periods. In early Roman times the town, known as Acdippa, was a road station. The Bordeaux Pilgrim mentions it in 333-334 CE still as a road station; Jewish sources of the Byzantine period call it Kheziv and Gesiv. There is no information about settlement at the site for the early Muslim period. The Crusaders built a new village with a castle there. During the Mamluk and Ottoman periods a modest village occupied the old tell (archaeological mound).
In modern times the site was known as the Palestinian town of Az-Zeeb, with a population of almost 2,000. It was depopulated during the Haganah's Operation Ben-Ami, on May 14, 1948, the last day of the British Mandate for Palestine.
The sole permanent resident of Achziv since declaration of the State was Eli Avivi (1930–2018), an Israeli photographer and micronationalist who hosted visitors to the legally disputed micronation of "Akhzivland", a small stretch of beach where he lived since 1975 until his death.[2]
Etymology
[edit]Mentioned in the Bible by its ancient name Achzib, evidence of human settlement at the site dates back to the 18th century BCE. During the Roman period (and in classical literature) the imperial authorities called it Ecdippa,[3] Ecdeppa, or Ecdippon. By the early Middle Ages, the Arab name for the village "Az-Zeeb", or "al-Zib" (Arabic: الزيب meaning 'trickster') was locally in common usage. Az-Zeeb is a shortened form of the site's original ancient Canaanite/Phoenician name, Achzib.[3]
History
[edit]Human settlement at the site dates to as early as the 18th century BCE; and by the 10th century BCE it was a walled town.[4] A tell excavated between 1941–44 and 1959-1964 found evidence of settlement from the Middle Bronze Age II, through the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages.[3] Achziv was the first fortified settlement found at the site by archaeologists.
Middle Bronze Age
[edit]Middle Bronze Age IIA
[edit]In the Middle Bronze IIA (MBIIA), remains are found at Phase N5 with features including child burials in storage jars below floors.
Middle Bronze Age IIA-B
[edit]At the transition from MBIIA to MBIIB, the settlement was subject to a violent destruction.[5]
Middle Bronze Age IIB
[edit]In the Middle Bronze IIB (MBIIB), Phase N4 was part of a large Canaanite port city.[6][7] The massive ramparts, some 4.5 metres (15 feet) high, protected the city proper and a large area of port facilities. To the north and south the city extended to the two nearby rivers, which the Canaanite engineers connected by a fosse, thus transforming Achzib into an island.[6] A substantial destruction level from the beginning of the Late Bronze Age proves that even these fortifications were eventually not sufficient.[7] A fierce conflagration ended Phase N4 and led to the transition to the MBIIC/LBI in Phase N3.[5]
Iron Age
[edit]Iron II
[edit]By the 1000 BCE, Achziv was a prosperous and fortified Phoenician town. Conquered by the Assyrian empire in the 8th century BCE, however, it was subsequently ruled by the Persians during the rule of the Roman Empire.
Positioned on a passage between the plain of Acre and the city of Tyre, Achzib was an important road station.[3] Between the 10th and 6th centuries BCE, it was a prosperous town, with public buildings and tombs with Phoenician inscriptions, attesting to the identity of its inhabitants at the time.[3] Conquered by the Assyrians in 701 BCE and listed in Sennacherib's Annals as Ak-zi-bi, the continuation of Phoenician settlement through this period and during the decline endured during the Persian period, is evidenced in 5th and 4th century BCE Phoenician inscriptions that were found at the site.[3]
Prior to the Assyrian invasion of Achziv under Sennacherib, in the late 8th-century BCE, Achziv and Akko belonged to the king of Sidon, and were considered Hittite territory.[8]
Biblical tradition
[edit]Achzib is mentioned in the Book of Joshua (19:29) and Book of Judges (1:31) as a town assigned to the tribe of Asher in the Hebrew Bible, but the Asherites did not manage to conquer it from the Phoenicians:[9]
- And the fifth lot came out for the tribe of the children of Asher ... and the outgoings thereof are at the sea from the coast to Achzib. (Joshua 19:24–29)
- Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of Acco, ... or of Achzib ... (Judges 1:31)
According to Biblical history, King David added the city into his Kingdom, but King Solomon returned it to Hiram I as part of the famous pact; archaeological evidence indicates that it remained Phoenician.[3]
Classic era
[edit]Az-Zeeb
الزيب l-Zib, al-Zaib, Achzib[1] | |
|---|---|
| Etymology: "Trickster" | |
.jpg) 1870s map .jpg) 1940s map.jpg) modern map .jpg) 1940s with modern overlay mapA series of historical maps of the area around Achziv (click the buttons) | |
| Palestine grid | 160/272 |
| Geopolitical entity | Mandatory Palestine |
| Subdistrict | Acre |
| Date of depopulation | May 14, 1948[10] |
| Area | |
• Total | 12,607 dunams (12.607 km2; 4.868 sq mi) |
| Population (1945) | |
• Total | 1,910[12][11] |
| Cause(s) of depopulation | Military assault by Yishuv forces |
| Current Localities | Gesher HaZiv,[13] Sa'ar,[14] |
Hellenistic period
[edit]During the reign of the Seleucids the border was established at Rosh HaNikra, just north to Achziv, making it a border city which they called Ekdippa (Έκδιππα in Ancient Greek) and put it under the control of Acre. Mentioned in the writings of Pseudo-Scylax, the site likely regained some importance in Hellenistic times.
Roman and Byzantine periods
[edit]A maritime city named Cziv, nine miles (14 km) north of Acre, is mentioned by Josephus Flavius and later by Eusebius. Achziv (Cheziv) is mentioned in Jewish rabbinic writings, for example Midrash Vayikra Rabba 37:4. Additionally, Achziv is mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud, and by the relating Middle Age commentators, concerning the location of Achziv in regards to historical borders of Israel. At the end of the Roman era, a pottery workshop was located there.[15]
Middle Ages
[edit]
By the Early Middle Ages, Arab geographers were referring to the area as "az-Zeeb".[3]
Crusader period
[edit]With the arrival of the Crusaders and after the fall of Acre in 1104, "Casal Imbertia" or "Lambertie" was established there.[16][17] During the Crusader era, it expanded and became the main centre of a large estate with the same name, Casal Imbert. Lefiegre, Le Quiebre and La Gabassie were all part of this estate.[18] The site was commonly known as "Casale Umberti,"[19] or Casal Humberti (after Hubert of Pacy who held the casale), and it is documented in 1108.[20]
Az-Zeeb (meaning "trickster"), is first mentioned in Crusader sources in 1123 as a village belonging to Hubert of Pacy.[21] In 1146, the Crusaders established a settlement there protected by a castle and named "Casale Huberti"[22][16] and sometimes still as "Casal Humberti".[23] Under Baldwin III, European farmers settled there sometime before 1153.[24]
Arab geographer Ibn Jubayr toured Palestine in 1182 and mentioned az-Zeeb as a large fortress with a village and adjoining lands between Acre and Tyre.[25] In 1198, King Aimery gave a large part of the income from Az-Zeeb to the Teutonic Order.[26] In 1226, Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi described az-Zeeb as a large village on the coast whose name was also pronounced "az-Zaib".[25]
In 1232 it was the site of the Battle of Casal Imbert between German and French Crusaders as part of the War of the Lombards. In 1253 King Henry gave the whole estate of Casal Imbert to John of Ibelin.[27] Shortly after, in 1256, John of Ibelin leased Az-Zeeb and all its dependant villages to the Teutonic Order for 10 years.[28] In 1261, the whole estate was sold to the Teutonic Order, in return for an annual sum for as long as Acre was in Christian hands.[29] In 1283 the village was mentioned as part of the domain of the Crusaders, according to the hudna (truce) between the Crusaders in Acre and the Mamluk sultan Qalawun.[30]
Mamluk period
[edit]
The Arab village of Az-Zeeb was established during the later Mamluk period with the houses erected using the stones of the destroyed Crusader castle; and thrived throughout the Ottoman rule. There are descriptions of the castle and village by Arab chroniclers in the 12th and 13th centuries, just prior to and during the rule of the Mamluks in the region.
Ottoman era
[edit]In the early 16th century, az-Zeeb was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and its inhabitants cultivated various crops and raised livestock on which they paid taxes to the Ottoman authorities. According to the 1596 tax records, it was a village in the nahiya (subdistrict) of Akka, part of Sanjak Safad with a population of 132 households and 27 bachelors and an estimated total of 875 persons. All were Muslim. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on several agricultural items including, wheat, barley, "summer crops", fruits, cotton, beehives, goats, and water buffalo; a total of 23,669 akçe. All of the revenue went to a waqf.[31][32]
A map by Pierre Jacotin from Napoleon's invasion of 1799 showed the village, named as Zib.[33] British traveler James Silk Buckingham describes az-Zeeb in 1816 as a small town built on a hill near the sea with few palm trees rising above its houses.[34] During the period of Egyptian rule in Palestine, the sheikh (chief) of az-Zeeb, Said al-Sabi, joined the 1834 peasants' rebellion against governor Ibrahim Pasha. He was arrested and exiled to Egypt by the authorities in the summer of that year because of his participation.[35]
In 1875, when Victor Guérin visited, Az-Zeeb had 500 Muslim inhabitants. Guérin noted that the hill on which it was built had formerly been surrounded by a wall, traces of which were still to be seen on the east side.[36] By the late 19th century, most of the village houses were built of stone, a mosque and a clinic had been established, and the residents cultivated olives, figs, mulberries, and pomegranates. The population consisted of about 400 Muslims.[37] In 1882, the Ottomans established an elementary school in az-Zeeb.[38] A population list from about 1887 showed that Kh. ez Zib had about 730 inhabitants, all Muslim.[39]
British Mandate period
[edit]
Az-Zeeb became a part of the British Mandate of Palestine in 1922.[38] In the 1922 census of Palestine, "Al Zib" had a population of 804; 803 Muslims and 1 Christian,[40] where the one Christian was a Roman Catholic.[41] The population had increased in the 1931 census to 1059, all Muslims, in a total of 251 houses.[42]
The main economic sectors in the village were in fishing and agriculture, particularly fruit cultivation, which included bananas, citrus, olives, and figs. The town held four olive presses: two mechanized and two animal-drawn. Between 1927 and 1945, the village's annual fish catch was 16 metric tons.[38] In the 1945 statistics, the population of Az Zeeb was 1,910, all Muslims, with a total land area of 12,607 dunams.[11] Of this, 2,973 dunams were used for citrus and bananas; 1,989 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards; 4,425 were for cereals;[43] while 62 dunams were built-up (urban) areas.[44]
The population of the village in 1945 was 1,910.[11]
Political unrest
[edit]In 1946, The Jewish Resistance Movement attempted to blow up the railroad bridge over the creek at Achziv in an operation known as Night of the Bridges. A monument to the 14 soldiers killed there was erected on the site.
1948 War
[edit]
Just before the official end to Mandate rule on May 14, 1948, and the start of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, az-Zeeb was captured by the Haganah's Carmeli Brigade, being one of the main places targeted in Operation Ben-Ami. According to Haganah accounts, the residents immediately "fled upon the appearance of Jewish forces, and the Haganah command decided to hold on to [it]." However, Israeli historian Benny Morris states that the Haganah had a "long account" with az-Zeeb because it was a center of Arab attacks on Jews and that most of the inhabitants fled after the village was hit with a mortar barrage by the Haganah.[45][38] Morris writes that two Haganah companies reported in mid-May 1948 that they were "attacking al Zib with the aim of blowing up the village".[46] Eyewitness accounts from among the villagers indicate that they mistook the incoming Israeli forces for Arab reinforcements because they had donned red and white keffiyehs, and that these forces quickly overwhelmed the local militia of 35-40 men. Many of the inhabitants fled to Lebanon or nearby villages, but many also remained in az-Zeeb until they were relocated by the Israeli authorities to the Arab coastal town of Mazra'a. Some villagers later claimed that the Haganah had "molested or violated" a number of women.[47]
The Israeli localities of Sa'ar and Gesher HaZiv were established on the village lands in 1948 and 1949. A domed mosque from the village has since been restored and serves as a tourist site, and the house of the last mukhtar (village headman) is now a museum.
Israel
[edit]
Achziv is an Israeli national park. Today Achziv shores are part of the Achziv-Rosh haNikra marine protected area, which is located between the city of Naharia to the south and the Israeli-Lebanon border to the north. The marine protected area has 7 kilometers of shore line and continue into the sea for another 15 kilometers west. This marine nature reserve protects the fauna and flora of the stony reefs and the sandy beach environments. It is the only marine protected area in Israel in which the maximum depth is deeper than 850 meters.[48] Near the national park is Akhzivland, founded by Eli Avivi in 1971 and currently used as a vacation village and camping site.[49]
Archaeology
[edit]Remnants of ancient Achziv, now known as Tel Achziv, are located on a sandstone mound between two streams, Kziv on the north and Shaal on the south, close to the border with Lebanon. An ancient port was located on the coast, and another secondary port is located 700 m to the south. Archeological excavations have revealed that a walled city existed at the location from the Middle Bronze period.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b Palmer, 1881, p. 60
- ^ "Micronation founder Eli Avivi dies in Israel". 2018-05-16. Retrieved 2024-12-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lipinski, 2004, pp. 302-3
- ^ Khalidi, 1992, p.35.
- ^ a b Tell Achziv - Preliminary Report 2017
- ^ a b M. W. Prausnitz (1975). "The Planning of the Middle Bronze Age Town at Achzib and its Defences". Israel Exploration Journal. 25 (4). Israel Exploration Society: 202–210. JSTOR 27925533.
- ^ a b Avraham Negev and Shimon Gibson (2001). Achzib (b) A Canaanite city on the Mediterranean coast. New York and London: Continuum. p. 16. ISBN 0-8264-1316-1.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ Luckenbill, Daniel David (1924). The Annals of Sennacherib. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 29–30. OCLC 506728.
- ^ "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), EBAL MONS, EBAL MONS, ECDIPPA".
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. xvii, village #79. Also gives the cause for depopulation
- ^ a b c d Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 41
- ^ Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, 1945, p. 5
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. xxi, settlement #54. January 1949
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. xxi, settlement #18. August 1948
- ^ Avshalom-Gorni, 2006, Akhziv
- ^ a b Pringle, 1998, pp. 384-385
- ^ Mazar, Eilat. Achziv Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine. Institute of Archeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- ^ Frankel, 1988, p. 264
- ^ [1]Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- ^ Murray, Alan, The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Dynastic History 1099-1125 (Unit for Prosopographical Research, Linacre College, Oxford, 2000) p. 210.
- ^ Röhricht, 1893, RRH, p. 23, No. 101; cited in Pringle, 1998, p. 384
- ^ Crusader: Casel Imbert, casale Huberti de Paci, Casale Lamberti, Castellum Ziph, Qasale Imbert/Siph; Hebr. Akhziv; in Pringle, 1997, p. 110
- ^ Murray, 2000, p. 210
- ^ Strehlke, 1869, pp. 1-2, No. 1; cited in Röhricht, 1893, RRH, p. 71, No. 281; cited in Pringle, 1998, p. 384
- ^ a b Ibn Jubayr and al-Hamawi quoted in Le Strange, 1890, p.555.
- ^ Strehlke, 1869, pp. 27-8, No. 34; No 122; No. 128; cited in Pringle, 1998, p. 384
- ^ Strehlke, 1869, pp. 84-5, No. 105; cited in Röhricht, 1893, RRH, p. 318, No. 1208; cited in Pringle, 1998, p. 384
- ^ Röhricht, 1893, RRH, p. 328, No. 1250; cited in Pringle, 1998, p. 384-5
- ^ Strehlke, 1869, pp. 106-7, No. 119; cited in Röhricht, 1893, RRH, pp. 341-2, No. 1307; cited in Pringle, 1998, p. 384
- ^ al-Qalqashandi version of the hudna, referred in Barag, 1979, p. 204, no. 22
- ^ Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 192; quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 35
- ^ Note that Rhode, 1979, p. 6 Archived 2019-04-20 at the Wayback Machine writes that the register that Hütteroth and Abdulfattah studied from the Safad-district was not from 1595/6, but from 1548/9
- ^ Karmon, 1960, p. 160 Archived 2019-12-22 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Buckingham, 1821, pp. 62-63; quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p.36.
- ^ Rustum, 1938, p. 70.
- ^ Guérin, 1880, pp. 164-165, partially given in Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, p. 193.
- ^ Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, p.148. Quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 36
- ^ a b c d Khalidi, 1992, p.36.
- ^ Schumacher, 1888, p. 172
- ^ Barron, 1923, Table XI, Sub-district of Acre, p. 36
- ^ Barron, 1923, Table XVI, p. 49
- ^ Mills, 1932, p. 104 Zib, Ez
- ^ Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 82
- ^ Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 132
- ^ xvii, Village #79; Morris, 2004, p. Also gives the cause for depopulation
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 347
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 253
- ^ "שמורת ים ראש הנקרה-אכזיב – רשות הטבע והגנים".
- ^ Magazine, Go World Travel (2013-01-08). "A World of His Own: Eli Avivi". Go World Travel Magazine. Retrieved 2024-12-25.
Bibliography
[edit]- Avshalom-Gorni, Dina (2006-08-03). "Akhziv". Hadashot Arkheologiyot – Excavations and Surveys in Israel (118).
- Barag, Dan (1979). "A new source concerning the ultimate borders of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem". Israel Exploration Journal. 29 (3/4): 197–217. JSTOR 27925726.
- Barron, J.B., ed. (1923). Palestine: Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922. Government of Palestine.
- Benveniśtî, M. (2000). Sacred landscape: the buried history of the Holy Land since 1948. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23422-2.
- Buckingham, J.S. (1821). Travels in Palestine through the countries of Bashan and Gilead, east of the River Jordan, including a visit to the cities of Geraza and Gamala in the Decapolis. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown.
- Conder, C.R.; Kitchener, H.H. (1881). The Survey of Western Palestine: Memoirs of the Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archaeology. Vol. 1. London: Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund.
- Frankel, Rafael (1988). "Topographical notes on the territory of Acre in the Crusader period". Israel Exploration Journal. 38 (4): 249–272. JSTOR 27926125.
- Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics (1945). Village Statistics, April, 1945.
- Guérin, V. (1880). Description Géographique Historique et Archéologique de la Palestine (in French). Vol. 3: Galilee, pt. 2. Paris: L'Imprimerie Nationale.
- Hadawi, S. (1970). Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine. Palestine Liberation Organization Research Center. Archived from the original on 2018-12-08. Retrieved 2019-03-09.
- Hütteroth, W.-D.; Abdulfattah, K. (1977). Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjordan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Century. Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany: Vorstand der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft. ISBN 978-3-920405-41-4.
- Karmon, Y. (1960). "An Analysis of Jacotin's Map of Palestine" (PDF). Israel Exploration Journal. 10 (3): 155–173, 244–253. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2019-03-09.
- Khalidi, W. (1992). All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948. Washington D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 978-0-88728-224-9.
- Le Strange, G. (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. ISBN 978-0-404-56288-5.
{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) - Lipiński, E. (2004). Itineraria Phoenicia: Studia Phoenicia 18. Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-1344-8.
- Mills, E., ed. (1932). Census of Palestine 1931. Population of Villages, Towns and Administrative Areas. Jerusalem: Government of Palestine.
- Morris, B. (2004). The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00967-6.
- Murray, Alan (2000). The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Dynastic History 1099-1125. Linacre College, Oxford: Unit for Prosopographical Research. ISBN 9781900934039.
- Nazzal, Nafez (1978). The Palestinian Exodus from Galilee 1948. Beirut: The Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 9780887281280.
- Palmer, E.H. (1881). The Survey of Western Palestine: Arabic and English Name Lists Collected During the Survey by Lieutenants Conder and Kitchener, R. E. Transliterated and Explained by E.H. Palmer. Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund.
- Petersen, Andrew (2001). A Gazetteer of Buildings in Muslim Palestine (British Academy Monographs in Archaeology). Vol. I. Oxford University Press. pp. 321–322. ISBN 978-0-19-727011-0.
- Pringle, D. (1997). Secular buildings in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: an archaeological Gazetter. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-46010-7.
- Pringle, D. (1998). The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: L-Z (excluding Tyre). Vol. II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39037-0.
- Rhode, H. (1979). Administration and Population of the Sancak of Safed in the Sixteenth Century (PhD). Columbia University. Archived from the original on 2020-03-01. Retrieved 2019-03-09.
- Rustum, A. (1938). The Royal Archives of Egypt and the Disturbances in Palestine, 1834. American University of Beirut Press.
- Röhricht, R. (1893). (RRH) Regesta regni Hierosolymitani (MXCVII-MCCXCI) (in Latin). Berlin: Libraria Academica Wageriana.
- Schumacher, G. (1888). "Population list of the Liwa of Akka". Quarterly Statement - Palestine Exploration Fund. 20: 169–191.
- Strehlke, E., ed. (1869). Tabulae Ordinis Theutonici ex tabularii regii Berolinensis codice potissimum. Berlin: Weidmanns.
- Wilson, C.W., ed. (c. 1881). Picturesque Palestine, Sinai and Egypt. Vol. 3. New York: D. Appleton. (p.70)
External links
[edit]
- Achziv Beach National Park, Israel Nature and Parks Authority website
- One-man rule in Israel's hippy micro-state, by Raffi Berg, BBC
- al-Zeeb, Zochrot
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Achziv
View on GrokipediaEtymology
Linguistic Origins and Variants
The name Achziv derives from the Hebrew אַכְזִיב (ʾakẕīḇ), rooted in the verb כָּזַב (kāzaḇ), meaning "to lie" or "to deceive," evoking the imagery of a deceptive or failing stream that flows seasonally but dries up in summer.[9] This etymology aligns with biblical references to Achzib as a coastal town in the territory of Asher (Joshua 19:29; Judges 1:31), where the name may metaphorically describe unreliable water sources near the site.[1] Alternative interpretations suggest "charming" or "delightful," but the predominant scholarly consensus favors the "deceitful" connotation based on Semitic linguistics.[10] In ancient contexts, the name appears in Phoenician inscriptions and Assyrian records as a variant of the Canaanite form, reflecting its role as a maritime settlement.[11] Greek sources render it as Ecdippa (Ἐκδίππα), a Hellenistic adaptation used by Ptolemy and Josephus for the same coastal location north of Acre.[12] Arabic variants include al-Zī b (الزيب) or az-Zeeb, employed during the Ottoman and Mandate periods for the village at the site, likely a phonetic evolution from the Hebrew without semantic shift.[11] Modern Hebrew usage standardizes it as Achziv or Akhziv, preserving the biblical form in Israeli toponymy.[1] A distinct inland Achzib in Judah (Micah 1:14; Genesis 38:5 as Chezib) shares the same root but refers to a separate locality, distinguished by context in ancient texts.[13]Geography
Location and Topography
Achziv is located on the Mediterranean Sea coast in the Western Galilee region of northern Israel, approximately 15 kilometers north of Acre and adjacent to Nahariya.[8] The site lies between Nahal Kziv to the north and Nahal Sha'al to the south, forming a strategic coastal position near the Lebanese border south of Rosh HaNikra.[1] The topography of Achziv consists of a narrow coastal plain at sea level, featuring sandy beaches interspersed with rocky crevices and sandstone ridges characteristic of the Levantine coast.[14] Akhziv National Park spans a 2.3-kilometer stretch of shoreline, extending 100 meters inland to the railway line, with terrain that includes low-lying dunes, seasonal wetlands, and modest elevations at the ancient tel mound.[7] This flat to gently undulating landscape supports diverse coastal ecosystems, including sea turtle nesting sites and natural tidal pools carved into the rocky substrate.[14]Environmental Features and Coastal Significance
Achziv's coastal environment along the Mediterranean Sea features a mix of sandy beaches, blue bays, rocky crevices, and kurkar sandstone ridges rising up to 130 meters in elevation, such as the Ladder Ridge. These formations, shaped by aeolian processes and wave action, support diverse habitats including coastal lagoons, sea pools, and underwater caves formed in limestone cliffs. The landscape includes regulated bathing beaches like Betset Beach and southern sandy stretches with natural lagoons, contributing to a dynamic interface between terrestrial dunes and marine ecosystems.[7] The flora comprises rare plant species adapted to the harsh conditions of sandstone ridges and coastal sands, though specific endemics are part of Israel's broader Mediterranean dune biodiversity, which hosts over 170 plant species. Fauna includes nesting sites for loggerhead and green sea turtles, which lay eggs on the beaches from May to August, with rangers monitoring tracks and nests as part of conservation efforts; in 2021, Israel recorded 449 turtle nests nationwide, many along northern coasts like Achziv. Marine life thrives in the adjacent rocky reefs and crevices, featuring high biodiversity of invertebrates, fish such as dusky, mottled, and golden groupers, Mediterranean slipper lobsters, sea anemones, urchins, and sea cucumbers, alongside 13 species of cartilaginous fish. Bird species observed include white wagtails, yellow-legged gulls, common terns, and rare bridled terns, with occasional sightings of Mediterranean monk seals.[7][15][16][17] As part of Akhziv National Park and the expansive Rosh Hanikra-Akhziv marine nature reserve—covering 100,062 dunams over 7 kilometers of coastline and extending 15 kilometers offshore—this area holds significant ecological value for preserving Mediterranean coastal and marine biodiversity. The reserve protects unique features like kurkar ridges, underwater islands, rocky terrains, and a submarine canyon reaching 850 meters deep, serving as breeding grounds and supporting food webs that counteract overfishing pressures. It aids in ecological restoration and maintains the rocky habitat's high biological diversity, essential for regional marine health amid threats like nutrient pollution and habitat loss.[7][17][18]History
Bronze Age Foundations
Tel Achziv, an ancient Canaanite settlement on Israel's northern Mediterranean coast, was first established during the Middle Bronze Age II (approximately 2000–1550 BCE), marking its foundational phase as a fortified harbor town.[2][3] The site, spanning 5.5–7 hectares on a coastal sandstone ridge between Nahariya and the Lebanese border, exploited its strategic position at the intersection of maritime trade routes and overland paths linking the southern Levant to Phoenician territories further north.[2][3] This location facilitated economic activities centered on coastal commerce, though the town's medium size suggests it served as a regional rather than dominant port.[3] Archaeological evidence reveals a planned urban layout with defensive features adapted to the topography, including a beaten-earth rampart reinforced by layered earth, a glacis incorporating a clay-coated stone wall, and possibly a surrounding fosse that may have rendered the mound an artificial island.[2] Early investigations, such as those referenced in Prausnitz's analysis of the town's planning, highlight the absence of a crowning wall atop the rampart, distinguishing Achziv's defenses from some contemporaneous Canaanite sites while emphasizing earthen engineering for slope stability and intrusion prevention.[2] Fortification remnants, first identified in the northeastern sector through Middle Bronze IIb pottery, confirm initial construction phases around the 18th–17th centuries BCE.[2][19] Renewed excavations in Area N on the northwestern slope, covering 350 square meters in 2016, uncovered MB IIb walls (e.g., W226 and W225) with squared stone cores, terraced structures using limestone and kurkar blocks, and a small room (1.7 x 2.2 meters) featuring plaster floors.[19] These elements indicate adaptation to the natural terrain, with subsequent MB IIc–Late Bronze I phases showing violent destruction evidenced by burnt mudbricks and ash layers.[19] Ceramic assemblages, including shallow bowls and diagnostic sherds, corroborate the chronology and point to continuity into later Bronze Age horizons, underscoring Achziv's role in broader Canaanite networks amid regional urbanization and conflict.[19][2]Iron Age Development and Biblical References
During the Iron Age, Tel Achziv transitioned from Bronze Age foundations into a fortified coastal settlement heavily influenced by Phoenician maritime culture, serving as a hub for trade and interaction between Levantine and Mediterranean networks. Excavations, particularly those led by M.W. Prausnitz in 1963–1964, uncovered Iron II architectural remains, including domestic structures and ceramic assemblages indicative of urban consolidation and economic prosperity from the 10th to 8th centuries BCE.[20] [21] These findings reveal a shift toward Phoenician-style pottery and building techniques, reflecting integration into the Tyrian sphere rather than Israelite dominance.[22] Burial evidence from Area E includes three cist tombs dated to Iron IIA (circa 1000–900 BCE), containing over 150 individuals with artifacts such as locally produced ceramics alongside Tyrian imports, pointing to social continuity from Canaanite roots while adopting Phoenician elite practices.[22] The site's fortifications, evidenced in late Iron Age layers, supported its role as a defended port until Assyrian campaigns disrupted Phoenician autonomy; Achziv surrendered alongside other coastal strongholds to Assyrian forces under kings like Sargon II by the late 8th century BCE, marking the end of independent development.[21] Post-conquest, Assyrian administration likely maintained the site's strategic value, though archaeological layers show reduced complexity thereafter. In biblical texts, Achziv (Hebrew: אכזיב) appears as a Mediterranean boundary town allotted to the tribe of Asher, extending from the coast "to Achzib" in the tribal inheritance described in Joshua 19:29.[1] Judges 1:31 further records that Asher "did not drive out the inhabitants of Acco, or the inhabitants of Sidon, or of Ahlab, or of Achzib, or of Helbah, or of Aphik, or of Rehob," implying persistent Canaanite (later Phoenician) control despite nominal Israelite claims.[23] This aligns with archaeological data showing no evidence of Israelite settlement or conquest at the site, underscoring a pattern of incomplete tribal fulfillment in northern coastal regions as noted in these accounts.[3]Classical Antiquity
During the Hellenistic period following Alexander the Great's conquest of the region in 332 BCE, Achzib maintained settlement continuity as a modest coastal site under shifting Phoenician-influenced governance, with archaeological layers yielding imported pottery indicative of trade links to the broader Mediterranean network, though prosperity fluctuated amid regional power transitions.[1] Excavations at Tel Achziv have uncovered structural remains and ceramics from this era, suggesting it served as a peripheral harbor outpost rather than a dominant urban center.[2] In the Roman period, the settlement, Hellenized as Ekdippa (or Acdippa), functioned primarily as a mansio—a roadside inn and relay station—along the Via Maris coastal highway connecting Ptolemais (modern Acre) to Tyre, facilitating imperial communication and military logistics. Flavius Josephus references Ekdippa in descriptions of Hasmonean expansions and the First Jewish-Roman War, portraying it as a strategic waypoint (Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 13.5.4 [15:217]; Jewish War 2.10.1 , 3.9.2 ).[10] By the early 4th century CE, the Bordeaux Pilgrim documented it persisting as a road station en route to Jerusalem, underscoring its enduring logistical role into late antiquity. Roman-era finds at the tel include coins, lamps, and road-related infrastructure remnants, confirming modest but sustained occupation without evidence of major fortification or expansion.[24]Medieval Transformations
During the Crusader era, Achziv underwent significant militarization with the construction of a fortress in 1104 CE, designated Casal Humberti after the knight who commanded it, to safeguard the coastal route to Acre.[25][10] This structure transformed the ancient tell into a strategic outpost and base for Crusader forces, reflecting the period's emphasis on fortifying coastal positions against Muslim incursions.[10] By the mid-12th century, it was also known as Casal Imbert or Casal Umberti, underscoring its role in the Latin Kingdom's defensive network.[1] The site hosted internal Crusader conflicts, notably the Battle of Casal Imbert on May 3, 1232 CE, where forces loyal to the Lord of Beirut clashed with Imperial Marshal Riccardo Filangieri's troops amid the War of the Lombards.[26] In 1256 CE, the fortress was leased to the Teutonic Knights, linking it administratively to nearby Montfort Castle and enhancing its integration into the Hospitaller and Teutonic orders' regional holdings.[25] Archaeological excavations from 1959–1964 revealed Crusader-period fortifications and settlement layers atop earlier strata, confirming occupational continuity and adaptive reuse of the mound's topography for defensive purposes.[10] Medieval Arab geographers, including Ibn Jubayr, Yaqut al-Hamawi, and al-Idrisi, described the locale as al-Zib, a fortified village (qarya muḥaṣṣaba), attesting to its perceived defensive character under Crusader control.[10] The fortress fell to Mamluk forces in 1271 CE following Baybars' campaigns, marking the end of Frankish dominance and initiating a shift toward Muslim administration, though remnants of Crusader architecture persisted into later periods.[27] This conquest facilitated the establishment of a continuous Arab village presence, altering the site's demographic and cultural profile from a Crusader stronghold to an indigenous settlement hub until the 20th century.[27]Ottoman and Mandate Eras
Following the Ottoman conquest of the region in 1516, al-Zib (also known as Ez Zib or Az-Zeeb) functioned as a modest coastal village in the nahiya of Acre within the liwa of Safad. Ottoman tax registers from 1596 documented a population of 875 individuals, primarily engaged in agriculture and fishing, with the village situated on the ancient tell reusing materials from prior eras.[28] The settlement persisted through the centuries with limited development, as evidenced by 19th-century surveys describing it as a small community on a hillock overlooking the Mediterranean, supporting grain cultivation, olive groves, and livestock.[1] Under the British Mandate established after World War I, al-Zib fell within the Acre subdistrict of Mandatory Palestine. The 1922 census recorded 804 residents, consisting of 803 Muslims and 1 Roman Catholic Christian.[29] By the 1931 census, the population had grown to 1,059, and Village Statistics for 1945 reported 1,910 inhabitants, reflecting gradual increase amid regional economic activities centered on cereal farming, fruit orchards, and coastal fishing.[29] Land use data from 1945 indicated approximately 10,000 dunams under cultivation, with the village maintaining its agrarian character until the Mandate's end.[30]1948 War and Immediate Aftermath
During Operation Ben-'Ami, initiated by the Haganah on 13–14 May 1948 to secure the western Galilee region ahead of the British Mandate's termination, the Carmeli Brigade targeted al-Zib (also spelled al-Zeeb), a coastal village in the Acre District with a pre-war population of approximately 2,220 predominantly Arab Muslim inhabitants.[31][32] At dawn on 14 May, a company from the brigade assaulted the village, rapidly occupying key structures such as the house of local notable Muhammad 'Ali al-Sheikh Taha in its southern section, amid broader efforts to clear Arab irregular forces from the area.[33] Israeli historian Benny Morris attributes the Haganah's focus on al-Zib to its prior role as a base for Arab fighters, describing the operation as aimed at neutralizing hostile villages in the northwest.[28] The assault prompted the flight or expulsion of the village's residents, resulting in its complete depopulation by mid-May; most inhabitants reportedly fled northward toward Lebanon, given the village's proximity to the border, joining the wider displacement of around 700,000 Palestinians during the 1948 war.[29][33] No large-scale atrocities were documented specifically at al-Zib, unlike some contemporaneous operations, though the attack aligned with Haganah tactics involving direct assaults to induce evacuation and prevent rear-guard threats.[28] In the immediate aftermath, Israeli forces consolidated control over the now-abandoned site, incorporating its lands—spanning about 1,350 dunams of arable coastal plain—into the nascent state's territory without initial Jewish settlement.[33] The village's structures were partially razed or repurposed, reflecting patterns in depopulated areas where property was secured against return, amid ongoing skirmishes with Arab Liberation Army remnants until Operation Hiram's broader Galilee campaign in late October 1948 stabilized the frontier.[31][33] This conquest solidified Israeli hold on the Achziv coastal strip, prefiguring its later designation as a national park while refugees from al-Zib integrated into camps in Lebanon, with claims unresolved under the 1949 armistice lines.[29]Modern Era
Israeli Sovereignty and National Park Establishment
Israeli forces of the Haganah's Carmeli Brigade captured the village of al-Zib (Achziv) on May 14, 1948, as part of Operation Ben-Ami, which targeted Arab positions in the western Galilee ahead of the British Mandate's termination and Israel's declaration of independence later that day.[34] The operation resulted in the depopulation of the site, with residents fleeing amid the escalating conflict, and established initial Israeli military control over the area.[35] With Israel's proclamation of statehood on May 14, 1948, Achziv fell within the territories defended against invading Arab armies, solidifying administrative sovereignty through effective control and subsequent integration into the national framework. This control was formalized in the 1949 Armistice Agreement with Lebanon, which delineated the international border placing Achziv firmly south of the line, approximately 2 km from the Lebanese frontier, without subsequent territorial disputes altering its status.[36] In 1968, Achziv was designated Israel's inaugural national park by the Nature Reserves Authority (predecessor to the modern Israel Nature and Parks Authority), preserving its coastal dunes, archaeological tel, and marine habitats spanning 230 dunams over 2.3 km of Mediterranean shoreline.[37] The establishment emphasized protection of the site's Bronze Age through Crusader-era ruins alongside ecological features like sea turtle nesting grounds, reflecting early post-independence efforts to balance heritage conservation with public access amid regional security considerations.[7]Post-1948 Settlement and Development
Following the 1948 war, the lands of the depopulated village of Achziv were allocated for Jewish agricultural settlements to secure the western Galilee border region. Kibbutz Gesher HaZiv was established in 1949 adjacent to the former village site by a group including former members of Kibbutz Beit HaArava and North American Habonim youth, focusing initially on farming amid strategic security needs.[38] [39] Kibbutz Sa'ar was founded shortly thereafter in 1948 by members of the Hashomer Hatzair youth movement and Aliyat HaNoar immigrants, reviving cultivation on the coastal hills north of the site.[40] These kibbutzim expanded agricultural production, including citrus and field crops, while serving as frontline defenses against cross-border incursions.[41] In 1968, the Israeli government designated the core Achziv area, encompassing ancient ruins, beaches, and coastal dunes spanning 450 dunams, as Achziv National Park to preserve archaeological and natural features while fostering tourism.[14] The park's development included infrastructure for visitors, such as trails, picnic areas, and access to Phoenician and Crusader-era sites, drawing on the site's millennia-long habitation to attract ecotourists and history enthusiasts.[37] Adjacent to the park, Eli Avivi, who had settled in a surviving village structure in 1952, proclaimed the micronation of Akhzivland in 1971 to protest planned demolitions, establishing a hostel, museum, and camping facilities that evolved into a recognized tourist venue despite lacking official sovereignty.[35] By the late 20th century, regional development integrated kibbutz-based industry and hospitality; for instance, Kibbutz Gesher HaZiv launched the Achziv Winery in 2005, producing varietals like Cabernet Sauvignon from local vineyards, complementing the area's shift toward diversified economy beyond subsistence farming.[42] These efforts sustained population growth, with Gesher HaZiv reaching approximately 1,600 residents by the 2020s, underscoring the transformation from contested frontier to stabilized coastal community.[43]Recent Events and Security Challenges
Following the Hamas attacks on October 7, 2023, Hezbollah initiated cross-border assaults on northern Israel starting October 8, launching rockets, anti-tank missiles, and drones in solidarity with Hamas, resulting in over 8,000 projectiles fired by mid-2024 and at least 47 civilian and military deaths in the region.[44][45] Achziv, located approximately 2 kilometers south of the Lebanese border, fell within the heightened threat zone, prompting the Israel Nature and Parks Authority to close the national park and beach area indefinitely to visitors amid daily alerts and direct impacts nearby.[46][47] The security situation led to mandatory evacuations of over 60,000 residents from communities within 4 kilometers of the border, including kibbutzim like Gesher HaZiv adjacent to Achziv, where residents faced repeated drone incursions and rocket interceptions, with one Hezbollah drone falling nearby on August 19, 2024.[44] Rocket-induced wildfires further exacerbated risks, scorching thousands of hectares in northern forests and open areas by mid-2024, though specific blazes at Achziv were not reported; the area's coastal dunes and archaeological sites remained inaccessible to prevent endangerment during barrages.[48][49] Israeli ground operations in southern Lebanon from September 2024 displaced Hezbollah forces, enabling partial reopenings; Achziv National Park resumed operations on December 3, 2024, after 14 months of closure, alongside sites like Bar'am and Yehiam Fortress, as the IDF expanded a buffer zone to mitigate launch sites.[47] A November 2024 ceasefire reduced immediate hostilities, but violations persisted into 2025, with Israeli strikes on Hezbollah targets in response to attempted rebuilds and drone threats, underscoring Achziv's vulnerability due to its border proximity and lack of full demilitarization in adjacent Lebanese territory.[50][44] Ongoing challenges include restricted civilian access during alerts, bolstered IDF patrols, and tourism recovery hampered by residual risks, with Home Front Command imposing gathering limits and road closures in the northwest.[51]Archaeology
Excavation Timeline and Methods
Archaeological investigations at Tel Achziv commenced during the British Mandate era in response to tomb looting, with salvage excavations led by Immanuel Ben-Dor of the Mandatory Department of Antiquities from 1941 to 1944. These efforts targeted the site's Phoenician cemeteries, employing manual trenching and documentation of burial goods, including pottery, jewelry, and skeletal remains, to secure artifacts before further illicit removal.[52][2] Post-independence excavations shifted to systematic stratigraphic work on the tel mound, directed by Moshe Prausnitz between 1959 and 1964 across multiple areas. Methods included horizontal exposure of architectural features, such as walls and floors from the Iron Age, alongside vertical profiling of strata to establish ceramic chronologies and tomb sequences; for example, in 1963, Area E yielded three Iron Age IIA cist tombs through careful layer-by-layer removal and artifact recording. Petrographic analysis of ceramics from these seasons later refined provenance interpretations, linking jars to local Phoenician production.[20][22][53] Renewed fieldwork from 2013 onward, under a French-Israeli collaboration directed by Michael Jasmin and Philippe Abrahami with support from the Honor Frost Foundation, integrated traditional excavation with advanced techniques. These include high-resolution geophysical surveys initiated in 2015 for mapping micro-artifacts, faunal, and botanical remains via systematic sampling grids, complemented by stratigraphic digs revealing Bronze and Iron Age structures; four seasons by 2020 produced refined chronologies through radiometric dating and contextual analysis of fortifications and domestic units.[19][54][55]Key Artifacts and Interpretations
Excavations in the Iron Age Phoenician cemeteries east and south of Tel Achziv, particularly those conducted by E.L. Sukenik and A. Ben-Dor between 1941 and 1944, uncovered rock-hewn shaft tombs containing diverse grave goods reflective of local elite burial practices.[56] These assemblages feature a rich repertoire of pottery vessels, including storage jars, bowls, and juglets typical of Phoenician ceramics, alongside metal objects such as weapons (swords, spearheads, arrowheads, and knives) and jewelry like earrings and rings.[56] Additional small finds comprise amulets, scarabs with Egyptian influences, cylinder and stamp seals, and a notable collection of terracotta figurines depicting human and animal forms, suggesting both daily life representations and possible apotropaic functions.[56] Phoenician tomb stelae inscribed with personal names or epitaphs further attest to individualized commemorative customs.[56] A standout artifact from renewed French-Israeli excavations in Area C of the tel, dated to the ninth century BCE, is a clay anthropomorphic mask mold measuring 21 × 17 × 6.5 cm, discovered on July 7, 2016, in a sealed Iron Age IIA context within a plastered mud-brick structure.[57] The mold, featuring detailed hollowed facial elements like curly hair, protruding eyes, beard, and mustache, was associated with 14 complete vessels, including cultic chalices, goblets, bowls, jars, and lamps, interpreted as an intentionally buried ritual deposit.[57] Scholars propose its use in producing masks for funerary or cultic purposes, potentially representing the deceased or serving in rituals linked to the nearby cemeteries, drawing parallels to anthropoid coffin lids and mask traditions in Phoenician and Egyptian-influenced contexts.[57] In the northern cemetery, a tomb excavated around 2019 revealed a rare nuclear family burial from circa 800 BCE, comprising the skeletons of an adult male, adult female, and child interred together with Cypriot and Phoenician pottery, a bronze bowl, and the child's necklace of gold, silver, agate, amber, and carnelian beads.[5] Among the grave goods was Israel's largest known Phoenician amphora, underscoring maritime trade connections.[5] This find is interpreted as evidence of familial unity in death among a prosperous stratum, with the child's adornments indicating high social value placed on offspring, contrasting with more common single or paired adult burials in Phoenician sites.[5] Interpretations of these artifacts collectively point to Achziv's role as a peripheral Phoenician polity with ties to Tyre, evidenced by tomb architecture blending local Canaanite shaft traditions with Tyrian material influences during Iron Age IIA (tenth to eighth centuries BCE).[22] The presence of imported elements like Cypriot pottery and Egyptian scarabs highlights extensive trade networks, while the wealth disparity in tomb furnishings—ranging from simple inhumations to lavishly equipped chambers—implies stratified social organization centered on a maritime-oriented elite.[56] Cultic items such as the mask mold and certain vessels suggest integrated religious practices, possibly involving ancestor veneration or protective rites, though direct temple associations remain elusive without further stratigraphic confirmation.[57] These findings, corroborated across multiple excavation phases, affirm Achziv's continuity as a coastal hub from the Late Bronze Age transition, resilient to regional upheavals until Assyrian incursions.[56]Phoenician and Biblical Corroborations
The biblical city of Achzib (Hebrew: אַכְזִיב), associated with the tribe of Asher, is identified with Tel Achziv based on its coastal location matching the boundary description in Joshua 19:29, which states the territory's "outgoings thereof are at the sea from the coast to Achzib."[1] This positioning aligns with the site's placement at the mouth of the Kziv River, approximately 2 kilometers north of modern Nahariya, facilitating maritime access consistent with ancient coastal settlements.[1] Judges 1:31 further references Achzib as one of the cities whose Canaanite inhabitants Asher did not expel, implying sustained foreign control that excavations confirm through continuous occupation layers from the Late Bronze Age into the Iron Age, without dominant Israelite material culture.[1] Archaeological strata at Tel Achziv corroborate the biblical portrayal of a persistent non-Israelite stronghold, with Middle Bronze Age fortifications evolving into Iron Age defenses, including ashlar masonry and a casemate wall system dated to the 10th–9th centuries BCE, predating and outlasting putative Israelite conquests in the region.[54] Pottery assemblages from these layers exhibit Phoenician stylistic traits, such as red-slip burnished wares and torpedo-shaped jars, linking the site to broader Levantine maritime networks rather than inland Israelite patterns.[58] Phoenician affiliation is evidenced by specialized artifacts, including a rare clay mold for terracotta masks unearthed in 2016 excavations, dated to the 9th century BCE and attributed to local Phoenician production based on its stylistic parallels to Cypriot and Tyrian examples.[6] A chamber tomb from the 8th century BCE contained the intact skeletons of an adult male, female, and child—likely a nuclear family—accompanied by a bronze bowl and seven decorated ceramic vessels of Phoenician typology, underscoring elite burial customs at a key southern Phoenician port.[5] The site's Phoenician identity receives extrabiblical confirmation from Assyrian royal annals, where Sennacherib records the 701 BCE conquest of "Akzibi" alongside other coastal strongholds like Sidon and Akko during his campaign against the anti-Assyrian coalition led by Judah's Hezekiah.[1] This aligns with the Iron Age II destruction layers at Tel Achziv, featuring collapsed fortifications and imported Assyrian reliefs in secondary use, indicating imperial subjugation of a Phoenician-aligned polity.[20] The properly stratified Phoenician cemetery at Achziv, excavated in the 1940s and later, yields over 100 tombs with cremation urns and anthropoid coffins, providing rare intact evidence of Phoenician funerary practices distinct from inland Canaanite norms and supporting the site's role in regional trade and cultic continuity.[59]Controversies and Disputes
1948 Depopulation and Land Claims
Al-Zib, a Palestinian Arab village in the Acre sub-district with an estimated population of 2,220 in 1948, was captured by the Haganah's Carmeli Brigade on May 14, 1948, during military operations in western Galilee amid the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. [33] The assault began at dawn, with Israeli forces occupying key structures like the house of village notable Muhammad 'Ali al-Sheikh Taha, leading to the rapid overrun of the site as part of broader efforts to secure the region before the end of the British Mandate on May 15.[33] [28] The village's inhabitants were displaced during the fighting, with Palestinian accounts attributing the depopulation to forcible expulsion by Zionist forces in the context of the Nakba.[60] [28] No massacres were reported at al-Zib, unlike some contemporaneous sites, but the military action prompted flight northward toward Lebanon or dispersal elsewhere, leaving the village abandoned.[33] Israeli military records frame the capture as a tactical necessity to counter Arab irregulars and secure supply lines to besieged positions like Acre and Nahariya.[33] Post-capture, the village's lands—spanning coastal dunes, agricultural fields, and ruins—fell under Israeli control following the 1949 armistice lines, which placed the area within Israel's borders despite its proximity to Lebanon.[28] Under the Absentees' Property Law (enacted December 1948 and expanded in 1950), uncultivated or ownerless Arab lands, including those of al-Zib, were seized by the state custodian for absentee property, facilitating reallocation for Jewish settlement and development.[33] This included the establishment of moshav Sa'ar in May 1948 on adjacent lands and kibbutz Gesher HaZiv in October 1949, which incorporated portions of former al-Zib territory for farming and housing demobilized soldiers.[10] Descendants of al-Zib's refugees, now part of the broader Palestinian diaspora, maintain claims to these properties under the framework of right of return resolutions like UN General Assembly Resolution 194 (1948), though Israel has rejected such demands, citing security needs and state sovereignty established in 1948.[28]The site's partial remains, including stone houses and a mosque, persist amid later Israeli infrastructure, underscoring ongoing disputes over pre-1948 ownership versus post-war state utilization for national parks and security buffers.[61] No resolved legal claims specific to al-Zib have been documented in Israeli courts, with Palestinian advocacy groups like Zochrot highlighting the village's erasure from official maps and narratives.[32]