Hubbry Logo
RoscosmosRoscosmosMain
Open search
Roscosmos
Community hub
Roscosmos
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Roscosmos
Roscosmos
Roscosmos
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

The State Corporation for Space Activities "Roscosmos",[note 1] commonly known simply as Roscosmos (Russian: Роскосмос), is a state corporation of the Russian Federation responsible for space flights, cosmonautics programs, and aerospace research.[2]

Key Information

Originating from the Soviet space program founded in the 1950s, Roscosmos emerged following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It initially began as the Russian Space Agency,[note 2] which was established on 25 February 1992[3] and restructured in 1999 and 2004 as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency[note 3] and the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos),[note 4] respectively.[3] In 2015, the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) was merged with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, a government corporation, to re-nationalize the space industry of Russia, leading to Roscosmos in its current form.[4][5][6]

Roscosmos is headquartered in Moscow, with its main Mission Control Center in the nearby city of Korolyov, and the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center located in Star City in Moscow Oblast. Its launch facilities include Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, the world's first and largest spaceport, and Vostochny Cosmodrome, which is being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast. Its director since February 2025 is Dmitry Bakanov.[7]

As the main successor to the Soviet space program, Roscosmos' legacy includes the world's first satellite, the first human spaceflight, and the first space station (Salyut). Its current activities include the International Space Station, wherein it is a major partner. On 22 February 2019, Roscosmos announced the construction of its new headquarters in Moscow, the National Space Centre. Its Astronaut Corps is the first in the world's history.

History

[edit]
Main article: Soviet space program
Patch of the Russian Space Agency, 1991–2004
The Hall of Space Technology in the Tsiolkovsky State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics, Kaluga, Russia. The exhibition includes the models and replicas of the following Russian/Soviet inventions:
the first satellite, Sputnik 1 (a ball under the ceiling);
the first spacesuits (lower-left corner);
the first human spaceflight module, the Vostok 3KA (center);
the first Molniya-type satellite (upper right corner);
the first space rover, Lunokhod 1 (lower right);
the first space station, Salyut 1 (left);
the first modular space station, Mir (upper left).

The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies. Instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered; it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the reorganization of the Soviet Union into the Russian Federation was therefore a new development. The Russian Space Agency was formed on 25 February 1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had previously worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin, became the agency's first director.[8]

In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the powerful design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation and to survive. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not made by the agency, but by the private shareholder board of the Energia design bureau. Another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichev's ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency.[8]

Crisis years

[edit]

The 1990s saw serious financial problems due to the decreased cash flow, which encouraged the space agency to improvise and seek other ways to keep space programs running. This resulted in the agency's leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism.[citation needed] Scientific missions, such as interplanetary probes or astronomy missions during these years played a very small role, and although the agency had connections with the Russian aerospace forces, its budget was not part of Russia's defense budget; nevertheless, the agency managed to operate the Mir space station well past its planned lifespan, contributed to the International Space Station, and continued to fly Soyuz and Progress missions.

In 1994, Roscosmos renewed the lease on its Baikonur cosmodrome with the government of Kazakhstan.[9]

2000: Start of ISS cooperation

[edit]

On 31 October 2000, a Soyuz spacecraft lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 10:53 a.m. Kazakhstan time. On board were Expedition One Commander William M. (Bill) Shepherd of NASA and cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko of Roscosmos. The trio arrived at the International Space Station on 2 November, marking the start of an uninterrupted human presence on the orbiting laboratory.[10]

2004–2006: Improved situation

[edit]

In March 2004, the agency's director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, who had previously served as the first commander of the Space Forces.[8][11]

The Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. This resulted in the Russian Duma approving a budget of 305 billion rubles (about US$11 billion) for the Space Agency from January 2006 until 2015, with overall space expenditures in Russia total about 425 billion rubles for the same time period.[12] The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles (about US$900 million), which is a 33% increase from the 2005 budget. Under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and commercial space launches. It is around the time US-based The Planetary Society entered a partnership with Roscosmos.

2006–2012

[edit]
Cosmonaut Anton Shkaplerov on EVA (February 2012)

The federal space budget for the year 2009 was left unchanged despite the global economic crisis, standing at about 82 billion rubles ($2.4 billion).[citation needed] In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles ($3.8 bln) in the national space programs.[citation needed]

The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles. The budget for the whole space program is 169.8 billion rubles. ($5.6 bln). By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles.[11]

Priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft.[citation needed] The GLONASS global navigation satellite system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget. In 2007, GLONASS received 9.9 billion rubles ($360 million), and under the terms of a directive signed by Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in 2008, an additional $2.6 billion will be allocated for its development.[citation needed]

Space station funding issues

Due to International Space Station involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the crewed space program as of 2009. Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.[14]

Despite the considerably improved budget,[when?] attention of legislative and executive authorities, positive media coverage and broad support among the population, the Russian space program continues to face several problems.[15] Wages in the space industry are low; the average age of employees is high (46 years in 2007),[15] and much of the equipment is obsolete.[citation needed] On the positive side, many companies in the sector have been able to profit from contracts and partnerships with foreign companies; several new systems such as new rocket upper stages have been developed in recent years; investments have been made to production lines, and companies have started to pay more attention to educating a new generation of engineers and technicians.[8]

2011 New director

On 29 April 2011, Perminov was replaced with Vladimir Popovkin as the director of Roscosmos. The 65-year-old Perminov was over the legal age for state officials, and had received some criticism after a failed GLONASS launch in December 2010. Popovkin is a former commander of the Russian Space Forces and First Deputy Defense Minister of Russia.[16] Also in 2011, the Fobos-Grunt Mars mission was lost in low Earth orbit and crashed back to earth in 2012 [17]

2013–2016: Reorganization of the Russian space sector

[edit]
2022 alternate logo of Roscosmos

As a result of a series of reliability problems, and proximate to the failure of a July 2013 Proton M launch, a major reorganization of the Russian space industry was undertaken. The United Rocket and Space Corporation was formed as a joint-stock corporation by the government in August 2013 to consolidate the Russian space sector. Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said "the failure-prone space sector is so troubled that it needs state supervision to overcome its problems."[18] Three days following the Proton M launch failure, the Russian government had announced that "extremely harsh measures" would be taken "and spell the end of the [Russian] space industry as we know it."[19] Information indicated then that the government intended to reorganize in such a way as to "preserve and enhance the Roscosmos space agency."[18]

More detailed plans released in October 2013 called for a re-nationalization of the "troubled space industry", with sweeping reforms including a new "unified command structure and reducing redundant capabilities, acts that could lead to tens of thousands of layoffs."[20] According to Rogozin, the Russian space sector employs about 250,000 people, while the United States needs only 70,000 to achieve similar results. He said: "Russian space productivity is eight times lower than America's, with companies duplicating one another's work and operating at about 40 percent efficiency."[20]

Under the 2013 plan, Roscosmos was to "act as a federal executive body and contracting authority for programs to be implemented by the industry."[18]

Despite Russian state efforts in the reorganization, two more Proton launch vehicle failures occurred in 2014 and 2015.[21][22]

The government reorganized all of Russia's rocket engine companies into a single entity in June 2015. NPO Energomash, as well as all other engine companies, became a part of United Rocket and Space Corporation.[23]

The decree to actually abolish Roscosmos as a state agency was signed by Vladimir Putin in December 2015, which was replaced by a state-run corporation effective 1 January 2016.[24]

In 2016, the state agency was dissolved and the Roscosmos brand moved to the state corporation, which had been created in 2013 as the United Rocket and Space Corporation, with the specific mission to renationalize the Russian space sector.[24]

In May 2018, Putin selected Rogozin to be the head of the Russian state space corporation Roscosmos.[25]

2017–2021

[edit]

In 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin said "it 'is necessary to drastically improve the quality and reliability of space and launch vehicles' ... to preserve Russia's increasingly threatened leadership in space."[26] In November 2018 Alexei Kudrin, head of Russian financial audit agency, named Roscosmos as the public enterprise with "the highest losses" due to "irrational spending" and outright theft and corruption,[27] under the leadership of Igor Komarov who was terminated in May 2018 in favour of Rogozin.

In 2020 Roscosmos under Rogozin reneged on its participation in Lunar Gateway, a NASA-led project that will see a lunar orbiter spaceport for the moon. It had previously signed an agreement in September 2017 with the Americans.[28][29]

In March 2021, Roscosmos signed a memorandum of cooperative construction of a lunar base called the International Lunar Research Station with the China National Space Administration.”[30]

In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that it will be departing the ISS program after 2024. In its place, it was announced that a new space station (Russian Orbital Service Station) will be constructed starting in 2025.[31]

In June 2021 Rogozin complained that sanctions imposed in the wake of the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea were hurting Roscosmos.[32]

In September 2021, Roscosmos announced its revenue and net income, losing 25 billion roubles and 1 billion roubles respectively in 2020, due to the reduction of profit from foreign contracts, an increase in show-up pay, stay-at-home days and personnel health expenses due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Roscosmos, these losses would also impact the corporation for the next two years.[33] In October, Roscosmos placed the tests of rocket engines in the engineering bureau of chemical automatics in Voronezh on hold for one month to deliver 33 tons of oxygen to local medical centers, as part of aid for the COVID-19 pandemic.[34]

In December 2021, the Government of Russia confirmed determination of the agreement with Roscosmos for development of next-gen space systems, the document been provided for the officials in July 2020.[35]

2022-present

[edit]

Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, Roscosmos launched nine rockets in 2022 and 7 in the first half of 2023.

In early March 2022, Roscosmos under Rogozin suspended its participation in the ESA's Kourou, French Guiana spaceport in a tit-for-tat move over the sanctions imposed in the wake of the Russian invasion.[36] As well Rogozin said he would suspend delivery of the RD-181 engine which is used for the Northrop Grumman Antares-Cygnus space cargo delivery system.[36]

In late March 2022, the European Space Agency (ESA) suspended cooperation with Roscosmos in the ExoMars rover mission because of the Russian invasion, and British satellite venture OneWeb signed contracts with ISRO and SpaceX to launch its satellites after friction had developed "with Moscow" and Roscosmos, its previous orbit service provider.[37] The friction had developed over Rogozin's command that OneWeb needed to ditch its venture capital investment from the UK government.[38][39]

On 2 May 2022, Rogozin announced that Roscosmos would terminate its involvement in the ISS with 12 months' notice as stipulated in the international contract that governs the satellite.[40] This followed the 3 March 2022 announcement that Roscosmos would cease cooperation on scientific experiments at the Spacelab,[38] and the 25 March 2022 announcement by Rogozin that "cooperation with Europe is now impossible after sanctions over the Ukraine war."[41]

Rogozin was removed from his job as CEO in July 2022,[42] and replaced with Yury Borisov, who seemed to stabilize the relationship with the ISS partners, especially NASA. One complaint against Rogozin was his risky words about terminating the ISS agreement over the war in Ukraine,[9] which he broadcast as early as April 2022.[43][37] At one point in time NASA had bought 71 return trips on Soyuz for almost $4 billion over six years.[9]

The global space-launch services market was valued at $12.4 billion in 2021 and was forecast to reach $38 billion by decade's end. An American academic wrote that in the wake of the Russian invasion, Roscosmos' share of that market was likely to decline in favour of new entrants such as Japan and India, as well as commercial entrants like SpaceX and Blue Origin.[44]

In June 2023, Roscosmos held a campaign to recruit volunteers for the Uran Battalion, a militia for the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[42]

In October 2023, Borisov announced the need for 150 billion rubles to build the Russian space station in the next three years. At completion in 2032, it will have absorbed 609 billion rubles.[45]

In February 2024, at the 2023 AGM, Borisov announced the loss of 180 billion rubles in export revenues, chiefly engine sales and launch services, because of the Western hostility to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[46] Roscosmos had lost 90% of its launch service contracts since the advent of the war.[47][48]

Roscosmos and Russia's space industry are facing significant challenges. The country is on track to conduct its fewest orbital launches since 1961. As of August 15, 2024, only nine launches had occurred, a sharp decline partly attributed to the loss of Western customers following Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Roscosmos has reported financial losses of 180 billion rubles ($2.1 billion) due to canceled contracts. The agency's first deputy director indicated it may not achieve profitability until 2025.[49]

Future plans

[edit]

From 2024 on Roscosmos headquarters will be located in the new National Space Center in the Moscow district of Fili.[50]

Current programs

[edit]

Rockets

[edit]

Roscosmos uses a family of several launch rockets, the most famous of them being the R-7, commonly known as the Soyuz rocket that is capable of launching about 7.5 tons into low Earth orbit (LEO). The Proton rocket (or UR-500K) has a lift capacity of over 20 tons to LEO. Smaller rockets include Rokot and other Stations.

Currently rocket development encompasses both a new rocket system, Angara, as well as enhancements of the Soyuz rocket, Soyuz-2 and Soyuz-2-3. Two modifications of the Soyuz, the Soyuz-2.1a and Soyuz-2.1b have already been successfully tested, enhancing the launch capacity to 8.5 tons to LEO. Future projects include the Soyuz successor launch rocket.

Operational

[edit]
Vehicle Manufacturer Payload mass (kg) Maiden flight Total launches Notes
LEO GTO Other
Proton-M Khrunichev 23,000 6,920 3,250 to GSO 7 April 2001 115 To be replaced by Angara A5
Soyuz‑2.1a RTKs Progress 7,020 8 November 2004 73 Capable of human spaceflight
Soyuz‑2.1b RTKs Progress 8,200 2,400 27 December 2006 76
Angara 1.2 Khrunichev 3,500 2,400 to SSO 9 July 2014 4
Angara A5 Khrunichev 24,000 7,500 with KVTK
5,400 with Briz-M 		23 December 2014 4

Under development

[edit]
Vehicle Manufacturer Payload mass (kg) Planned maiden flight Notes
LEO GTO Other
Irtysh (Soyuz‑5) RTKs Progress 18,000 crewed
15,500 uncrewed 		5,000 2025 Base of the Yenisei
Amur (Soyuz‑7) KBKhA 10,500 reusable
12,500 expendable 		2026 First reusable methalox Russian rocket
Yenisei Energia/RTKs Progress 103,000 26,000 27,000 to TLI 2028 First super-heavy launch vehicle being developed by the Russian space industry since the fall of the USSR
Don Energia/RTKs Progress 140,000 29,500 33,000 to TLI 2032–2035 Based on the Yenisei, with an additional stage

Scientific programs

[edit]
See also: Scientific research on the International Space Station

Roscosmos operates a number of programs for Earth science, communication, and scientific research like the Bion-M space medicine satellite series, the Elektro–L meteorological satellite series and the Meteor-M meteorological satellite series. Roscosmos also operates one science satellite (Spektr-RG) and no interplanetary probes. As of 2024 there are plans for scientific robotic missions to one of the Mars moons as well as an increase in Lunar orbit research satellites to one (Luna-Glob). Future plans include:

  • Luna-Glob Moon orbiters and landers, with plans for seven missions from 2023 until the 2030s. Luna 25 launched in 2023 crashed onto the moon.[51][52]
  • Venera-D Venus lander, planned for 2029

Space systems

[edit]
The Galenki RT-70 radio telescope. It is among the largest single dish radio telescopes in the world.

Resurs-P[53] is a series of Russian commercial Earth observation satellites capable of acquiring high-resolution imagery (resolution up to 1.0 m). The spacecraft is operated by Roscosmos as a replacement of the Resurs-DK No.1 satellite.

Gonets is a series of civilian low Earth orbit communication satellite system. On 2016, the system consists of 13 satellites (12 Gonets-M and 1 Gonets-D1).[54]

Create HEO space system "Arctic" to address the hydrological and meteorological problems in the Arctic region and the northern areas of the Earth, with the help of two spacecraft "Arktika-M" and in the future within the system can create a communications satellite "Arktika-MS" and radar satellites "Arktika-R."[55]

The launch of two satellites "Obzor-R" (Review-R) Remote Sensing of the Earth, with the AESA radar and four spacecraft "Obzor-O" (Review-O) to capture the Earth's surface in normal and infrared light in a broad swath of 80 km with a resolution of 10 meters. The first two satellites of the projects planned for launch in 2015.[citation needed]

Gecko mating experiment

[edit]

On 19 July 2014, Roscosmos launched the Foton-M4 satellite containing, among other animals and plants, a group of five geckos.[56][57] The five geckos, four females and one male, were used as a part of the Gecko-F4 research program aimed at measuring the effects of weightlessness on the lizards' ability to procreate and develop in the harsh environment. However, soon after the spacecraft exited the atmosphere, mission control lost contact with the vessel which led to an attempt to reestablish communication that was only achieved later in the mission. When the satellite returned to Earth after its planned two-month mission had been cut short to 44 days, the space agency researchers reported that all the geckos had perished during the flight.

The exact cause that led to the deaths of the geckos was declared unknown by the scientific team in charge of the project. Reports from the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems in Russia have indicated that the lizards had been dead for at least a week prior to their return to Earth. A number of those connected to the mission have theorized that a failure in the vessel's heating system may have caused the cold blooded reptiles to freeze to death.

Included in the mission were a number of fruit flies, plants, and mushrooms which all survived the mission.[58]

ISS involvement

[edit]
See also: Russian Orbital Segment
The Zarya module was the first module of the ISS, launched in 1998.

Roscosmos is one of the partners in the International Space Station program. It contributed the core space modules Zarya and Zvezda, which were both launched by Proton rockets and later were joined by NASA's Unity Module. The Rassvet module was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis[59] and is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. The Nauka module is the final planned component of the ISS, launch was postponed several times from the initially planned date in 2007,[60] but attached to ISS in July 2021.[61]

Roscosmos is responsible for expedition crew launches by Soyuz-TMA spacecraft and resupplies the space station with Progress space transporters. After the initial ISS contract with NASA expired, Roscosmos and NASA, with the approval of the US government, entered into a space contract running until 2011, according to which Roscosmos will sell NASA spots on Soyuz spacecraft for approximately $21 million per person each way, thus $42 million to and back from the ISS per person, as well as provide Progress transport flights, at $50 million per Progress as outlined in the Exploration Systems Architecture Study.[62] Roscosmos announced that according to this arrangement, crewed Soyuz flights would be doubled to 4 per year and Progress flights doubled to 8 per year beginning in 2008.[needs update][citation needed]

Roscosmos has provided space tourism for fare-paying passengers to ISS through the Space Adventures company. As of 2009, six space tourists have contracted with Roscosmos and have flown into space, each for an estimated fee of at least $20 million (USD).[needs update]

Continued international collaboration in ISS missions has been thrown into doubt by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and related sanctions on Russia,[63] although resupply missions continued in 2022 and 2023.

Suffa Space Observatory

[edit]

In 2018, Russia agreed to help build the Suffa observatory in Uzbekistan. The observatory was started in 1991, but stalled after the fall of the USSR.[64]

New piloted spacecraft

[edit]

One of Roscosmos's projects that was widely covered in the media in 2005 was Kliper, a small lifting body reusable spacecraft. While Roscosmos had reached out to ESA and JAXA as well as others to share development costs of the project, it also stated that it will go forward with the project even without the support of other space agencies. This statement was backed by the approval of its budget for 2006–2015, which includes the necessary funding of Kliper. However, the Kliper program was cancelled in July 2006,[65] and has been replaced by the new Prospective Piloted Transport System. (Orel) project. As of August 2023, the first uncrewed and crewed test flights of Orel spacecraft are expected to occur in 2028.[66]

Launch control

[edit]
Main article: Russian Space Forces

The Russian Space Forces is the military counterpart of the Roscosmos with similar mission objectives as of the United States Space Force. The Russian branch was formed after the merging of the space components of the Russian Air Force and the Aerospace Defense Forces (VKO) in 2015. The Space Forces controls Russia's Plesetsk Cosmodrome launch facility. Roscosmos and the Space Forces share control of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, where Roscosmos reimburses the VKO for the wages of many of the flight controllers during civilian launches. Roscosmos and the Space Forces also share control of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. It has been announced that Russia is to build another spaceport in Tsiolkovsky, Amur Oblast.[67] The Vostochny Cosmodrome was scheduled to be finished by 2018 having launched its first rocket in 2016.

Subsidiaries

[edit]

As of 2017, Roscosmos had the following subsidiaries:[68]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Roscosmos

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities is the Russian federal entity responsible for coordinating the nation's program, encompassing the development, manufacture, and operation of launch vehicles, , and upper stages, as well as international cooperation in and . Formed in August 2015 as part of a reform to consolidate the fragmented , it succeeded the Russian Space Agency established in 1992 following the Soviet Union's dissolution, inheriting a legacy of pioneering achievements in rocketry and orbital flight. Roscosmos oversees key operational programs, including the reliable Soyuz family of crewed spacecraft and launchers, which have enabled continuous Russian contributions to the since 1998, with over 1,900 Soyuz launches demonstrating exceptional dependability despite occasional anomalies. The agency also manages uncrewed missions for satellite deployment, Earth observation, and deep-space probes, such as the resupply vehicles that have supported ISS logistics for decades. Despite these strengths, Roscosmos has encountered persistent controversies, including high-profile launch failures like the 2023 Luna-25 lunar probe crash, allegations of internal , and production setbacks attributed to aging infrastructure and skilled workforce emigration. Recent financial strains, exacerbated by Western sanctions over the conflict, have prompted warnings of potential for key subsidiaries and delays in engine development, threatening long-term capabilities. As of 2025, the corporation aims to execute over 20 launches and initiate low-Earth orbit satellite constellations, amid efforts to sustain ISS participation until its planned decommissioning and pursue independent lunar ambitions.

History

Soviet Legacy and Formation (1992–1999)

The dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991, left its centralized space program fragmented across former republics, with Russia inheriting the core infrastructure, including design bureaus like those producing Soyuz spacecraft and Proton launchers, the Baikonur Cosmodrome (via a subsequent lease agreement), and the operational Mir space station with its resident crew. This inheritance preserved technical expertise and ongoing missions but confronted immediate disarray from severed supply chains, unpaid debts to international partners, and economic turmoil in the nascent Russian Federation. On February 25, 1992, President decreed the creation of the Russian Space Agency (RKA), a federal executive body tasked with implementing state space policy, coordinating research and production enterprises, and ensuring international cooperation. Engineer Yuri Koptev, previously involved in planetary probe development at NPO Lavochkin, was appointed director general, serving until 2004 and steering the agency through efforts and budget constraints that halved space funding from Soviet-era levels. The RKA's early years emphasized continuity amid crisis, sustaining 20-30 annual launches from 1992 to 1999—primarily Soyuz crewed flights to and commercial Proton missions—while forging ties with , culminating in the 1993 Shuttle- docking agreement and joint preparations for the . Economic pressures led to delays, such as the 1994 Proton launch failures and reliance on foreign clients for revenue, yet the agency avoided collapse by leveraging Soviet-era reliability in . By 1999, amid ongoing reforms, the RKA was restructured into the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (Rosaviakosmos) to integrate oversight, reflecting efforts to consolidate fragmented post-Soviet sectors under unified federal control. This evolution marked a transition from survival to institutionalized management, though persistent underfunding—averaging 0.2% of GDP—highlighted the divergence from the Soviet model's state-driven scale.

Post-Soviet Crisis and Stabilization (2000–2010)

In the early 2000s, the Russian space program grappled with lingering effects of the economic turmoil, including chronic underfunding and infrastructure decay, yet began stabilizing amid rising oil revenues and renewed state prioritization. The launch of the Zvezda service module on July 12, 2000, via Proton-K rocket from , marked a pivotal achievement, providing the (ISS) with its core Russian segment for life support, propulsion, and crew habitation, thereby securing 's indispensable role in the program's operations. spacecraft conducted regular crew rotations to the ISS starting from in late 2000, with maintaining sole capability for international partners until the Space Shuttle's . Budget allocations for Roscosmos, then operating as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency, saw steady growth from approximately 10 billion rubles in to over 100 billion rubles by , nearly doubling in real terms and enabling expanded launch manifests that positioned as the global leader in orbital launches, averaging 25-30 annually by mid-decade. This influx supported the revival of the navigation constellation, with launches resuming in 2001 after a decade-long hiatus, aiming to achieve full operational coverage by deploying 24 satellites. However, reliability issues persisted, exemplified by multiple failures between 2000 and 2010, attributed to aging production lines and quality control lapses at Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center. In March 2004, Anatoly Perminov, a former commander of the Russian Space Forces, succeeded Yuri Koptev as head of the agency, ushering in a phase emphasizing military-civilian synergies and commercialization of launch services. Under Perminov's tenure, the Federal Space Program for 2006-2015 allocated resources for infrastructure upgrades, including 9.53 billion rubles for new launch pads, though execution faced delays due to bureaucratic inefficiencies and corruption scandals. Progress included the maiden flight of the Soyuz-FG variant in 2001 for manned missions and incremental advancements in the Angara rocket family, intended to replace aging systems but stalled by funding reallocations. By the decade's end, Roscosmos had stabilized core operations, launching over 250 missions cumulatively from 2000-2010, predominantly via Soyuz and Proton vehicles, while generating revenue from commercial payloads and ISS transport contracts exceeding $500 million annually by 2008. Nonetheless, systemic challenges—such as dependency on the leased facility and vulnerability to geopolitical tensions over —highlighted the need for domestic alternatives, setting the stage for subsequent reforms.

Reorganization and Expansion (2011–2021)

In May 2011, was appointed as Russia's deputy prime minister overseeing the defense industry, including space activities, amid efforts to address inefficiencies in the sector following several launch failures. In April 2011, Anatoly Perminov was replaced as Roscosmos head by Vladimir Popovkin, who prioritized modernization and proposed restructuring the agency into a model similar to the state nuclear corporation . That year, the Russian government allocated 115 billion rubles (approximately $3.8 billion) for space programs, planning around 50 launches. Construction of the in Russia's began in September 2011 to reduce reliance on the leased facility in and enable launches into higher-inclination orbits. The project faced significant delays and cost overruns, with infrastructure like roads, railways, and utilities targeted for completion by 2013 but extending into later years due to labor shortages and corruption probes. The site's first orbital launch occurred on April 28, 2016, with a Soyuz-2.1a carrying 20 small satellites, marking an expansion of Russia's launch infrastructure despite ongoing construction challenges. A major reorganization unfolded in 2015, liquidating the federal space agency and establishing Roscosmos as a state on December 28 via presidential , consolidating oversight of design bureaus, production facilities, and launch operations to streamline and curb after a string of Proton failures. This structure integrated the United Rocket and Space , formed in 2014, under Roscosmos, enhancing centralized control. In 2018, Rogozin transitioned from to Roscosmos CEO, emphasizing indigenous heavy-lift capabilities. Expansion efforts included advancing the modular rocket family, developed by Khrunichev since the as a replacement for aging Soviet-era vehicles using RD-193 engines for flexibility. The first test flight of Angara-1.2 occurred on December 23, 2014, from Plesetsk, validating the core URM-1 stage, followed by additional tests through the decade to support payloads up to 24.5 tons to in the Angara-A5 configuration. By 2021, these initiatives aimed to bolster Russia's independent access to , though persistent technical issues and budget constraints limited full operational deployment.

Geopolitical Realignment and Challenges (2022–Present)

Following Russia's full-scale invasion of on February 24, 2022, Western governments imposed extensive sanctions on Roscosmos, targeting its access to foreign , components, and markets, which accelerated the agency's isolation from established international space partnerships. These measures, including export controls on dual-use items, disrupted supply chains for rocket engines and , contributing to production delays and increased reliance on domestic alternatives amid pre-existing and underfunding issues. Roscosmos responded by halting launches of foreign satellites, such as the destruction of OneWeb terminals in March 2022 under orders from , then-head of the agency, and suspending cooperation with the on the mission. Despite initial threats to withdraw from the (ISS) by 2024, Roscosmos and agreed in 2022 to continue Soyuz and Crew Dragon cross-flights through at least 2025 to ensure crew transport redundancy, given the reliability of Soyuz amid SpaceX's development phases. This arrangement was extended further; in July 2025, Roscosmos chief announced an agreement with to maintain joint ISS operations until 2028, allowing Russia to retain its segment while planning a successor station. However, geopolitical tensions persisted, with Roscosmos cosmonauts appearing in UN sessions wearing symbols supporting the , straining relations despite operational necessities. In response to Western decoupling, Roscosmos pursued realignment toward non-Western partners, particularly , culminating in a 2021 memorandum—reinforced post-2022—for the (ILRS), a joint lunar base project aiming for initial modules by 2030. Discussions advanced to include a for the ILRS, signaling Russia's pivot to eastward technical collaboration amid expansion, though concrete achievements remained limited by 2025 due to mutual technological gaps and Russia's resource constraints. Roscosmos also explored satellite deals with nations like and , but these yielded few operational launches compared to pre-sanctions commercial volumes. The period brought acute technical and operational challenges, exemplified by the August 19, 2023, crash of the Luna-25 lander—the first Russian lunar mission since 1976—due to an onboard failure during orbital maneuvers, highlighting and software deficiencies exacerbated by sanctions-induced component shortages. Rocket engine production faltered, with engines for vehicles facing delays from imported material bans, limiting civilian launches while military tests proceeded. Budget inflation and brain drain intensified, with space sector funding failing to match rising costs, leading to Rogozin's dismissal in July 2022 and Borisov's appointment amid vows for efficiency reforms. Roscosmos announced the (ROSS) for initial deployment by 2027, but skepticism persists given repeated delays in heavy-lift capabilities like Angara-A5, which saw only test flights post-2022.

Organizational Structure

Governance and Leadership

Roscosmos functions as a state corporation established under Russian , combining regulatory oversight, strategic planning, and operational management of the nation's activities. Formed initially as the Russian Federal Space Agency in 1992 following the Soviet Union's dissolution, it underwent significant in 2015, transforming into the Roscosmos State Corporation to address chronic inefficiencies in the fragmented by centralizing authority over design bureaus, production facilities, and launch operations. This model allows the corporation to implement government policy while directly managing commercial and military projects, funded primarily through federal budget allocations tied to multi-year programs. Leadership is vested in the , appointed directly by the for a term typically aligned with administrative cycles, serving as the chief executive responsible for daily operations, international cooperation, and advising on national space strategy. The position reports to the government and coordinates with entities like the Ministry of Defense for dual-use technologies. As of February 6, 2025, Dmitry Bakanov holds the role, having succeeded Yuri Borisov, whose tenure from July 2022 focused on post-Ukraine invasion realignments but ended amid reported launch failures and financial scrutiny. Prior leaders include (May 2018–July 2022), noted for aggressive rhetoric on Western sanctions, and earlier heads like Igor Komarov (2015–2018). A deputy director assists the General Director, overseeing specialized directorates for areas such as , launch vehicles, and scientific missions, while a provides strategic guidance under presidential influence. emphasizes state control to mitigate risks identified in audits, though critics from Russian state media have highlighted persistent violations in and , prompting repeated leadership changes. The structure prioritizes to enhance reliability, yet it has faced challenges from sanctions limiting technology access since 2022.

Subsidiaries and Key Facilities

Roscosmos operates through a network of state-owned joint-stock companies and specialized research entities, primarily consolidated under holdings like the United Rocket and Space Corporation (ORSC), which Roscosmos fully owns and which encompasses major design bureaus and production centers for launch vehicles and . Key subsidiaries include S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia (RSC Energia), responsible for developing and manufacturing crewed such as Soyuz and modules for the ; Progress Rocket Space Center, which produces Soyuz launch vehicles; Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center, focused on Proton and rockets; NPO Lavochkin, specializing in uncrewed interplanetary probes and scientific satellites; and , the developer of and other rocket engines. Additional affiliates handle satellite systems and ground operations, such as Information Satellite Systems Reshetnev (АО «РЕШЕТНЁВ»), which designs communications and navigation satellites like , with Mikhail Valov appointed as general director on October 10, 2025.
SubsidiaryPrimary RoleOwnership Note
RSC EnergiaManned spacecraft and ISS modulesMajority stake via ORSC
Progress Rocket Space CenterSoyuz launch vehiclesUnder ORSC
Khrunichev State Research and Production Space CenterProton and rocketsUnder ORSC
NPO Uncrewed probes and satellitesDirect affiliate
NPO Liquid rocket enginesDirect affiliate
Information Satellite Systems ReshetnevNavigation and communication satellitesDirect subsidiary
Key facilities supporting Roscosmos operations include the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City near Moscow, established in 1960 for astronaut preparation and simulation training, accommodating up to 250 cosmonauts with centrifuges, neutral buoyancy labs, and survival training modules. The Central Research Institute of Machine Building (TsNIIMash) in Korolyov conducts systems engineering, reliability testing, and mission planning for human spaceflight, with Vasily Titov appointed general director in March 2025. The Keldysh Research Center in Moscow develops advanced propulsion technologies, including high-power plasma engines tested as of September 2025. The National Space Center, under construction since 2019 in Moscow as a joint project with the city government, integrates research, production, and exhibition functions, renamed after Valentina Tereshkova on October 16, 2025. These facilities emphasize integration of design, testing, and operations to maintain technical continuity from Soviet-era capabilities.

Launch Systems and Infrastructure

Operational Launch Vehicles

Roscosmos relies on the family as its primary for crewed missions, cargo resupply to the , and small-to-medium satellite deployments. The , an evolution of the R-7-derived Soyuz rockets first flown in 1966, incorporates digital avionics, improved engines, and variants tailored to specific sites and payloads: for launches with the upper stage, for operations with a lighter upper stage, and using first-stage engines for military payloads up to 2,850 kg to . Capable of delivering approximately 8,200 kg to , the family maintains a success rate exceeding 98% across over 100 launches since its 2004 debut, with multiple missions in 2025 including MS-33 cargo flights. The serves as Roscosmos's heavy-lift option for insertions, though its operations have declined due to past failures and the shift toward domestic alternatives. Originating from the 1960s Proton ICBM, the modernized uses hypergolic propellants and the Briz-M upper stage, achieving payloads of up to 6,900 kg to from . Despite corrosion issues in storage and a 2010s failure rate prompting groundings, it resumed flights post-2016 reforms, with four planned launches in 2025 including commercial and international payloads like the Ekvator . Introduced to replace Proton for heavy payloads, the Angara-A5 entered operational service in 2025 following successful test flights, marking Roscosmos's first fully domestic heavy-lift capability independent of Ukrainian components. This modular kerosene-fueled rocket, using engines on its modules, lifts up to 24,500 kg to or 5,400 kg to from Plesetsk or Vostochny. Its fifth flight on June 19, 2025, deployed two geostationary satellites, confirming reliability for and commercial missions amid plans for up to five annual launches initially.
Launch VehicleMax Payload to LEO (kg)Primary Use CasesKey SitesStatus Notes
Soyuz-2.1a/b/v8,200Crewed, cargo, LEO satellites, Vostochny, PlesetskHigh-reliability workhorse; ongoing ISS support
23,000 (LEO); 6,900 (GTO)Heavy GTO satellitesPhasing out; reliability improvements post-failures
Angara-A524,500Heavy LEO/GTO; modular familyPlesetsk, VostochnyOperational since 2025; Proton successor
These vehicles collectively enable Roscosmos's 20+ launches projected for 2025, though constraints like sanctions and infrastructure delays have reduced cadence from Soviet-era peaks.

Launch Sites and Control Centers

Roscosmos operates three primary launch sites for its orbital missions: the in , the in Russia's , and the in northern Russia. Baikonur, leased by Russia from since 1955 under a long-term agreement extended through 2050, serves as the main hub for crewed Soyuz launches to the and heavy-lift Proton rockets, hosting over 90% of Russia's historical orbital launches despite its foreign location. Vostochny, constructed starting in 2011 to assert sovereignty over Russian launches, achieved its first orbital mission on April 28, 2016, with a Soyuz-2.1a, and is designed for Soyuz and future vehicles, aiming to handle 45% of Russia's launches including all manned flights by reducing reliance on . Plesetsk, operational since 1957 and primarily military-controlled but utilized by Roscosmos for civilian payloads, specializes in polar-orbit launches for reconnaissance and satellites using Soyuz and Rockot vehicles from pads about 800 km north of . The agency's primary control center is the TsUP (Tsentr Upravleniya Polyotami, or Mission Control Center), located in , which oversees flight operations for crewed spacecraft, uncrewed probes, and the Russian segment of the . Established in the Soviet era and modernized for joint ISS missions, TsUP coordinates real-time telemetry, trajectory corrections, and emergency responses for Soyuz, , and deep-space missions launched from Roscosmos sites. Supporting facilities include ground stations in and remote tracking sites, but TsUP remains the central node for integrating data from launch sites and orbital assets.

Vehicles in Development

The Soyuz-5, also designated , is a under development by JSC SRC to replace the and provide an alternative to foreign-dependent Zenit rockets, thereby reducing reliance on Ukrainian-supplied engines. Development has progressed despite delays, with ground testing of the first stage completed and a static fire test conducted on October 11, 2025, indicating work nearing completion per government reports. The maiden flight is scheduled for December 2025 from , targeting orbital insertion capability of up to 17 metric tons to in its baseline configuration. An upgraded variant, Amur-SPG, incorporates reusability features for the first stage using methane-fueled engines, with full operational readiness projected for 2028. This design aims to lower launch costs through propellant cross-feed and stage recovery, drawing inspiration from commercial reusability models, though technical documentation was expected by early 2025 with development extending into the 2030s. The Angara-A5M represents an enhanced heavy-lift iteration of the family, featuring uprated RD-191M engines on the first stage to increase payload capacity to beyond the standard A5's 24.5 metric tons. Following the successful June 19, 2025, launch of an carrying geostationary satellites from , Roscosmos has accelerated A5M integration, with initial flights targeted for 2027 to support and commercial missions. Broader reusable rocket initiatives were outlined in July , focusing on maturation to compete with reductions achieved by international providers, though specific timelines remain contingent on funding and testing outcomes amid geopolitical constraints. Prior super-heavy concepts like Yenisei have been deprioritized, with emphasis shifting to modular, domestically produced systems for sustained access to space.

Human Spaceflight

Soyuz Program and ISS Operations

![ISS-30 EVA Anton Shkaplerov][float-right] The Soyuz spacecraft series, managed by Roscosmos, serves as the cornerstone of Russian , providing reliable crew transportation to the (ISS) with a design evolved from Soviet-era models dating back to 1967. Capable of carrying up to three crew members in its descent module, the modern variant features a total pressurized volume of approximately 10 cubic meters and supports missions lasting up to 210 days when docked to the ISS. Roscosmos launches Soyuz vehicles from the using rockets, docking autonomously or manually to the Russian segment of the station, typically at the Rassvet or Poisk modules. Since the ISS's first crewed expedition in November 2000 with Soyuz TM-31, Roscosmos has executed over 70 Soyuz flights dedicated to ISS operations, facilitating the delivery of cosmonauts for long-duration stays averaging six months per expedition. These missions have maintained continuous human presence on the station, with Russian crews contributing to operations in the Zvezda service module and conducting extravehicular activities (EVAs) for maintenance and science. Following the U.S. program's retirement in 2011, Soyuz held a monopoly on crewed access to the ISS until SpaceX's Crew Dragon certification in 2020, during which Roscosmos sold seats to astronauts under commercial agreements totaling over $3 billion for 36 flights through 2020. Soyuz's operational reliability stems from its iterative design improvements, achieving a success rate exceeding 97% across more than 1,000 Soyuz rocket launches and hundreds of crewed missions, though recent incidents highlight maintenance challenges. Notable anomalies include a 2018 micrometeoroid puncture in Soyuz MS-09 requiring in-orbit repairs and a 2022 coolant leak in Soyuz MS-22 that prompted an uncrewed replacement mission (Soyuz MS-23) and crew swaps with NASA to ensure safe return. Despite these, Roscosmos engineers restored functionality, underscoring the spacecraft's robustness, as evidenced by NASA analyses benchmarking Soyuz against new systems for equivalent or superior reliability. As of October 2025, Soyuz continues ISS operations amid Russia's planned withdrawal from the partnership post-2024, with reduced launch cadence to approximately 1.5 missions annually and extended expedition durations. Recent flights, such as in March 2024 carrying two Russian cosmonauts and one astronaut, demonstrate ongoing U.S.-Russia cooperation via cross-flights, even under geopolitical strains from sanctions following the 2022 conflict. Roscosmos has launched Soyuz MS-26 and subsequent vehicles to support Expedition 73, which began in April 2025, ensuring Russian segment functionality until the ISS's anticipated deorbit in 2030. This persistence reflects Soyuz's role as a proven, cost-effective system, though funding shortfalls have delayed upgrades and prompted scrutiny of long-term .

Crewed Mission Achievements and Reliability

Roscosmos has facilitated over 70 crewed Soyuz launches to the (ISS) since 2000, ensuring reliable transport for Russian cosmonauts and international partners until the introduction of competing systems. These missions have supported continuous human presence on the ISS, with Soyuz serving as the sole crewed vehicle for access from 2006 to 2020 following the . Cosmonauts launched by Roscosmos hold key endurance records, including Kononenko's cumulative time in space surpassing 1,000 days by June 4, 2024, across five missions. In 2024, Kononenko and set the record for the longest single ISS expedition at over 371 days. The Soyuz program's reliability stems from iterative design refinements since the Soviet era, with the launcher achieving a 100% success rate for crewed missions from its 2001 debut until October 11, 2018. The 2018 failure, caused by a deformed in a booster, triggered a successful activation two minutes after liftoff, allowing cosmonaut Aleksey Ovchinin and Nick Hague to land safely without injury. Subsequent investigations led to enhanced quality controls, enabling Soyuz MS-11's successful launch on December 3, 2018, and maintaining a perfect crewed record thereafter through 2025. Roscosmos-reported Russian launch success rates reached 100% over the four years preceding 2022, reflecting improved operational reliability despite broader program challenges. Overall, Soyuz crewed missions post-1992 have incurred no fatalities, with the escape system's proven efficacy in aborts like MS-10 affirming its safety margins.

Emerging Crewed Systems

The (formerly Orel) spacecraft, designated PTK NP (Prospective Piloted Transport System for Near-Earth Orbits), represents Roscosmos's primary effort to develop a next-generation reusable crewed vehicle as a successor to the Soyuz system. Initiated in the late 2000s with formal development accelerating around 2010 under RKK Energia, the program aims to enable missions to , including servicing the planned (ROSS), as well as circumlunar flights. The spacecraft features a crew capsule accommodating up to four cosmonauts for durations of up to 30 days in orbit, with a service module for propulsion and a reentry system designed for reusability across multiple missions. Development milestones include ground-based mockup testing and subsystem integration, with full-scale mockups scheduled for evaluation at the Vostochny Cosmodrome between and 2025 to validate landing and recovery procedures. As of October , Roscosmos reviewed the construction status of prototypes during a meeting at RKK Energia, confirming ongoing assembly of key components amid integration with the Angara-A5 heavy-lift launcher. However, the program has faced repeated delays due to budgetary constraints, technical challenges, and external pressures from following Russia's 2022 invasion of , which restricted access to foreign components and exacerbated funding shortfalls. An initial target for uncrewed debut in the mid-2020s slipped, with earlier projections for crewed flights postponed beyond 2025. Roscosmos has targeted an uncrewed for 2028, potentially followed by a crewed orbital test in the same year, with capabilities planned for the to support Russia's independent deep- ambitions post-International withdrawal in 2025. The vehicle is engineered for compatibility with the Soyuz docking standard initially, facilitating hybrid operations during the transition to ROSS, whose core modules are slated for assembly by 2030. Despite official optimism, independent analyses highlight persistent risks, including engine development hurdles for the RD-0169 upper stage and reliance on domestic substitutes for sanctioned , which could further extend timelines.

Scientific and Uncrewed Programs

Satellite Constellations and Earth Observation

Roscosmos oversees key satellite constellations for navigation, communication, and data relay, with GLONASS serving as the flagship global navigation satellite system. Flight tests for GLONASS began in October 1982 with the launch of the Kosmos-1413 satellite from Plesetsk Cosmodrome. The constellation, comprising medium-Earth orbit satellites, supports positioning, navigation, and timing services for civilian and military applications, consuming a significant portion of Roscosmos' budget historically. As of 2025, Russia plans to replenish the aging network by replacing at least six satellites over the next two to three years and exploring low-Earth orbit augmentation to enhance accuracy and coverage. A federal development program for GLONASS, spanning 2021–2030, emphasizes dual-use capabilities amid ongoing maintenance challenges. Recent additions include GLONASS No. 53, launched from Plesetsk to bolster the operational fleet. The Gonets system, operated by JSC Satellite System Gonets under Roscosmos auspices, provides low-Earth orbit communication and store-and-forward relaying for secure data transmission, particularly in remote areas. The constellation achieves near-global coverage through a combination of LEO satellites and three geostationary satellites designated Loutch-5. Gonets supports national projects outlined for 2025–2030, integrating with broader Roscosmos efforts in systems for connectivity and emergency services. In , Roscosmos deploys optical and radar satellites for , focusing on high-resolution imaging, , and . The Resurs-P series, designed for multispectral and panchromatic imaging with resolutions up to 1 meter, has been central to the program, though Resurs-P No. 2 underwent uncontrolled re-entry on February 11, 2025, over the . The Kanopus-V constellation, including variants like Kanopus-V3 launched in 2013, provides medium-resolution visible and imagery for vegetation analysis and , with operational lifespans extending into 2025 before end-of-life. Roscosmos aims to complete its Center by 2025, aggregating data from active platforms such as Meteor-M for meteorological observations, Kanopus for optical sensing, Resurs for resource mapping, and emerging Obzor systems for . To sustain capabilities, Roscosmos scheduled launches of eight satellites in 2025, including Elektro-L for geostationary weather monitoring, Obzor-R No. 1 for radar (operational 2025–2029), Grifon for , and Aist small satellites for . These efforts position among the top three nations in developing constellations, with contributions like the Stilsat-2 slated for 2025 orbit insertion to enable sub-meter resolution commercial imaging. Applications include agricultural assessment, , and border surveillance, though program progress has been hampered by launch delays and limiting component access.

Lunar and Deep Space Missions

Roscosmos's lunar efforts represent an attempt to revive Soviet-era achievements in robotic exploration, with the program serving as the core initiative since the early 2000s. This series of missions targets the Moon's for scientific study, including volatile detection and surface characterization, using landers, orbiters, and eventual sample returns to support prospective human outposts. No successful lunar landings have occurred under Roscosmos, contrasting with the Soviet Union's 16 Luna missions from 1959 to 1976, the last of which returned 170.1 grams of samples. The inaugural Luna-Glob mission, Luna-25, launched on August 10, 2023, via Soyuz-2.1b/Fregat from Vostochny Cosmodrome, marking Russia's first lunar attempt in 47 years. The 2,075-kilogram lander aimed to demonstrate autonomous soft landing technologies and deploy a 30-kilogram scientific payload for drilling and analyzing permafrost-like regolith up to 20 centimeters deep near Boguslawsky Crater. On August 19, 2023, during a transfer to a 10-by-100-kilometer pre-landing orbit, an onboard propulsion anomaly caused the spacecraft to spin uncontrollably and impact the lunar surface at approximately 14:58 UTC, as confirmed by telemetry loss and subsequent orbital analysis. Roscosmos investigations identified a failure in the attitude control system's logic, where main engines fired erroneously for 127 seconds instead of the intended 84 seconds, exceeding velocity limits by 17% and depleting fuel reserves. NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter imaged an 8-meter-wide crater at 69.76°S, 32.29°E, presumed to be the impact site, with ejecta patterns consistent with a high-velocity strike at about 1 gram per cubic centimeter density. Future components include Luna-26, a polar orbiter slated for 2027–2028 launch on Soyuz-2.1b/, equipped with high-resolution cameras, spectrometers, and detectors to map deposits and for landing site selection over a one-year mission. Luna-27, originally a joint lander with ESA's Prospect drill but restructured post-2022 geopolitical strains, targets 2028 for volatile extraction and analysis using a 2-meter . Luna-28 envisions a sample-return variant by the early , potentially adapting Luna-27 hardware to retrieve up to 300 grams of polar material. These align with Russia's contributions to the (ILRS), a planned outpost with , emphasizing robotic precursors amid delays from technical setbacks and sanctions limiting components. In deep space beyond the , Roscosmos has achieved no successful interplanetary landings or orbiters since inheriting Soviet infrastructure, hampered by reliability issues and funding constraints. The 2011 probe, launched November 8 on Zenit-2M, aimed to orbit Phobos, deploy a lander, and return samples but suffered a stage thruster failure post-injection, stranding it in until atmospheric reentry on January 15, 2012, with all 11 kilograms of payload lost. Planned endeavors include Venera-D, a orbiter-lander duo targeted for 2029–2031 in potential collaboration with , featuring long-duration surface operations up to 120 days in the harsh atmosphere using advanced cooling and seismometry. Broader ambitions, such as nuclear-powered for Mars precursors, remain conceptual amid repeated and failures underscoring systemic challenges.

Biological and Microgravity Research

Roscosmos oversees biological and microgravity research primarily through the Institute of Biomedical Problems (IBMP), which has conducted studies since on physiological to conditions, including microgravity's effects on , cellular processes, and development. These efforts aim to identify mechanisms of , such as loss and in cosmonauts, informing countermeasures for extended missions. IBMP's work integrates systemic approaches, encompassing over 50 years of data from crewed and uncrewed platforms, prioritizing empirical observations over theoretical models. Key uncrewed experiments occur via the Bion satellite series, designed to expose biological specimens to microgravity and without human intervention. The Bion-M1 mission, launched on April 19, 2013, aboard a rocket, carried 45 mice, eight Mongolian gerbils, 15 geckos, plants, and microbes to investigate genetic mutations, reproductive viability, and tissue responses after 30 days in ; results revealed accelerated aging markers in and impaired development in geckos. (Note: While peer-reviewed analyses confirm these findings, initial data interpretation faced scrutiny for limited sample controls due to launch constraints.) Subsequent planning for Bion-M No. 2 emphasized fruit flies and microbial cultures to probe evolutionary adaptations under space stressors. On the International Space Station's Russian Segment, experiments like Kristallizator utilize microgravity for crystallizing biological macromolecules, yielding higher-quality protein structures than terrestrial methods, with applications in ; sessions have produced biocrystalline films since the early 2000s. Additional studies examine biotechnological processes, such as cell culturing and plant growth in modules like Zvezda, revealing enhanced diffusion rates that enable novel bio-product synthesis unattainable on . These efforts, often collaborative yet independently verified by Russian protocols, underscore microgravity's utility for causal insights into biological causality, though geopolitical tensions have occasionally delayed sample returns and data sharing.

International Relations

Historical Collaborations

The Shuttle–Mir program, spanning 1994 to 1998, represented the initial major post-Cold War partnership between the Russian space program and NASA, involving nine U.S. Space Shuttle dockings with the Mir space station. This collaboration enabled crew exchanges, cargo transfers, and joint research, with the first docking occurring on June 29, 1995, via STS-71 mission of Atlantis, marking the 100th American human spaceflight. Over the program's duration, seven NASA astronauts completed long-duration stays on Mir, accumulating experience in extended missions and systems integration that proved vital for subsequent joint endeavors. Building on Shuttle-Mir, Russia joined the International Space Station (ISS) as a full partner under a 1993 U.S.-Russia agreement, with Roscosmos predecessors providing core elements of the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS). The Zarya module, launched November 20, 1998, aboard a Proton rocket, supplied initial propulsion, power, and data relay functions, allowing assembly to commence despite delays in other components. The Zvezda service module followed on July 12, 2000, adding habitable volume, life support systems, and docking ports, enabling the first continuous crew occupancy from Expedition 1 in November 2000. Russia's Soyuz vehicles have since delivered all crews to the ISS, including international participants, leveraging proven reliability from over 1,900 launches since 1967. Additional historical ties included cooperation with the (ESA), such as joint contributions to ISS modules and preparatory agreements for Soyuz launches from Europe's , formalized in 2003 for operational flights starting in 2011. These efforts integrated Russian launch capabilities with European payloads, exemplified by the 2007 agreement for up to 18 Soyuz missions. Pre-ISS, limited joint ventures like the 1997 Cassini-Huygens mission involved Russian propulsion systems provided to NASA-ESA collaboration. Such partnerships underscored Russia's role in bridging Soviet-era expertise with multilateral frameworks, though primarily framed by U.S.-led initiatives for funding and technology sharing.

Current Partnerships and Agreements

Roscosmos maintains operational cooperation with and other (ISS) partners, including cross-flights of astronauts and cosmonauts, under agreements extended through 2028. In July 2025, Roscosmos Director General confirmed an agreement with to prolong ISS operations until that year, facilitating continued joint missions despite geopolitical tensions. This extension builds on prior cross-flight pacts, ensuring mutual access to the station via Soyuz and commercial U.S. vehicles, with Roscosmos providing propulsion and modules. A cornerstone of Roscosmos's current international engagements is its partnership with , formalized through the 2021 on the (ILRS), aimed at establishing a lunar research base at the Moon's by the mid-2030s. In May 2025, Roscosmos and the signed a deal for a to power the ILRS, targeting deployment by 2035 to support autonomous energy needs for scientific outposts. This collaboration extends to joint roadmap development for lunar infrastructure, with Roscosmos contributing expertise in and surface operations. Within the framework, Roscosmos participates in multilateral agreements focused on and data sharing, including a November 2024 pact signed by BRICS space agency heads to create a virtual constellation of satellites for coordinated monitoring and technology exchange. This builds on earlier 2021 accords for data cooperation among , , , , and , emphasizing reduced technological dependencies and joint applications in disaster management and resource mapping. Bilateral extensions include a May 2024 memorandum with outlining cooperation roadmaps for satellite launches and training. As of May 2024, twelve additional countries have joined the Russia-China-led ILRS , broadening participation in lunar exploration planning.

Impacts of Sanctions and Geopolitical Tensions

Following Russia's full-scale invasion of on February 24, 2022, Western nations imposed comprehensive sanctions targeting 's space sector, including export controls on dual-use technologies and restrictions on entities like Roscosmos subsidiaries. These measures severed most commercial ties with the , , and other partners, except for ongoing (ISS) operations. Roscosmos CEO initially threatened to withdraw from ISS cooperation by March 31, 2022, unless sanctions on key suppliers like TsNIIMash were lifted, citing risks to the station's Russian segment. Despite these threats, a bilateral U.S.- agreement extended joint ISS operations through 2028, announced on August 1, 2025, to ensure safe deorbiting, though underlying tensions persist. Financially, the sanctions inflicted direct losses estimated at 180 billion rubles (approximately $2.1 billion) on Roscosmos by mid-2024, primarily from canceled international contracts and lost launch revenues. The agency resorted to selling non-core assets valued at over 11.4 billion rubles ($124 million) in 2024 to offset revenue shortfalls, as export income from satellite launches plummeted amid bans by clients like OneWeb and . Roscosmos's annual budget, hovering around $3-5 billion since 2020, faced further strain from ruble and procurement cost increases, hampering efforts to fund new programs like the . Technologically, sanctions disrupted access to Western components, including radiation-hardened essential for satellites and radiation-resistant materials for systems, exacerbating delays in navigation upgrades and production. Roscosmos encountered a crisis by 2025, with breakdowns leading to reliance on domestic or sanctioned alternatives, contributing to launch failures like the November 2022 coolant leak, though not directly attributed. These restrictions accelerated the pre-existing decline in Russia's launch cadence, from 17 missions in 2021 to fewer reliable operations post-2022, as foreign dependency on imported —previously 70-80% of needs—forced costly import substitutions. Geopolitically, the sanctions prompted Roscosmos to pivot toward non-Western partners, including joint ventures with for lunar exploration and satellite deals with , but these have not fully mitigated losses, as new alliances yield lower revenues and technological reciprocity remains limited. Roscosmos officials acknowledged sanction-related challenges in executing federal launches but claimed resilience through import substitution, though independent analyses indicate sustained erosion of global from 40% pre-2022 to under 10% by 2025. The measures, compounded by Ukraine-related isolation, have positioned Roscosmos as a diminished player, reliant on state subsidies amid broader economic pressures.

Controversies and Criticisms

Technical Failures and Safety Incidents

Roscosmos experienced a series of high-profile technical failures during the 2010s, including multiple rocket malfunctions and Soyuz/ launch issues, contributing to a perceived decline in reliability compared to earlier Soviet-era records. Between 2010 and 2015, Russia recorded at least seven launch failures, often linked to third-stage problems or sensor errors, alongside four cargo spacecraft losses and the Phobos-Grunt mission abort. These incidents, which resulted in the loss of satellites worth billions and heightened scrutiny of aging Soviet-designed hardware, prompted internal reviews but no fundamental redesigns until later reforms. A notable Proton-M failure occurred on July 2, 2013, when the rocket veered off course 16 seconds after liftoff from due to misaligned sensors in the third-stage engine control system, causing it to crash and explode with three navigation satellites aboard, releasing toxic propellants over Kazakh territory. Another incident on May 16, 2015, saw the third stage fail during ascent, leading to the rocket's disintegration and the loss of the MexSat-1 for . Progress M-12M, launched August 24, 2011, suffered a third-stage propulsion shutdown 325 seconds into flight, preventing orbital insertion and stranding the cargo intended for the (ISS). Similarly, Progress M-27M on April 28, 2015, experienced an upper-stage separation anomaly after reaching orbit, tumbling uncontrollably and burning up with 2.5 tons of supplies. The Phobos-Grunt probe, launched November 8, 2011, failed to execute its trans-Mars injection burn due to a thruster control unit malfunction attributed to radiation-damaged imported components, remaining stuck in before uncontrolled reentry over the Pacific on January 15, 2012. Crewed missions faced rare but critical safety incidents. On October 11, 2018, 's launch aborted 119 seconds after liftoff when a deformed separation sensor caused a side booster to collide with the core stage, triggering an emergency ballistic reentry; cosmonaut Aleksey Ovchinin and astronaut landed safely 20 km from the pad, marking the first Soyuz crewed failure since 1983. Earlier that year, on August 29, 2018, a 2 mm hole was discovered in the orbital module of docked , causing a slow air leak patched with sealant; while officially attributed to a , external analysis and ground tests suggested possible drilling during assembly, sparking unsubstantiated claims but no conclusive evidence of intent. More recently, , docked to the ISS since September 21, 2022, developed a coolant leak from its external radiator on December 14, 2022, visible as a vapor cloud and reducing thermal control; Russian investigations pointed to a probable puncture, leading to an uncrewed return on March 28, 2023, and the crew's extended stay aboard the station. In uncrewed deep-space efforts, the Luna-25 probe crashed on the lunar surface on August 20, 2023, after a system error during orbital maneuvers prevented a near the , marking Russia's first lunar attempt since 1976 and highlighting persistent software and guidance challenges. No crewed fatalities have occurred under Roscosmos, but ground safety risks persist, as evidenced by explosions dispersing , a carcinogenic fuel, near populated areas without reported injuries. These failures, often traced to manufacturing defects, inadequate testing, or legacy designs resistant to modernization, have eroded confidence in Roscosmos' reliability, though launch success rates improved post-2018 with no total vehicle losses until orbital anomalies like the 2023 leaks.

Corruption Allegations and Internal Mismanagement

Roscosmos has been repeatedly implicated in high-profile scandals involving of state funds allocated for space projects. In 2015, Russia's Audit Chamber reported that the agency had misused approximately 100 billion rubles (about $1.8 billion at the time), highlighting systemic irregularities in procurement and contracting processes. These findings were echoed by then-Deputy , who attributed a series of launch failures to entrenched within the . The construction of the , a flagship project initiated in 2011, exemplifies these issues, with widespread leading to repeated delays and cost overruns exceeding initial budgets by billions of rubles. Over $150 million was reportedly during its development, prompting multiple arrests and investigations into officials and contractors for . By 2019, the project had become synonymous with "massive theft," as detailed in probes uncovering kickbacks and inflated contracts. Specific cases include the 2018 arrest of a key space contractor's head for embezzling 330 million rubles ($5.2 million) in a fraud scheme tied to rocket production. In December 2023, Roscosmos deputy CEO Oleg Frolov was detained on charges of embezzling nearly $5 million through fraudulent schemes. Another instance involved a former top manager accused of stealing over 600 million rubles, who fled abroad and was placed on an international wanted list in 2023. In 2021, authorities opened a case for fraud during Soyuz-TMA spacecraft flight tests, underscoring ongoing theft in crewed programs. Internal mismanagement has compounded these problems, manifesting in chronic budget inefficiencies and project failures. The influx of public funds since the early fueled rather than innovation, contributing to a decline in reliability, with investigations ongoing since at least 2012. Launch accidents, such as the 2018 Soyuz failure, intensified scrutiny over "stolen billions" and mismanaged quality controls. More recently, the 2023 Luna-25 lunar probe crash highlighted deeper structural issues, including politicization and resource misallocation amid budget constraints. Roscosmos subsidiary RKK Energia has faced mounting debts and delays, risking operational collapse as of 2025.

Broader Criticisms and Defenses

Roscosmos has faced criticism for operating under chronic constraints that limit its capacity for modernization and expansion, with annual around $3-4 billion in recent years compared to NASA's $25.4 billion allocation for 2025. This disparity contributes to systemic issues, including restricted access to advanced tools and a reliance on aging Soviet-era designs, hindering the development of competitive new technologies. Critics argue that Roscosmos exhibits a short-term orientation lacking structural reforms, exacerbated by top-down state control that stifles innovation and fosters inefficiencies, as evidenced by persistent delays in projects like the Angara rocket family and reusable systems such as the Amur, which remain in developmental stages despite announcements dating back to 2020. Additionally, the agency contends with a brain drain of skilled engineers and scientists, driven by low salaries, geopolitical isolation, and post-2022 mobilization effects, which have depleted talent pools essential for sustaining technical expertise. In defense, Roscosmos supporters highlight its resilience in maintaining a broad portfolio of launches and manned missions despite sanctions curtailing Western partnerships and revenue streams, such as the loss of Soyuz contracts post-2022. The agency has sustained reliable access to , including crewed flights to the until its planned 2024 exit, achieving operational continuity on a fraction of competitors' budgets and demonstrating cost-effective reliability in heritage systems like Soyuz. Proponents contend that these outcomes reflect effective resource allocation amid external pressures, enabling progress on indigenous projects like the despite broader economic challenges.

Future Initiatives

Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS)

The (ROSS), also designated as the Russian Orbital Station (ROS) with industrial code 615GK, is a planned modular developed by Roscosmos to succeed Russia's participation in the (ISS), from which it intends to withdraw after 2028. The project aims to provide independent orbital research capabilities amid geopolitical tensions that prompted Russia to accelerate independent infrastructure following its 2022 announcement to exit ISS cooperation. Preliminary design approval occurred on April 2, 2024, with assembly targeted to begin in 2027 via launches on Angara-A5 rockets from . The station's core configuration is scheduled for completion by 2030, incorporating four primary modules, followed by two additional specialized modules by 2033, at an estimated total cost of approximately $7 billion. Key modules include the Scientific Energy Module (NEM-1, originally the Science intended for the ISS), which will serve as the initial core providing power generation, research facilities, and docking capabilities; a base module for command and control operations; a universal node module acting as a central hub; and a gateway or module for extravehicular activities. The core module features six docking ports to accommodate replaceable add-on units, enabling modular expansion and longevity beyond the ISS's design life. The overall structure adopts an X-shaped configuration to optimize stability and functionality in . of the first module advanced to by December 2024, with electrical testing underway, positioning it for potential launch readiness in 2025 ahead of orbital insertion. ROSS will operate in a sun-synchronous near-polar orbit at around 400 km altitude, differing from the ISS's 51.6-degree equatorial inclination to enable better coverage of for and communications. Capabilities include enhanced generation—up to seven times that of Russia's current ISS segment—robotic manipulation systems, and support for scientific experiments, deployment, and missions, as announced by Roscosmos head Bakanov in June 2025. Initial crewed missions are planned for 2028 using Soyuz or adapted vehicles. While primarily a national endeavor, Roscosmos has explored partnerships with BRICS nations including , , , and select African countries for joint utilization. Development faces technical and financial hurdles, including Russia's recent launch failures, reliance on unproven heavy-lift rockets like , and historical delays in analogous projects such as ISS modules. Independent analyses question the feasibility of full assembly by the early given budgetary constraints and Roscosmos's internal challenges, though official timelines remain optimistic with AI-assisted construction elements proposed to mitigate risks.

Advanced Propulsion and Reusability Efforts

Roscosmos has pursued reusability primarily through the launch vehicle family, initiated by TsSKB to transition from expendable kerosene-based rockets to partially reusable methane-fueled systems. The Amur-SPG variant incorporates a reusable first stage equipped with five RD-0169 oxygen-methane engines, enabling vertical landing and refurbishment for 50 to 100 flights, exceeding the reuse cycle of SpaceX's first stage, which typically achieves over 10 missions. The second stage remains expendable to balance development complexity and costs, with projected launch expenses around $22 million per mission for payloads up to 10.5 tons to . Development of the RD-0169 , a key enabler for reusability, involves ground testing of eight prototypes, with completion scheduled by November 2025 under contracts with KBKhA. This 's methane-oxygen cycle supports cleaner combustion, higher , and easier cryogenic handling compared to traditional fuels, addressing Roscosmos's historical challenges in scaling liquid natural gas propulsion for orbital launches. The -LNG super-heavy configuration extends this approach, targeting over 100 tons to via clustered engines, though timelines have shifted; full operational readiness was initially projected for 2028-2029, with technical designs nearing completion as of early 2025. In advanced , Roscosmos collaborates on nuclear systems like the Transport and Module (TEM), a nuclear-electric tug for deep-space cargo . TEM integrates a megawatt-class to power ion thrusters, enabling efficient hauling of modules from to lunar or Martian vicinities, with roots in Soviet-era concepts but modern testing under the project. Ground-based validation occurred in 2025, advancing toward flight demos, though full deployment depends on funding for a system 20 times more powerful than chemical alternatives. These efforts reflect Roscosmos's strategy to leverage nuclear heritage for interplanetary missions, distinct from chemical reusability gains, amid broader agency priorities for post-ISS independence by 2030.

Lunar Exploration and Long-Term Ambitions

Roscosmos's lunar program suffered a setback with the Luna-25 mission, which launched on August 10, 2023, and attempted a near the Moon's on August 19, but crashed due to an engine firing for 127 seconds instead of the planned 84 seconds, leading to an irreversible orbital insertion failure. Following this incident, Roscosmos conducted a comprehensive review, resulting in delays for subsequent missions; the Luna-26 orbiter, intended to map the lunar surface and scout landing sites, and the Luna-27 lander, focused on resource prospecting, were both postponed to 2028 from earlier targets. These delays stem from technical reevaluations and broader challenges in the Russian sector, including leadership changes and resource constraints, though Russian President affirmed in September 2023 that the lunar program would continue. In pursuit of long-term lunar presence, Roscosmos has pivoted toward international collaboration, primarily with through the (ILRS), formalized by a 2021 memorandum of understanding between Roscosmos and the (CNSA). The ILRS envisions a scalable research outpost at the , beginning with a basic station by 2035 for scientific experiments, resource utilization, and autonomous operations, evolving into a permanent supporting human presence. This partnership excludes Western agencies, following the European Space Agency's termination of cooperation on Luna missions in April 2022 amid geopolitical tensions. Key to enabling sustained operations, Roscosmos announced plans in June 2025 to develop a on the lunar surface, integrated with the ILRS to provide reliable energy beyond solar limitations at the poles. A May 2025 memorandum with outlines an automated deployment by 2035, capable of powering facilities and future crewed activities, reflecting ambitions for energy-independent lunar despite ongoing delays in precursor robotic missions. These efforts position Roscosmos toward a multiphase lunar strategy, prioritizing resource extraction like water ice and , though realization depends on overcoming technical and funding hurdles evidenced by recent mission shortfalls.

References

  1. https://www.planetary.org/the-roscosmos-state-corporation-for-space-activities
  2. https://www.space.com/22724-roscosmos.html
  3. https://www.iafastro.org/membership/all-members/roscosmos.html
  4. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/roskosmos.html
  5. https://www.glavkosmos.com/en/commercial-space-flights-to-the-iss/
  6. https://scitechdaily.com/soyuz-rocket-ignites-progress-90-soars-to-space-station-with-three-tons-of-vital-supplies/
  7. https://brief.bismarckanalysis.com/p/the-challenges-facing-the-russian
  8. https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/russias-state-run-human-spaceflight-company-may-be-near-bankruptcy/
  9. https://www.bgr.com/1984700/why-russia-rocket-engine-development-stuck-predicament/
  10. https://tass.com/science/2015807
  11. https://tass.com/science/2034251
  12. https://jsis.washington.edu/news/ssi-brief-russias-space-program-structural-reform-marketization-centralization/
  13. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/nationalspacelaw/russian_federation/edict_1992E.html
  14. https://www.iafastro.org/biographie/yuri-koptev.html
  15. http://www.astronautix.com/k/koptev.html
  16. https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1235&context=spaceanddefense
  17. https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/03/twenty-years-deorbit-mirs-legacy/
  18. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/russia_2000_2010.html
  19. https://www.spacenews.com/perminov-out-roscosmos-chief/
  20. https://www.defensenews.com/global/2022/07/15/putin-makes-changes-to-arms-industry-space-agency-leadership/
  21. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-13237153
  22. https://timelines.issarice.com/wiki/Timeline_of_Roscosmos
  23. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/vostochny.html
  24. https://spacenews.com/the-long-road-to-vostochny-inside-russias-newest-launch-facility/
  25. https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/04/28/first-launch-from-russias-new-cosmodrome-declared-a-success/
  26. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/russia-scraps-space-agency-state-run-corporation-180957656/
  27. https://themoscowtimes.com/articles/russias-roscosmos-space-agency-soon-to-be-reformed-48001
  28. https://www.seradata.com/analysis-russian-space-agency-roscosmos-is-merged-into-supersize-space-company-but-is-it-a-good-idea/
  29. https://spacenews.com/meet-dmitry-rogozin-the-new-roscosmos-chief/
  30. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/angara.html
  31. https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/03/russias-next-generation-rocket-is-a-decade-old-and-still-flying-dummy-payloads/
  32. https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/russia/angara-a5.htm
  33. https://www.space.com/russia-war-ukraine-damage-international-spaceflight-cooperation
  34. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/russias-space-program-is-another-casualty-of-the-war-in-ukraine/
  35. https://www.space.com/nasa-russia-astronaut-launches-iss-2025
  36. https://phys.org/news/2025-07-russian-space-chief-nasa-iss.html
  37. https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/russia-and-china-reaffirm-their-space-partnership
  38. https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/08/20/russias-luna-25-lander-crashes-on-the-moon/
  39. https://www.webpronews.com/russias-roscosmos-battles-engine-crisis-amid-sanctions-and-isolation/
  40. https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/russia-downscales-lunar-program-as-roscosmos-morphs-into-state-corporation/
  41. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/76217
  42. https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/kremlin-fires-boss-russias-space-agency-2025-02-06/
  43. https://jamestown.org/program/roscosmoss-director-general-exemplifies-inefficiency-in-russian-government/
  44. https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/russia/roscosmos.htm
  45. https://tadviser.com/index.php/Company:Roscosmos_State_Corporation_for_Space_Activities
  46. https://www.roscosmos.ru/41802/
  47. https://news.satnews.com/2025/03/27/forresters-digest-more-changes-at-roscosmos/
  48. https://www.roscosmos.ru/41779/
  49. http://www.en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/77987
  50. https://www.roscosmos.ru/41803/
  51. https://www.fpri.org/article/2024/07/russias-space-program-after-2024/
  52. https://www.rocketlaunch.live/?filter=roscosmos
  53. https://newspaceeconomy.ca/2025/06/30/a-guide-to-2025s-operational-orbital-rockets/
  54. https://tass.com/science/1975893
  55. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/angara5-flight5.html
  56. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/centers.html
  57. https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/russia/vostochniy.htm
  58. https://www.space.com/40818-russian-space-centers-in-pictures.html
  59. https://tsniimash.ru/en/science/scientific-and-technical-centers/flight-control-center-fcc/
  60. https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/ground-facilities/
  61. https://arstechnica.com/space/2025/08/with-a-new-soyuz-rocket-russia-seeks-to-break-its-ukrainian-dependency/
  62. https://en.topwar.ru/272179-roskosmos-provel-ognevye-ispytanija-pervoj-stupeni-rakety-sojuz-5.html
  63. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/soyuz5-lv.html
  64. https://www.cnbc.com/2025/08/29/investing-in-space-made-in-russia.html
  65. https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/109417/
  66. https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202507/1338127.shtml
  67. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2025/07/28/roscosmos-sets-timeline-for-developing-reusable-rocket-technology-a89982
  68. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/2025.html
  69. https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/The_Russian_Soyuz_spacecraft
  70. https://www.nasa.gov/international-partner-rockets-and-spacecraft/
  71. https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/09/soyuz-ms-22/
  72. https://www.nasa.gov/reference/international-space-station/
  73. https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/
  74. https://www.space.com/42566-russians-struggle-to-keep-soyuz-reliable.html
  75. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100014848/downloads/20100014848.pdf
  76. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/2026.html
  77. https://everydayastronaut.com/soyuz-ms-25-soyuz-2-1a/
  78. https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2025/07/ionosfera-34-launch/
  79. https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/13/nasa-uses-final-purchased-soyuz-seat-for-wednesday-flight-to-station/
  80. https://spaceflightnow.com/2024/06/04/cosmonaut-oleg-kononenko-reaches-1000-cumulative-days-in-space/
  81. https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/105987/
  82. https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/two-cosmonauts-set-new-iss-duration-record/
  83. https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/soyuz-rocket-has-long-track-record/
  84. https://spacenews.com/soyuz-demonstrates-finesse-in-flight-and-failure/
  85. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-46055960
  86. https://www.spaceupclose.com/2018/11/defective-deformed-sensor-caused-soyuz/
  87. https://www.space.com/42603-soyuz-rocket-expedition-58-crew-launch-success.html
  88. https://www.reddit.com/r/space/comments/zwzbxk/the_success_rate_of_russian_space_launches_in_the/
  89. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/acts.html
  90. https://www.spacevoyaging.com/news/2024/10/23/new-russian-ptk-orel-pilotable-spacecraft-finally-shown/
  91. https://aviationweek.com/space/first-flight-russias-new-spaceship-postponed-2025
  92. https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/93573/
  93. https://tass.com/science/1113619
  94. https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/russia-plans-create-core-new-space-station-by-2030-2024-07-02/
  95. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_planetary_lunar.html
  96. http://www.iki.rssi.ru/eng/moon.htm
  97. https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/russias-moon-mission-falters-after-problem-entering-pre-landing-orbit-2023-08-20/
  98. https://www.space.com/russia-luna-25-moon-crash-cause-found
  99. https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/nasas-lro-observes-crater-likely-from-luna-25-impact/
  100. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/luna-glob.html
  101. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8807369/
  102. https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/stsc2010/tech-13.pdf
  103. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576514001404
  104. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-025-00488-7
  105. https://www.supercluster.com/launches/bion-m-no-2
  106. https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/roscosmos_addendum.pdf
  107. https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/activities/2011/Malaysia/D2AM_ISS_4_ISS_Russian_Segment.pdf
  108. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01558-0
  109. https://www.nasa.gov/history/history-publications-and-resources/oral-histories/shuttle-mir/
  110. https://spacecenter.org/sts-71-the-first-shuttle-mir-docking-100th-american-human-spaceflight-mission/
  111. https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-international-cooperation/
  112. https://clinton.presidentiallibraries.us/exhibits/show/space4diplomacy/space4diplomacy-partnering
  113. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_russia.html
  114. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0265964623000462
  115. https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20250731-russia-space-nasa-iss-us
  116. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2025/08/01/russia-and-us-agree-to-extend-international-space-station-operations-to-2028-a90057
  117. https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/2025-04-24-open-meeting-minutes.pdf
  118. https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6811380/content.html
  119. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3310315/china-and-russia-sign-nuclear-reactor-deal-fuel-lunar-research-station
  120. https://www.dw.com/en/china-and-russia-plan-to-build-nuclear-power-station-on-moon/a-72565465
  121. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-led-lunar-base-include-nuclear-power-plant-moons-surface-space-official-2025-04-23/
  122. https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/108051/
  123. https://www.sansa.org.za/2021/08/brics-space-agencies-leaders-signed-agreement-for-cooperation-in-remote-sensing-satellite-data-sharing/
  124. https://www.fanamc.com/english/russia-ethiopia-to-sign-mou-on-space-cooperation-roscosmos-head/
  125. https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/102730/
  126. https://www.businessinsider.com/russia-dmitry-rogozin-roscosmos-international-space-station-nasa-2022-4
  127. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/08/05/russian-space-agency-says-break-with-west-cost-it-21-bln-a85941
  128. https://www.newsweek.com/roscosmos-russia-space-agency-sell-assets-sanctions-1874100
  129. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RRA2900/RRA2950-1/RAND_RRA2950-1.pdf
  130. https://tass.com/science/1436789
  131. https://warontherocks.com/2022/06/sanctions-and-satellites-the-space-industry-after-the-russo-ukrainian-war/
  132. https://www.planetary.org/articles/20130702-russian-rocket-crashes
  133. https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/12/01/progress-ms04-launch/
  134. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/russias-proton-m-rocket-carrying-mexican-satellite-crashes-siberia-n359976
  135. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/progress_m12m.html
  136. https://www.space.com/41738-soyuz-spacecraft-air-leak-hole-origin-report.html
  137. https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/spacestation/2022/12/15/mission-controllers-assess-soyuz-coolant-leak/
  138. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/economy/article/2023/08/21/the-failure-of-luna-25-a-symptom-of-russia-s-decline-in-space_6101098_19.html
  139. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-40285760
  140. https://www.rt.com/news/261201-roscosmos-misused-funds-audit/
  141. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/07/20/russia-shields-fraud-plagued-space-agency-from-foreign-scrutiny-a74561
  142. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50462431
  143. https://english.nv.ua/nation/top-roscosmos-exec-arrested-for-allegedly-embezzling-nearly-5-million-as-part-of-fraud-scheme-50378937.html
  144. https://en.topwar.ru/228408-byvshij-top-menedzher-roskosmosa-objavlen-skr-v-mezhdunarodnyj-rozysk-za-moshennichestvo-i-hischenie-v-osobo-krupnom-razmere.html
  145. https://vpk.name/en/513427_a-case-of-embezzlement-during-flight-tests-of-the-soyuz-tma-spacecraft-was-initiated.html
  146. https://phys.org/news/2019-05-russian-space-sector-plagued-astronomical.html
  147. https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/post-soyuz-failure-russian-space-agency-roscosmos-targeted-over-stolen-billions-1953217
  148. https://english.elpais.com/international/2023-09-03/corruption-budget-cuts-and-politicization-break-down-russias-space-muscle.html
  149. https://www.thestar.com/news/world/a-failed-lunar-mission-dents-russian-pride-and-reflects-deeper-problems-with-moscow-s-space/article_22fc31a0-d044-5eee-b7a1-ddaed9c99a54.html
  150. https://orbitaltoday.com/2025/08/29/russias-legendary-space-firm-faces-collapse-after-mounting-failures/
  151. https://www.statista.com/topics/7842/space-industry-in-russia/
  152. https://www.wionews.com/photos/global-space-economy-2025-top-countries-with-highest-space-budgets-1756196829949
  153. https://www.ida.org/-/media/feature/publications/i/in/innovation-policies-of-russia/ida-p-5079.ashx
  154. https://www.space.com/russia-announces-reusable-rocket-amur
  155. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2015/03/24/brain-drain-worsens-as-exodus-of-russian-scientists-gathers-pace-a45101
  156. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2025/07/russias-struggle-modernize-its-military-industry/identifying-weaknesses-russias-military
  157. https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4995/1
  158. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/ros.html
  159. https://www.space.com/russia-space-station-timeline-2027
  160. https://tass.com/science/1769409
  161. https://tadviser.com/index.php/Company:Russian_National_Orbital_Service_Station_%28ROSS%29
  162. https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/111833/
  163. https://jamestown.org/program/the-dubious-future-of-russias-proposed-orbital-station/
  164. https://tass.com/science/1775499
  165. https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/04/russian-space-chief-says-new-rocket-will-put-falcon-9-reuse-to-shame/
  166. https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/russia-building-reusable-methane-powered-rocket-space-bw
  167. https://vpk.name/en/512198_the-engine-of-the-reusable-amur-lng-rocket-will-be-tested-by-november-2025.html
  168. https://ridl.io/the-future-and-present-of-roskosmos/
  169. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/tem.html
  170. https://www.facebook.com/unboxfactory/posts/russia-has-officially-tested-nuclear-powered-spacecraft-propulsion-pushing-the-b/776515148032871/
  171. https://jamestown.org/program/russias-approach-to-nuclear-power-in-outer-space/
  172. https://www.leonarddavid.com/russias-moon-probe-failure-why-and-what-next/
  173. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2025/08/22/russia-delays-moon-and-venus-missions-again-a90328
  174. https://www.russianspaceweb.com/moon-2023.html
  175. https://www.space.com/russia-moon-program-continue-despite-luna-25-failure-putin-says
  176. https://www.leonarddavid.com/china-moon-base-plans-evolve/
  177. https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Exploration/Luna
  178. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2025/06/12/roscosmos-says-it-plans-to-build-nuclear-power-plant-on-the-moon-a89423
  179. https://t-invariant.org/2025/08/fly-me-to-the-moon-why-russia-s-space-ambitions-are-stuck-in-low-earth-orbit/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.