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Mass is the main Eucharistic liturgical service in many forms of Western Christianity. The term Mass is commonly used in the Catholic Church,[1] Western Rite Orthodoxy, Old Catholicism, and Independent Catholicism. The term is also used in many Lutheran churches,[2][3][4] as well as in some Anglican churches,[5] and on rare occasion by other Protestant churches.

Other Christian denominations may employ terms such as Divine Service or worship service (and often just "service"), rather than the word Mass.[6] For the celebration of the Eucharist in Eastern Christianity, including Eastern Catholic Churches, other terms such as Divine Liturgy, Holy Qurbana, Holy Qurobo and Badarak (or Patarag) are typically used instead.

Etymology

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Further information: Ite, missa est § Meaning

The English noun Mass is derived from the Middle Latin missa. The Latin word was adopted in Old English as mæsse (via a Vulgar Latin form *messa), and was sometimes glossed as sendnes (i.e. 'a sending, dismission').[7]

The Latin term missa itself was in use by the 6th century.[8] It is most likely derived from the concluding formula Ite, missa est ("Go; the dismissal is made"); missa here is a Late Latin substantive corresponding to classical missio.

Historically, however, there have been other etymological explanations of the noun missa that claim not to derive from the formula ite, missa est. Fortescue (1910) cites older, "fanciful" etymological explanations, notably a latinization of Hebrew matzâh (מַצָּה) "unleavened bread; oblation", a derivation favoured in the 16th century by Reuchlin and Luther, or Greek μύησις "initiation", or even Germanic mese "assembly".[a] The French historian Du Cange in 1678 reported "various opinions on the origin" of the noun missa "Mass", including the derivation from Hebrew matzah (Missah, id est, oblatio), here attributed to Caesar Baronius. The Hebrew derivation is learned speculation from 16th-century philology; medieval authorities did derive the noun missa from the verb mittere, but not in connection with the formula ite, missa est.[10] Thus, De divinis officiis (9th century)[11] explains the word as "a mittendo, quod nos mittat ad Deo" ("from 'sending', because it sends us towards God"),[12] while Rupert of Deutz (early 12th century) derives it from a "dismissal" of the "enmities which had been between God and men" ("inimicitiarum quæ erant inter Deum et homines").[13]

Order of the Mass

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See also: Order of Mass

A distinction is made between texts that recur for every Mass celebration (ordinarium, ordinary), and texts that are sung depending on the occasion (proprium, proper).[14]

Catholic Church

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Main article: Mass in the Catholic Church
See also: Eucharist in the Catholic Church
See also: Mass of Paul VI, Tridentine Mass, and Pre-Tridentine Mass

The Catholic Church sees the Mass or Eucharist as "the source and summit of the Christian life", to which the other sacraments are oriented.[15] Remembered in the Mass are Jesus' life, Last Supper, and sacrificial death on the cross at Calvary. The ordained celebrant (priest or bishop) is understood to act in persona Christi, as he recalls the words and gestures of Jesus Christ at the Last Supper and leads the congregation in praise of God. The Mass is composed of two parts, the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist.

Jesuit priest Rune P. Thuringer, writing in 1965, noted that "The eucharistic liturgy of the state Church of Sweden, which is Lutheran, is closer in many respects to the rite of the Roman Mass than that of any other Protestant church."[16][17] Although similar in outward appearance to the Lutheran Mass or Anglican Mass,[17][18][19] the Catholic Church distinguishes between its own Mass and theirs on the basis of what it views as the validity of the orders of their clergy, and as a result, does not ordinarily permit intercommunion between members of these Churches.[20][21] In a 1993 letter to Bishop Johannes Hanselmann of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria, Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) affirmed that "a theology oriented to the concept of succession [of bishops], such as that which holds in the Catholic and in the Orthodox church, need not in any way deny the salvation-granting presence of the Lord [Heilschaffende Gegenwart des Herrn] in a Lutheran [evangelische] Lord's Supper".[22] The Decree on Ecumenism, produced by Vatican II in 1964, records that the Catholic Church notes its understanding that when other faith groups (such as Lutherans, Anglicans, and Presbyterians) "commemorate His death and resurrection in the Lord's Supper, they profess that it signifies life in communion with Christ and look forward to His coming in glory".[21]

Within the fixed structure outlined below, which is specific to the Roman Rite, the Scripture readings, the antiphons sung or recited during the entrance procession or at Communion, and certain other prayers vary each day according to the liturgical calendar.[23]

Traditionalist Roman Catholics use the term salvific "Sacrifice (prosphora, oblatio) of the Mass".[24]

Introductory rites

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A priest offering the Mass at St. Mary's Basilica, Bangalore

The priest enters, with a deacon if there is one, and altar servers (who may act as crucifer, candle-bearers and thurifer). The priest makes the sign of the cross with the people and formally greets them. Of the options offered for the Introductory Rites, that preferred by liturgists would bridge the praise of the opening hymn with the Glory to God which follows.[25] The Kyrie eleison here has from early times been an acclamation of God's mercy.[26] The Penitential Act instituted by the Council of Trent is also still permitted here, with the caution that it should not turn the congregation in upon itself during these rites which are aimed at uniting those gathered as one praiseful congregation.[27][28] The Introductory Rites are brought to a close by the Collect Prayer.

Liturgy of the Word

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On Sundays and solemnities, three Scripture readings are given. On other days there are only two. If there are three readings, the first is from the Old Testament (a term wider than "Hebrew Scriptures", since it includes the Deuterocanonical Books), or the Acts of the Apostles during Eastertide. The first reading is followed by a psalm, recited or sung responsorially. The second reading is from the New Testament epistles, typically from one of the Pauline epistles. A Gospel acclamation is then sung as the Book of the Gospels is processed, sometimes with incense and candles, to the ambo; if not sung it may be omitted. The final reading and high point of the Liturgy of the Word is the proclamation of the Gospel by the deacon or priest. On all Sundays and Holy Days of Obligation, and preferably at all Masses, a homily or sermon that draws upon some aspect of the readings or the liturgy itself, is then given.[29] The homily is preferably moral and hortatory.[30] Finally, the Nicene Creed or, especially from Easter to Pentecost, the Apostles' Creed is professed on Sundays and solemnities,[31] and the Universal Prayer or Prayer of the Faithful follows.[32] The designation "of the faithful" comes from when catechumens did not remain for this prayer or for what follows.

Liturgy of the Eucharist

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The elevation of the host began in the 14th century to show people the consecrated host.

The Liturgy of the Eucharist begins with the preparation of the altar and gifts,[33] while the collection may be taken. This concludes with the priest saying: "Pray, brethren, that my sacrifice and yours may be acceptable to God, the almighty Father." The congregation stands and responds: "May the Lord accept the sacrifice at your hands, for the praise and glory of His name, for our good, and the good of all His holy Church."[34] The priest then pronounces the variable prayer over the gifts.

Then in dialogue with the faithful the priest brings to mind the meaning of "eucharist", to give thanks to God. A variable prayer of thanksgiving follows, concluding with the acclamation "Holy, Holy ....Heaven and earth are full of your glory. ...Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest."

The anaphora, or more properly "Eucharistic Prayer", follows. The oldest of the anaphoras of the Roman Rite, fixed since the Council of Trent, is called the Roman Canon, with central elements dating to the fourth century. With the liturgical renewal following the Second Vatican Council, numerous other Eucharistic prayers have been composed, including four for children's Masses. Central to the Eucharist is the Institution Narrative, recalling the words and actions of Jesus at his Last Supper, which he told his disciples to do in remembrance of him.[35] Then the congregation acclaims its belief in Christ's conquest over death, and their hope of eternal life.[36] Since the early church an essential part of the Eucharistic prayer has been the epiclesis, the calling down of the Holy Spirit to sanctify the offering and that "the unblemished sacrificial victim to be consumed in Communion may be for the salvation of those who will partake of it."[37] The priest concludes with a doxology in praise of God's work, at which the people give their Amen to the whole Eucharistic prayer.[38]

Communion rite

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A priest administers Communion during Mass in a Dutch field on the front line in October 1944.

All together recite or sing the "Lord's Prayer" ("Pater Noster" or "Our Father"). The priest introduces it with a short phrase and follows it up with a prayer called the embolism, after which the people respond with another doxology. The sign of peace is exchanged and then the "Lamb of God" ("Agnus Dei" in Latin) litany is sung or recited while the priest breaks the host and places a piece in the main chalice; this is known as the rite of fraction and commingling.

Out of Mass (1893), oil on canvas by Joan Ferrer Miró

The priest then displays the consecrated elements to the congregation, saying: "Behold the Lamb of God, behold him who takes away the sins of the world. Blessed are those called to the supper of the Lamb," to which all respond: "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof, but only say the word and my soul shall be healed." Then Communion is given, often with lay ministers assisting with the consecrated wine.[39] According to Catholic teaching, one should be in the state of grace, without mortal sin, to receive Communion.[40] Singing by all the faithful during the Communion procession is encouraged "to express the communicants' union in spirit"[41] from the bread that makes them one. A silent time for reflection follows, and then the variable concluding prayer of the Mass.

Concluding rite

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The priest imparts a blessing over those present. The deacon or, in his absence, the priest himself then dismisses the people, choosing a formula by which the people are "sent forth" to spread the good news. The congregation responds: "Thanks be to God." A recessional hymn is sung by all, as the ministers process to the rear of the church.[42]

Western Rite Orthodox Churches

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Main article: Western Rite Orthodoxy

Since most Eastern Orthodox Christians use the Byzantine Rite, most Eastern Orthodox Churches call their Eucharistic service "the Divine Liturgy." However, there are a number of parishes within the Eastern Orthodox Church which use an edited version of Latin liturgical rites. Most parishes use the "Divine Liturgy of St. Tikhon" which is a revision of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, or "the Divine Liturgy of St. Gregory" which is derived from the Tridentine form of the Roman Rite Mass. These rubrics have been revised to reflect the doctrine and dogmas of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Therefore, the filioque clause has been removed, a fuller epiclesis has been added, and the use of leavened bread has been introduced.[43]

Divine Liturgy of St. Gregory

[edit]
  • The Preparation for Mass
  • Confiteor
  • Kyrie Eleison
  • Gloria in excelsis deo
  • Collect of the Day
  • Epistle
  • Gradual
  • Alleluia
  • Gospel
  • Sermon
  • Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed
  • Offertory
  • Dialogue
  • Preface
  • Sanctus
  • Canon
  • Lord's Prayer
  • Fraction
  • Agnus Dei
  • Prayers before Communion
  • Holy Communion
  • Prayer of Thanksgiving
  • Dismissal
  • Blessing of the Faithful
  • Last Gospel

Lutheranism

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Lutheran priest elevating the host during the Mass at Alsike Church, Sweden
The Lutheran Mass being celebrated ad orientem at Tønsberg Cathedral, Norway.
Main article: Divine Service (Lutheran)

In the Book of Concord, Article XXIV ("Of the Mass") of the Augsburg Confession (1530) begins thus:

...the Mass is retained among us, and celebrated with the highest reverence. We do not abolish the Mass but religiously keep and defend it. [...] We keep the traditional liturgical form. [...] In our churches Mass is celebrated every Sunday and on other holy days, when the sacrament is offered to those who wish for it after they have been examined and absolved (Article XXIV).

Lutheran churches often celebrate the Eucharist each Sunday (Lord's Day) in the Mass. This aligns with the Lutheran Confessions, as with the views promulgated by Martin Luther.[44] Eucharistic Ministers take the sacramental elements to the sick in hospitals and nursing homes, as well as prisons. The practice of weekly Communion is the norm in most Lutheran parishes throughout the world. The bishops and priests (pastors) of the larger Lutheran bodies have strongly encouraged the practice of weekly Mass, and daily Mass is offered in some Lutheran churches, as well as at Lutheran convents and monasteries, such as Östanbäck Monastery and Saint Augustine's House.[45][46][47]

Traditionally, in the Lutheran Churches, the Mass is celebrated ad orientem, being "oriented to the East from which the Sun of Righteousness will return".[48] Though some parishes now celebrate the Mass versus populum, the traditional liturgical posture of ad orientem is retained by many Lutheran churches.[49]

Order of the Mass

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A Lutheran priest delivers a sermon during the celebration of the Mass at the Church of Peace in Jawor, Poland

Lutherans affirm that the Sacrifice of the Mass (sacrificium eucharistikon) is a sacrifice of thanksgiving and praise (sacrificia laudis):[51]

We are perfectly willing for the Mass to be understood as a daily sacrifice, provided this means the whole Mass, the ceremony and also the proclamation of the Gospel, faith, prayer, and thanksgiving. Taken together, these are the daily sacrifice of the New Testament; the ceremony was instituted because of them and ought not be separated from them. Therefore Paul says (I Cor. 11:26), “As often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death.” (Apology XXIV:35)[52]

Martin Luther rejected parts of the Roman Rite Mass, specifically the Roman Catholic Canon of the Mass, which, as he argued, did not conform with Hebrews 7:27. That verse contrasts the Old Testament priests, who needed to make a propitiatory sacrifice for sins on a regular basis, with the single priest Christ, who offers his body only once as a sacrifice. The theme is carried out also in Hebrews 9:26, 9:28, and 10:10. Luther composed as a replacement a revised Latin-language rite, Formula Missae, in 1523, and the vernacular Deutsche Messe in 1526.[53] The Formula Missae supplanted the Canon of the Mass with the following:

(i) Sursum Corda and preface, to 'through Christ our Lord'.
(ii) The Words of Institution, intoned.
(iii) The Sanctus and Benedictus with the elevation of the bread and the cup.[54]

The Apology of the Augsburg Confession affirmed the Greek Canon, and the Pfalz-Neuburg Church Order (1543), modeled by the Lutheran divine Philip Melanchthon includes the following Eucharistic Prayer prior to the Words of Institution:[55]

Lord Jesus Christ, thou only true Son of the living God, who hast given thy body unto bitter death for us all, and hast shed thy blood for the forgiveness of our sins, and hast bidden all thy disciples to eat that same thy body and to drink thy blood whereby to remember thy death ; we bring before thy divine Majesty these thy gifts of bread and wine and beseech thee to hallow and bless the same by thy divine grace, goodness and power and ordain [schaffen] that this bread and wine may be [sei] thy body and blood, even unto eternal life to all who eat and drink thereof.[55]

The Order of the Mass produced under the liturgical reforms of the Lutheran divine Olavus Petri, expanded the anaphora from the Formula Missae, which liturgical scholar Frank Senn states fostered "a church life that was both catholic and evangelical, embracing the whole population of the country and maintaining continuity with pre-Reformation traditions, but centered in the Bible's gospel."[55]

Scandinavian, Finnish, and some English-speaking Lutherans, use the term "Mass" for their Eucharistic service,[56] though in most German- and English-speaking churches, the terms "Divine Service", "Holy Communion, or "the Holy Eucharist" are used more frequently, though the term "Mass" enjoys usage as well.[52]

Anglicanism

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Bishop William White celebrating Holy Communion in choir dress (19th century A.D.)
Further information: Anglican Eucharistic theology and Book of Common Prayer

In the Anglican tradition, Mass is one of many terms for the Eucharist. More frequently, the term used is either Holy Communion, Holy Eucharist, or the Lord's Supper. Occasionally the term used in Eastern churches, the Divine Liturgy, is also used.[57] In the English-speaking Anglican world, the term used often identifies the Eucharistic theology of the person using it. "Mass" is frequently used by Anglo-Catholics.

Structure of the rite

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The various Eucharistic liturgies used by national churches of the Anglican Communion have continuously evolved from the 1549 and 1552 editions of the Book of Common Prayer, both of which owed their form and contents chiefly to the work of Thomas Cranmer, who in about 1547 had rejected the medieval theology of the Mass.[58] Although the 1549 rite retained the traditional sequence of the Mass, its underlying theology was Cranmer's and the four-day debate in the House of Lords during December 1548 makes it clear that this had already moved far beyond traditional Catholicism.[59] In the 1552 revision, this was made clear by the restructuring of the elements of the rite while retaining nearly all the language so that it became, in the words of an Anglo-Catholic liturgical historian (Arthur Couratin) "a series of communion devotions; disembarrassed of the Mass with which they were temporarily associated in 1548 and 1549".[58] Some rites, such as the 1637 Scottish rite and the 1789 rite in the United States, went back to the 1549 model.[60] From the time of the Elizabethan Settlement in 1559 the services allowed for a certain variety of theological interpretation. Today's rites generally follow the same general five-part shape.[61] Some or all of the following elements may be altered, transposed or absent depending on the rite, the liturgical season and use of the province or national church:

  • Gathering: Begins with a Trinitarian-based greeting or seasonal acclamation ("Blessed be God: Father, Son and Holy spirit. And Blessed be his kingdom, now and forever. Amen").[62] Then the Kyrie and a general confession and absolution follow. On Sundays outside Advent and Lent and on major festivals, the Gloria in Excelsis Deo is sung or said. The entrance rite then concludes with the collect of the day.
  • Proclaiming and Hearing the Word: Usually two to three readings of Scripture, one of which is always from the Gospels, plus a psalm (or portion thereof) or canticle between the lessons. This is followed by a sermon or homily; the recitation of one of the Creeds, viz., the Apostles' or Nicene, is done on Sundays and feasts.
  • The Prayers of the People: Quite varied in their form.
  • The Peace: The people stand and greet one another and exchange signs of God's peace in the name of the Lord. It functions as a bridge between the prayers, lessons, sermon and creeds to the Communion part of the Eucharist.
  • The Celebration of the Eucharist: The gifts of bread and wine are brought up, along with other gifts (such as money or food for a food bank, etc.), and an offertory prayer is recited. Following this, a Eucharistic Prayer (called "The Great Thanksgiving") is offered. This prayer consists of a dialogue (the Sursum Corda), a preface, the sanctus and benedictus, the Words of Institution, the Anamnesis, an Epiclesis, a petition for salvation, and a Doxology. The Lord's Prayer precedes the fraction (the breaking of the bread), followed by the Prayer of Humble Access or the Agnus Dei and the distribution of the sacred elements (the bread and wine).
  • Dismissal: There is a post-Communion prayer, which is a general prayer of thanksgiving. The service concludes with a Trinitarian blessing and the dismissal.

The liturgy is divided into two main parts: The Liturgy of the Word (Gathering, Proclaiming and Hearing the Word, Prayers of the People) and the Liturgy of the Eucharist (together with the Dismissal), but the entire liturgy itself is also properly referred to as the Holy Eucharist. The sequence of the liturgy is almost identical to the Roman Rite, except the Confession of Sin ends the Liturgy of the Word in the Anglican rites in North America, while in the Roman Rite (when used) and in Anglican rites in many jurisdictions the Confession is near the beginning of the service.

Special Masses

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The Anglican tradition includes separate rites for nuptial, funeral, and votive Masses. The Eucharist is an integral part of many other sacramental services, including ordination and Confirmation.

Ceremonial

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See also: Anglican Eucharistic theology

Some Anglo-Catholic parishes use Anglican versions of the Tridentine Missal, such as the English Missal, The Anglican Missal, or the American Missal, for the celebration of Mass, all of which are intended primarily for the celebration of the Eucharist, or use the order for the Eucharist in Common Worship arranged according to the traditional structure, and often with interpolations from the Roman Rite. In the Episcopal Church (United States), a traditional-language, Anglo-Catholic adaptation of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer has been published (An Anglican Service Book).

All of these books contain such features as meditations for the presiding celebrant(s) during the liturgy, and other material such as the rite for the blessing of palms on Palm Sunday, propers for special feast days, and instructions for proper ceremonial order. These books are used as a more expansively Catholic context in which to celebrate the liturgical use found in the Book of Common Prayer and related liturgical books. In England supplementary liturgical texts for the proper celebration of Festivals, Feast days and the seasons is provided in Common Worship; Times and Seasons (2013), Festivals (Common Worship: Services and Prayers for the Church of England) (2008) and Common Worship: Holy Week and Easter (2011).

These are often supplemented in Anglo-Catholic parishes by books specifying ceremonial actions, such as A Priest's Handbook by Dennis G. Michno, Ceremonies of the Eucharist by Howard E. Galley, Low Mass Ceremonial by C. P. A. Burnett, Ritual Notes by E.C.R. Lamburn, and The Parson's Handbook (Percy Dearmer). In Evangelical Anglican parishes, the rubrics detailed in the Book of Common Prayer are considered normative.

Methodism

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A Methodist minister consecrating the Eucharist elements during the Service of the Word and Table

The celebration of the "Mass" in Methodist churches, commonly known as the Service of the Table, is based on The Sunday Service of 1784, a revision of the liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer authorized by John Wesley.[63] The use of the term "Mass" is very rare in Methodism. The terms "Holy Communion", "Lord's Supper", and to a lesser extent "Eucharist" are far more typical.

The celebrant of a Methodist Eucharist must be an ordained or licensed minister.[64] In the Free Methodist Church, the liturgy of the Eucharist, as provided in its Book of Discipline, is outlined as follows:[65]

Methodist services of worship, post-1992, reflect the ecumenical movement and Liturgical Movement, particularly the Methodist Mass, largely the work of theologian Donald C. Lacy.[66]

Calendrical usage

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The English suffix -mas (equivalent to modern English "Mass") can label certain prominent (originally religious) feasts or seasons based on a traditional liturgical year. For example:

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mass (liturgy)

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The Mass is the central liturgical rite and act of worship in the Roman Catholic Church, in which the sacrifice of Christ on the is perpetuated under the appearances of bread and wine, instituted by Christ himself at the to ensure its memorial until his return. As the , it is "the source and summit of the Christian life," orienting all other sacraments, ministries, and works of the toward it while drawing life from it, and constituting the culmination of God's saving action in Christ. The Mass unfolds in two principal parts that together form a single act of worship: the , featuring proclamations from Sacred Scripture, a expounding the readings, the , and the universal ; and the , encompassing the preparation of the gifts, the Eucharistic (with its preface, invoking the , narrative of , anamnesis, and intercessions), and the Communion rite through which the faithful partake of Christ's Body and Blood. This structure, rooted in , was already evident in the second century as described by St. , who outlined readings, an exhortation, intercessory prayers, the offering of bread and wine with thanksgiving, and the distribution of the resulting to the assembly and catechumens. Celebrated under the presidency of Christ the , who acts invisibly through the ordained priest standing , the Mass unites the earthly with the heavenly worship and fosters the full and active participation of the entire holy people in the mystery of salvation. In the , the current Ordinary Form of the Mass was promulgated by in the of 1969-1970, implementing the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council to emphasize Scripture, communal prayer, and language while preserving the substance of the rite; the pre-conciliar form from the 1962 Missal, known as the Extraordinary Form, may be celebrated only with the permission of the , in accordance with the (2021).

Origins and Terminology

Etymology

The term "Mass" derives from the Latin word missa, which literally means "dismissal" or "sending forth," originating from the verb mittere ("to send"). This etymology is directly linked to the concluding phrase of the Roman Rite liturgy, ("Go forth, the Mass is dismissed" or "Go, you are sent"), a formula used since at least the to end the Eucharistic celebration and commission the faithful to live out its implications in the world. The word missa initially denoted a general act of dismissal in , as seen in legal and administrative contexts, but in Christian usage, it evolved to specifically designate the Eucharistic service by the . The earliest documented application of missa to the Eucharistic liturgy appears in the writings of St. of (c. 340–397), a key patristic figure whose works, such as his Epistula 20, mark the term's transition from mere dismissal to a technical name for the rite. By the time of Pope St. Gregory the Great (c. 540–604), missa had become the standard designation for the Eucharistic sacrifice in the Western Church, reflecting the growing Latinization of liturgical language influenced by the Bible—St. Jerome's 4th-century translation that standardized —and the broader patristic tradition. This development paralleled the term's spread into vernacular languages; in , it appeared as mæsse by the 8th century, as evidenced in texts like the Ælfric's Glossary, denoting the liturgical assembly and eventually influencing messe and modern "Mass." The adoption in other European vernaculars, such as messe and mezzo, followed similar patterns, solidifying its use across Western by the medieval period. While "Mass" specifically refers to the Eucharistic liturgy in Western Christian traditions, particularly the Roman and other Latin rites, it is distinct from related terms used elsewhere. The broader term "," from the Greek eucharistia ("thanksgiving"), encompasses the same rite universally across Christian denominations, emphasizing its scriptural roots in the narratives. "Lord's Supper," drawn from 1 Corinthians 11:20 in the , is commonly employed in Protestant contexts to highlight the communal meal aspect, avoiding sacrificial connotations associated with "Mass." In , the equivalent is often called the "," a term rooted in Byzantine Greek leitourgia ("public service") and applied to rites like the Liturgy of St. , underscoring the Eastern tradition's focus on imperial and mystical elements rather than Western dismissal imagery.

Historical Development

The origins of the Mass trace back to early Christian practices rooted in Jewish synagogue worship and the , where instituted the as described in the accounts. Early Christian gatherings combined elements of Jewish meal blessings and scriptural readings with the breaking of bread in remembrance of Christ, evolving into distinct Eucharistic celebrations by the late . In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the structure of the Eucharistic prayer, or anaphora, began to take shape, as evidenced in documents like the , attributed to around 215 CE, which outlines an early form of the prayer including thanksgiving, institution narrative, and . This text, though its exact authorship and transmission remain debated among scholars, provides a key witness to Roman liturgical practices, emphasizing , , and the bishop-led . During the patristic era, influences from figures like Hippolytus and St. Ambrose of Milan further shaped the liturgy; Ambrose's 4th-century writings in De Sacramentis quote an early version of the central Eucharistic prayer, contributing to the formation of the Roman Canon by the late 4th century. The Roman Canon, the fixed Eucharistic prayer of the Roman Rite, emerged as a standardized text around this time, incorporating scriptural allusions and patristic theology while adapting local customs. In the medieval period, liturgical standardization advanced under in the 8th and 9th centuries, who commissioned the Hadrianum sacramentary from to unify Frankish practices with the , promoting uniformity across his empire through liturgical books and reforms. The adoption of , associated with in the late 6th century, became integral to the Roman liturgy, enhancing its musical solemnity and spreading via monastic traditions. By the , practices like the elevation of the host after consecration developed, initially in response to lay demands for visual amid growing Eucharistic devotion and debates over . The (1545–1563) addressed liturgical diversity and abuses, leading to the codification of the in Pope St. Pius V's 1570 , which mandated the Roman Rite's use across the while allowing ancient local variants to continue. This missal preserved the Roman Canon's core while standardizing rubrics and prayers, serving as the normative form for four centuries. The Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) initiated reforms to promote active participation and scriptural richness, culminating in Pope Paul VI's 1969 apostolic constitution Missale Romanum, which promulgated the Novus Ordo Missae effective in 1970, revising the Ordinary Form while retaining essential elements like the Roman Canon as an option. These changes emphasized vernacular languages, simplified rituals, and expanded readings, adapting the to contemporary needs without altering its sacrificial nature.

General Structure

Introductory Rites

The Introductory Rites of the Mass serve to gather the faithful into a unified community, fostering and praise as preparation for the Liturgy of the Word and the . These rites, which precede the proclamation of Scripture, include the Entrance, , Act of Penitence, , Gloria, and , and are designed to initiate the sacred action by disposing the assembly to listen attentively to God's word. The rites begin with the Entrance, during which the , accompanied by the and other ministers, approaches as the Entrance Chant or song is sung. This chant, drawn from the or approved sources, expresses the theme of the day and encourages the assembly's active participation, symbolizing the journey toward the heavenly banquet. The then reverences with a kiss and, if appropriate, incenses it, before proceeding to the chair. Following the Entrance, the Priest greets the assembly with a formula such as "The Lord be with you," to which the people respond, "And with your spirit," establishing a dialogical communion between the celebrant and the faithful. This greeting, rooted in biblical language, underscores the presence of Christ among the gathered community. The Act of Penitence immediately follows, inviting all to acknowledge their sins; it may take one of three forms, including the ("I confess to almighty God..."), a brief of invocations, or a reading of the Ten Commandments followed by . Through this act, the assembly seeks God's mercy, preparing hearts for divine encounter. The Kyrie eleison ("Lord, have mercy") is then recited or sung, either incorporated into the Act of Penitence or separately, as a litany invoking compassion in Greek and English (or Latin), recalling God's merciful acts throughout salvation history. On Sundays outside Advent and Lent, as well as solemnities and feasts, the Gloria hymn is proclaimed next; this ancient doxology, sung or said by all, praises the Trinity and echoes the angels' song at Christ's birth in Luke 2:14: "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace to people of good will." Its text celebrates God's glory and the mystery of the Incarnation, elevating the assembly's praise. The Introductory Rites conclude with the Collect, or opening prayer, recited by the Priest after the assembly stands. This prayer, unique to the liturgical day, summarizes the theme of the celebration, addresses directly, presents the assembly's intentions, and ends with a trinitarian such as "through our Lord Jesus Christ," followed by the people's "." By uniting the community in repentance and adoration, these rites transition seamlessly into the Liturgy of the Word.

Liturgy of the Word

The Liturgy of the Word constitutes the first major part of the Mass in the , centered on the proclamation of Sacred Scripture and the assembly's meditative response to it, fostering a deeper encounter with God's word. This section unfolds through a series of readings drawn from the , interspersed with chants and responses, culminating in instructional and intercessory elements that prepare the faithful for the Liturgy of the . The sequence begins with the first reading, typically selected from the to provide historical and prophetic context for , though during the Easter season it is taken from the to highlight the early Church's witness. Following a period of silence for reflection, the responsorial psalm is proclaimed, usually sung by a with the assembly responding, serving as a poetic that bridges the first and second readings. On Sundays and solemnities, a second reading from the —often the epistles of Paul or other apostolic letters, or occasionally the —follows, offering theological insights and exhortations for Christian living. The proclamation concludes with the Gospel acclamation, commonly the Alleluia verse (replaced by an acclamation like "Praise to you, Lord Christ" during ), which expresses joyful anticipation of the Gospel reading, the high point of the of the Word. The Gospel itself, recounting the life and teachings of from one of the , is solemnly introduced and proclaimed. These readings are drawn from the , a systematic arrangement of biblical texts approved by the Church to ensure a rich exposure to Scripture over time. The Sunday lectionary follows a three-year cycle designated A, B, and C, with Year A focusing primarily on the Gospel of Matthew, Year B on Mark, and Year C on Luke; of John is featured during and across all years. Weekday Masses use a two-year cycle, odd-numbered years as Cycle I and even-numbered as Cycle II, covering additional portions of the Old and New Testaments. This expanded biblical selection stems from the Second Vatican Council's directive in to enrich the of the Word with a greater abundance of Scripture, moving beyond the previous one-year cycle to promote ongoing formation in faith. The proclamation of the readings involves specific liturgical ministers to underscore the communal and sacred nature of the Word. A , whether instituted or a lay reader, proclaims the first and second readings from the ambo, ensuring clear and dignified delivery to aid understanding and reverence. is reserved for the if present, who processes with the Book of the Gospels and proclaims it facing , or by the celebrant in the deacon's absence, emphasizing its centrality as Christ's own words. After the readings, the follows, delivered by the or , which interprets the Scriptures in light of the Church's tradition and applies them to contemporary life, nourishing faith and guiding moral conduct. A brief silence allows for personal reflection, succeeded on Sundays and solemnities by the , where the assembly recites the to affirm core doctrines. The of the Word concludes with the of the Faithful, also known as the Universal Prayer or general intercessions, in which the assembly, led by the or , offers petitions for the Church, the world, the afflicted, and local needs, expressing communal solidarity. This sequence transitions the assembly from hearing the Word to its eucharistic celebration.

Liturgy of the Eucharist

The Liturgy of the Eucharist constitutes the central sacrificial action of the Mass in the , where the gifts of and wine are offered and transformed into the Body and through the power of the and the . This part of the celebration emphasizes the Church's participation in Christ's , making present his sacrifice on the . It begins with the Preparation of the Gifts, during which representatives of bring forward the and wine intended for consecration, often accompanied by the collection of monetary offerings from the faithful, which are presented as symbols of their self-gift to God. The receives these gifts on the altar, arranges them, and pours wine into the while adding a few drops of water, reciting a that invokes the and the unity of Christ with his Church in one body. He then performs the lavabo, washing his hands with water poured by a minister or , accompanied by verses from that express a desire for moral purification before offering the sacrifice. Following this, the invites to pray and recites the Prayer over the Offerings, beseeching God to accept the gifts as a spiritual sacrifice. The core of the Liturgy of the Eucharist is the Eucharistic Prayer, recited by the priest with hands extended and the assembly standing in silent veneration, acting as the summit toward which the preceding rites are directed and from which the Communion Rite flows. This prayer unfolds in a structured sequence: it opens with the Preface, a variable hymn of thanksgiving praising God's saving works in creation, redemption, and the history of salvation, culminating in the acclamation of Christ as the Lamb who takes away the sins of the world. The assembly then joins in singing or reciting the Sanctus, the hymn from Isaiah 6:3 and Revelation 4:8, bridging the earthly liturgy with the heavenly worship. The prayer continues with the first epiclesis, calling upon the Holy Spirit to sanctify the offerings and the gathered community; this is followed by the narrative of institution, in which the priest recounts the words and actions of Jesus at the Last Supper as recorded in the Gospels, pronouncing the consecratory formulas over the bread and wine. After the consecration, the assembly acclaims the Mystery of Faith, affirming belief in Christ's real presence and sacrifice. The prayer proceeds with the anamnesis, explicitly recalling Christ's passion, death, resurrection, and ascension as the memorial that makes present the one eternal sacrifice; it includes intercessions for the universal Church, the living and the dead, and all who seek God's mercy. The Eucharistic Prayer concludes with a second epiclesis in some forms, invoking the Spirit to unite the worshippers into one body, and the Great Doxology, a Trinitarian praise to which the assembly responds "Amen," confirming the prayer's content. In the post-Vatican II , known as the Novus Ordo Missae, four principal Eucharistic Prayers are provided for use, each with its own preface options and thematic emphases, alongside additional prayers for various needs and occasions. The Roman Canon, designated as Eucharistic Prayer I, is the most ancient, with its essential structure traceable to the late fourth century, as evidenced in St. Ambrose of Milan's De Sacramentis, reflecting the developing Latin liturgical tradition at . During the consecration within any of these prayers, the priest genuflects or bows profoundly before elevating the consecrated host for to adore, then elevates the chalice similarly, these gestures publicly manifesting in the real, substantial presence of Christ under the species of bread and wine.

Communion Rite

The Communion Rite concludes the Liturgy of the Eucharist in the Mass, serving as the moment when the faithful receive Holy Communion, the true Body and Blood of Christ, as spiritual nourishment for their journey toward eternal life. This rite emphasizes the communal aspect of the Paschal Banquet, where the assembly participates in the sacrifice offered earlier, fostering unity with Christ and among the members of the Church. Theologically, it underscores the intimate achieved through reception, strengthening charity and incorporating the recipient more fully into the . The rite begins with the Lord's Prayer, recited by all as a preparation for Communion, invoking God's fatherhood and petitioning for daily bread, which anticipates the Eucharistic gift. Following the prayer, the priest alone recites the embolism, "Deliver us, Lord, we pray, from every evil," expanding on the final petition of the Our Father by seeking deliverance from evil, peace for the Church, and salvation for the living and the dead. The assembly then responds with the doxology, "For the kingdom, the power, and the glory are yours, now and forever," affirming God's sovereignty. This leads into the Rite of Peace, where the priest implores Christ's peace upon the assembly, and the faithful exchange a sign of peace, symbolizing reconciliation and unity before approaching the altar. Next comes the breaking of the bread and the (Lamb of God), chanted or recited as the priest or deacon fractures the consecrated host over the paten, signifying the one sacrifice of Christ offered for the unity of the Church. The invokes Jesus as the Lamb who takes away the sins of the world, preparing the assembly for reception by highlighting themes of mercy and . The then holds up the host and , inviting the faithful with the words from John 1:29, "Behold the , behold him who takes away the sins of the world. Blessed are those called to the supper of the Lamb," to which the assembly responds, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof, but only say the word and my soul shall be healed." Holy Communion is then distributed, with the priest, deacon, or instituted acolytes administering the under the form of bread to communicants who approach, typically standing, and respond "" to the proclamation "The ." Where the permits and pastoral conditions allow, the is also offered under the form of wine, enabling reception under both species for a more complete sign of the Eucharistic banquet. A Communion hymn or chant, drawn from the or other approved texts, accompanies the distribution, expressing the unity of the Mystical Body and fostering active participation. After all have received, a period of silent reflection allows the faithful to interiorize the graces of Communion, contemplating their union with Christ before the priest purifies the vessels. Reception requires the communicant to be in a state of grace, free from , having examined their conscience and, if necessary, received the of ; additionally, a one-hour Eucharistic fast is observed. Through this rite, the faithful not only nourish their souls but also deepen their ecclesial communion, becoming what they receive—the —and committing to live out this mystery in daily life.

Concluding Rites

The Concluding Rites mark the end of the , transitioning the from to active discipleship in the world. These rites include brief announcements if necessary, the priest's and blessing, the dismissal, and the reverencing of and before departure. Announcements, when required, are kept short and pertain to matters relevant to the , such as upcoming events or pastoral needs, delivered by the or before the blessing. The blessing follows, with the priest extending his hands over the people; it is typically simple but may take a more solemn form on certain days, incorporating additional prayers and Trinitarian invocations as outlined in the . The dismissal concludes the rite, pronounced by the priest as "" (Go forth, the is ended), to which the responds "Deo gratias" (Thanks be to ); alternative formulas like "Go and announce of the " or "Go in peace, glorifying the by your life" emphasize the call to mission. Theologically, the dismissal echoes the Latin term "missa," derived from "missio" meaning sending forth, underscoring that the liturgy propels the faithful into evangelization and service, transforming communal praise into lived witness. After the dismissal, the priest and deacon venerate the altar with a kiss, and if a tabernacle with the Blessed Sacrament is present, they genuflect or bow before it. An optional recessional may accompany the of the ministers out of the church, fostering a joyful conclusion while the congregation remains seated or standing until the ministers have exited. On solemnities, the rites may include an enriched solemn with specific gestures, such as the signing of the , and in some traditional practices, a seasonal Marian like the could follow the dismissal for devotional extension.

Catholic Variations

Roman Rite Forms

The , also known as the Latin Rite, encompasses the primary liturgical tradition of the Western Catholic Church, with its forms of the Mass evolving significantly in the 20th century following the Second Vatican Council. The two principal forms currently recognized are the Ordinary Form, promulgated in the 1970 edition of the , and the Extraordinary Form, based on the 1962 edition of the Missal. These forms share the general structure of the Mass—introductory rites, Liturgy of the Word, Liturgy of the Eucharist, Communion Rite, and concluding rites—but differ in language, orientation, ritual elements, and scriptural selections. The Extraordinary Form, often referred to as the , follows the as revised under in 1570 and finalized in its pre-conciliar edition by in 1962. In this form, the priest celebrates ad orientem, facing the altar and liturgical east rather than the congregation, symbolizing a unified orientation toward . The —the central Eucharistic Prayer—is recited silently by the priest, fostering a contemplative atmosphere, while the faithful receive Holy Communion kneeling and on the tongue from the priest. This form emphasizes Latin as the normative language, with limited vernacular permitted only for certain announcements or readings in specific cases. In contrast, the Ordinary Form, also known as the Novus Ordo Missae, was introduced through the apostolic constitution Missale Romanum issued by Pope Paul VI on April 3, 1969, with the revised Missal published in 1970. This revision implemented directives from the Second Vatican Council's constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium (1963), allowing for the use of vernacular languages in most parts of the Mass to enhance active participation by the faithful. The orientation shifted toward versus populum, with the priest facing the congregation, though ad orientem remains permissible. The lectionary was expanded to a three-year cycle for Sundays and a two-year cycle for weekdays, drawing from a broader selection of Old and New Testament readings to provide richer scriptural formation. Additional Eucharistic Prayers beyond the Roman Canon were introduced, and the overall rite was simplified to emphasize communal aspects. Post-Vatican II, permissions for celebrating the 1962 —known as Indult Masses—were granted through limited episcopal indults to accommodate groups attached to the older rite. The Congregation for Divine Worship issued Quattuor Abhinc Annos on October 3, 1984, authorizing bishops to permit its use up to twice monthly in parish churches under strict conditions, such as ensuring no rejection of Vatican II reforms. This was expanded by Pope John Paul II's Ecclesia Dei in 1988, which encouraged wider access following the schism with the of St. Pius X, leading to the establishment of personal parishes for the traditional . Some hybrid practices emerged, blending elements like Latin readings or into Ordinary Form celebrations, though these were not formally codified. Further liberalization occurred with Pope Benedict XVI's motu proprio Summorum Pontificum in 2007, designating the 1962 Missal as the Extraordinary Form of the one and allowing priests to celebrate it without special permission, provided pastoral needs were met. However, Pope Francis's motu proprio on July 16, 2021, restricted its use to prevent divisions, abrogating previous authorizations and requiring diocesan bishops to approve celebrations, limit locations, and verify participants' acceptance of Vatican II. Bishops' conferences responded variably; for instance, the Conference of Catholic Bishops issued guidelines in 2021 emphasizing dialogue and gradual implementation, while some European conferences, like Germany's, sought clarifications and extensions amid concerns over unity. A subsequent responsum from the for Divine Worship in 2021 reinforced that the 1962 Missal could not be used in churches without explicit permission. Following the death of and the election of Pope Leo XIV in 2025, the restrictions of remain in force, but as of November 2025, has stated no intent to overturn them while granting generous exemptions, two-year extensions to existing permissions in regions such as , and specific approvals for celebrations of the Extraordinary Form, including in .

Eastern Catholic Rites

The , numbering 23 autonomous particular churches in with the , celebrate the primarily through ancient Eastern liturgical traditions known as the , which preserves distinct spiritual and ritual elements from their non-Catholic Eastern Christian counterparts while aligning with Catholic doctrine. These rites emphasize communal participation, symbolic gestures, and a profound sense of mystery, differing from the Roman Rite's more structured and reserved approach. The most widespread Eastern Catholic rite is the , used by churches such as the and the . In this tradition, the typically employs the Anaphora of St. , a eucharistic prayer attributed to the fourth-century of , which includes a detailed thanksgiving, institution narrative, and an invoking the to transform the gifts into Christ's body and blood. A prominent feature is the , a screen adorned with icons that separates the from the , symbolizing the divide between the heavenly and earthly realms while allowing visual connection through its doors. The receives particular emphasis, underscoring the Spirit's sanctifying role in the consecration, a theological nuance rooted in early Eastern patristic thought. Other Eastern Catholic rites draw from the Alexandrian and Antiochene families, showcasing further diversity. The , part of the Alexandrian tradition, celebrates the of St. Basil, featuring an anaphora that integrates Egyptian liturgical elements with prayers commemorating creation, redemption, and the saints, often chanted in Coptic and . Similarly, the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, aligned with the East Syriac (Chaldean) variant of the Antiochene tradition, incorporates unique anaphoras such as that of St. Basil alongside others like Addai and Mari, emphasizing apostolic origins and communal intercessions in and Syriac. These variations maintain ancient structures, including extended litanies and processions, to foster a sense of continuity with early Christian worship in their regions. The Second Vatican Council's Decree on Eastern Catholic Churches, Orientalium Ecclesiarum, explicitly affirmed the right of these churches to preserve their liturgical patrimony, including the use of leavened bread for the to symbolize the risen Christ, in contrast to the unleavened host of the . Key differences from the Roman Mass include longer durations—often two hours or more due to elaborate chants and prayers—standing posture throughout as a sign of reverence and resurrection, and the omission of the clause in the to honor original Eastern formulations and ecumenical sensitivities. These elements underscore the within the , allowing Eastern Catholics to express their faith through time-honored rites.

Protestant Adaptations

Lutheran Order

The Lutheran adaptation of the Mass, termed the Divine Service or Gottesdienst, traces its roots to Martin Luther's Formula Missae et Communionis pro Ecclesia Vuittembergensi (Formula of the Mass and Communion for the Church at ), published in 1523. This document offered a restrained reform of the medieval Latin Mass, preserving its overall structure while excising elements that suggested the as a propitiatory , such as the canon of the Mass's sacrificial prayers, to underscore justification by faith alone and the . Luther emphasized congregational participation through vernacular elements and Scripture readings, rejecting private priestly prayers and aligning the rite with centered on Christ's once-for-all . The order of the Divine Service closely parallels the traditional structure—introductory rites, of the Word, of the , communion, and concluding rites—but adapts them to prioritize Scripture and . It typically begins with an optional corporate of sins and , followed by the , , hymn of praise (Gloria or This Is the Feast), and readings with an expanded or sermon that serves as the central exposition of for faith formation. The Eucharistic prayer retains the but focuses on thanksgiving and Christ's real presence, affirmed through the doctrine of , wherein the true body and blood of Christ are present "in, with, and under" the bread and wine without altering their substance. Hymns, drawn from Lutheran chorales, integrate throughout, enhancing devotion and doctrinal teaching. In contemporary practice among bodies like the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), the Divine Service remains the normative Sunday worship, celebrated weekly with Communion in most congregations, emphasizing God's service to the people through Word and Sacrament. Settings vary, such as Divine Service I–V in the LCMS's Lutheran Service Book (2006) or Holy Communion settings in the ELCA's Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006), incorporating contemporary language options while upholding confessional standards. Twentieth-century liturgical revisions reflected broader ecumenical engagements, drawing from the Liturgical Movement and interchurch dialogues to refine rites for clarity and inclusivity. Influential texts like the Service Book and Hymnal (1958) and Lutheran Book of Worship (1978) introduced common lectionaries and simplified rubrics, culminating in modern books that align with agreements such as the 1999 Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification between the and the , which resolved key disputes and encouraged shared liturgical emphases on grace and faith.

Anglican Rite

The Anglican Rite for the Mass, known as or Holy Communion, originated in the (BCP), first compiled by in 1549 as a adaptation of the Western liturgical , balancing Catholic elements with Reformed emphases on scripture and congregational participation. The rite begins with introductory elements including the Collect of the Day, followed by lessons from the Epistle and , a expounding the readings, and recitation of the . The Eucharistic Prayer, central to the rite, incorporates an invoking the upon the elements, alongside the and anamnesis of Christ's sacrifice. The 1662 revision, authorized by Parliament and still the official BCP of the , retained this structure while refining the language for clarity and doctrinal precision, maintaining the sequence of collect, lessons, homily, creed, and a canon with epiclesis in the Prayer of Consecration. Subsequent revisions reflect evolving liturgical scholarship and ecumenical influences. The 1979 BCP of the in the United States introduced throughout the rite, such as gender-neutral references in prayers and readings, and adopted a three-year cycle to provide broader scriptural coverage across , , Epistles, and Gospels. It also permits the reservation of consecrated elements after communion for distribution to the sick or absent, with rubrics specifying proper reverence and storage in an aumbry. The 2019 BCP of the (ACNA), building on earlier proposals, largely preserves traditional language but incorporates the three-year as an option alongside a one-year cycle, and allows for distribution without repeating the Eucharistic Prayer, emphasizing pastoral flexibility. Special forms of the rite integrate with life events while preserving core structure. Masses, or for the departed, use propers from the burial office, including modified collects and lessons focused on hope, often celebrated at or memorials. Weddings may conclude with Holy Communion, following the , to signify the couple's incorporation into Christ's body. Baptismal services frequently combine with , especially for infants or adults, where the newly baptized receive communion immediately after , underscoring into the sacramental life of the church. Ceremonial practices vary significantly between (Anglo-Catholic) and (evangelical) traditions, reflecting Anglicanism's . High church celebrations employ full Eucharistic vestments such as , stole, and for the celebrant, along with at the and , and or profound bows at the consecration to honor the Real Presence. services favor simpler attire like and , omit , and minimize gestures like , prioritizing verbal over visual . This diversity stems from shared roots with Lutheran orders but emphasizes Anglican adaptability to local custom.

Methodist Service

The Methodist Holy Communion service, also known as the or Lord's Supper, traces its roots to John Wesley's Sunday Service of the Methodists published in 1784, which served as the foundational liturgical text for early American Methodists. This work was an abridged adaptation of the Anglican , streamlined for evangelical simplicity and practical use in frontier settings, omitting elaborate rituals while retaining core elements like the , , readings, and a simplified communion rite. Wesley integrated Methodist practices such as exhortations by lay preachers during services and referenced love feasts—simple fellowship meals—as complementary expressions of communal piety, though these were often held separately from formal celebrations. The service emphasized personal conversion and sanctification, reflecting Wesley's Arminian theology where Holy Communion functions as a primary "" to nurture believers toward . In contemporary (UMC) practice, the Holy Communion order follows the structure outlined in the Book of Worship (1992, with revisions), beginning with a gathering that includes and , followed by the of the Word with scripture and . The central of the Table features the Great Thanksgiving, a eucharistic led by the presider that recounts God's acts of , invokes the (), and narrates the of the Lord's Supper, culminating in the proclamation of Christ's death and resurrection. Bread and cup are consecrated and shared, with an explicit invitation extending participation to "all who love him [Christ], who earnestly repent of their sin and seek to live in peace with one another," embodying the UMC's open table policy, which officially welcomes all baptized Christians from any tradition but in practice extends to unbaptized seekers as well, reflecting —the unmerited divine initiative that draws all people toward faith before any human response. This emphasis on underscores the sacrament's role in offering God's initiating love universally, fostering assurance of and empowerment for holy living without requiring prior justification or membership. Celebrations occur frequently—often monthly or weekly in many congregations—but are non-obligatory, prioritizing accessibility over ritual compulsion. Following the schism in 2022 over disagreements including , the (GMC) formed as a conservative alternative, adopting a similar Holy Communion service in its Transitional Book of Doctrines and Discipline (as of 2024), preserving Wesleyan emphases on grace and open participation while aligning with traditional doctrinal standards. Special observances include foot-washing on , reenacting ' act of servanthood from John 13, which many UMC churches incorporate into services to symbolize humility and mutual care within the community. Twentieth-century liturgical updates, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s through commissions like the Section on Worship, introduced in prayers and texts to reflect and broader human diversity, while incorporating intercessory prayers that address issues such as poverty, racism, and peace, aligning the rite with Methodist social holiness doctrine. These revisions, evident in the 1992 Book of Worship and subsequent supplements, maintain Wesleyan experiential piety—focusing on heartfelt response and communal witness—while adapting to modern ecumenical dialogues and cultural contexts.

Other Western Traditions

Western Rite Orthodox Liturgy

The Western Rite Orthodox Liturgy emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries as a means to integrate Western Christians into Eastern Orthodoxy while preserving ancient liturgical forms, particularly through English-language adaptations of the Sarum Rite and the Gregorian Rite. In the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR), initial approvals date to 1870 with the Holy Synod's endorsement of a modified Roman Rite proposed by Julian Joseph Overbeck, evolving into fuller adoption by the mid-20th century. Despite its historical roots, the Western Rite remains a small movement within Orthodoxy. The ROCOR Western Rite Vicariate was formally established in 2011. As of 2025, it continues to face challenges in wider adoption. The Antiochian Orthodox Church formalized its Western Rite Vicariate in 1958 under Metropolitan Antony Bashir, allowing converts from Anglican and other Western traditions to retain familiar rites adjusted for Orthodox use. The primary form, known as the Divine Liturgy of St. Gregory, follows a structure closely aligned with the traditional Roman Mass but incorporates distinct Orthodox theological emphases. It retains the Roman Canon as the core Eucharistic prayer, yet adds an —a invocation of the to effect the change of the elements into the Body and —positioned after the , reflecting Eastern liturgical norms. Icon veneration is integrated, with processions and prostrations before images of Christ, the , and saints, and the is recited without the clause to affirm Orthodox Trinitarian doctrine. This adaptation draws briefly from Catholic influences but prioritizes Orthodox fidelity. Prominent examples include Christ the Savior Monastery (also known as Christminster) in , under ROCOR, established in 1993 but tracing roots to a Benedictine community received into in 1962 with formal approvals in the . The Antiochian Vicariate supports several monastic houses, such as those using the Liturgy of St. Tikhon, approved alongside St. Gregory's form in the same era. These institutions received hierarchical blessings in the , enabling stable growth amid broader Orthodox caution toward Western forms. Distinct from Roman Catholic practice, permits married clergy for presbyters, aligning with canonical traditions allowing matrimony before ordination, while emphasizing theosis—the transformative union with God—through participation in the divine life, while affirming the as a propitiatory . This theological focus underscores participation in divine life, fostering spiritual ascent through the sacraments.

Calendrical and Occasional Uses

The Mass is integrated into the of the , which unfolds through distinct seasons that shape its celebration and content. The year begins with Advent, a period of preparation for the Nativity of Christ, followed by the Christmas season celebrating the . serves as a time of and reflection leading to , the central feast commemorating Christ's , after which the Easter season extends the joy of that event. The remainder of the year comprises , focused on the life and teachings of Christ. Each season employs specific propers—variable elements such as collects, readings from Scripture, and prefaces—that align with its themes; for instance, Advent readings often draw from the prophets to evoke , while Lenten collects emphasize conversion and . Within this framework, the liturgical calendar designates days of varying rank, including solemnities, feasts, and memorials, each with dedicated Mass formularies from the Proper of Saints. Solemnities, the highest rank, such as the Solemnity of the Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ (Corpus Christi), feature obligatory participation and unique propers highlighting the Eucharist's mystery, typically celebrated on the Thursday after . Feasts and memorials honor saints or events like the Assumption, using assigned readings and prayers that supersede ordinary ones. Votive Masses, permitted on weekdays outside major seasons, allow devotion to particular mysteries or saints, such as the Votive Mass of the of Jesus, which includes tailored collects expressing reparation and love. Special occasions call for Masses adapted to their purpose, drawn from sections for various needs and occasions in the . The Nuptial Mass for weddings incorporates blessings for the couple and may replace the Gloria with the Nuptial Blessing. Funeral Masses, known as Masses, use texts focused on resurrection and commendation, such as the Sequence "" in traditional forms. Masses for the dedication of a church include rituals like anointing the altar and prayers consecrating the space for worship. These forms prioritize the event's prayers while retaining core elements like the readings, which may be seasonal or proper. In Catholic practice, the Mass is celebrated daily in most parishes, fulfilling the Church's encouragement for frequent reception of the , though the Sunday obligation remains primary. Observances like , marking Lent's start, combine Mass with imposition of ashes and impose —limiting intake to one full meal and two smaller ones for ages 18-59—alongside from for those 14 and older.

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  33. http://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/letters/2007/documents/hf_ben-xvi_let_20070707_lettera-vescovi.html
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  38. https://www.pillarcatholic.com/p/leo-poised-to-grant-generous-exemptions
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  40. https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19641121_orientalium-ecclesiarum_en.html
  41. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/orientchurch/Istruzione/pdf/istruzione_inglese.pdf
  42. https://mci.archpitt.org/liturgy/Divine_Liturgy_Anaphora_Chrysostom.html
  43. https://religyinz.pitt.edu/iconostasis-of-st-john-chrysostom-byzantine-catholic-church/
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