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The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens, c. 1615, depicting both domestic and exotic wild animals such as tigers, parrots, and ostriches co-existing in the garden

In Abrahamic religions, the Garden of Eden (Biblical Hebrew: גַּן־עֵדֶן‎, romanized: gan-ʿĒḏen; Greek: Εδέμ; Latin: Paradisus) or Garden of God (גַּן־יְהֹוֶה‎, gan-YHWH and גַן־אֱלֹהִים‎, gan-Elohim), also called the Terrestrial Paradise, is the biblical paradise described in Genesis 2–3 and Ezekiel 28 and 31.[1][2]

The location of Eden is described in the Book of Genesis as the source of four tributaries. Various suggestions have been made for its location:[3] at the head of the Persian Gulf, in southern Mesopotamia where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea;[4] and in Armenia.[5][6][7] Others theorize that Eden was the entire Fertile Crescent[8] or a region substantial in size in Mesopotamia, where its native inhabitants still exist in cities such as Telassar.[9][10]

Like the Genesis flood narrative, the Genesis creation narrative and the account of the Tower of Babel, the story of Eden echoes the Mesopotamian myth of a king, as a primordial man, who is placed in a divine garden to guard the tree of life.[11] Scholars note that the Eden narrative shows parallels with aspects of Solomon's Temple and Jerusalem, attesting to its nature as a sacred place.[12][13] Mentions of Eden are also made in the Bible elsewhere in Genesis 13:10,[14] in Isaiah 51:3,[15] Ezekiel 36:35,[16] and Joel 2:3;[17] Zechariah 14 and Ezekiel 47 use paradisical imagery without naming Eden.[18]

The name derives from the Akkadian edinnu, from a Sumerian word edin meaning 'plain' or 'steppe', closely related to an Aramaic root word meaning 'fruitful, well-watered'.[2] Another interpretation associates the name with a Hebrew word for 'pleasure';[19] thus the Vulgate reads paradisum voluptatis in Genesis 2:8, and the Douay–Rheims Bible, following, has the wording "And the Lord God had planted a paradise of pleasure".[20]

Biblical narratives

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Genesis

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Main articles: Genesis creation narrative and Adam and Eve
Expulsion from Paradise, painting by James Tissot (c. 1896–1902)
The Expulsion illustrated in the English Junius manuscript, c. 1000 CE

The second part of the Genesis creation narrative, Genesis 2:4–3:24, opens with YHWH-Elohim (translated here "the LORD God")[a] creating the first man (Adam), whom he placed in a garden that he planted "eastward in Eden":[21]

And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil.

— [22]

The man was free to eat from any tree in the garden except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, which was taboo. Last of all, God made a woman (Eve) from a rib of the man to be a companion for the man. In Genesis 3, the man and the woman were seduced by the serpent into eating the forbidden fruit, and they were expelled from the garden to prevent them from eating of the tree of life, and thus living forever. Cherubim were placed east of the garden, "and a flaming sword which turned every way, to guard the way of the tree of life".[23]

Genesis 2:10–14[24] lists four rivers in association with the garden of Eden: Pishon, Gihon, Tigris (Hiddekel in Hebrew),[25] and the Euphrates (Perath in Hebrew).[26] It also refers to the land of Cush—translated/interpreted as Ethiopia, but thought by some to equate to Cossaea, a Greek name for the land of the Kassites.[27] These lands lie north of Elam, immediately to the east of ancient Babylon, which, unlike Ethiopia, does lie within the region being described.[28] In Antiquities of the Jews, the first-century Jewish historian Josephus identifies the Pishon as what "the Greeks called Ganges" and the Geon (Gehon) as the Nile.[29]

Ezekiel

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Main article: Ezekiel's cherub in Eden

In Ezekiel 28:12–19,[30] the prophet Ezekiel the "son of man" sets down God's word against the king of Tyre: the king was the "seal of perfection", adorned with precious stones from the day of his creation, placed by God in the garden of Eden on the holy mountain as a guardian cherub. However, the king sinned through wickedness and violence, and so he was driven out of the garden and thrown to the earth, where now he is consumed by God's fire: "All those who knew you in the nations are appalled at you, you have come to a horrible end and will be no more." (Ezekiel 28:19).

Proposed locations

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The Tigris and Euphrates rivers
Map by Pierre Mortier captioned Map of the location of the terrestrial paradise, and of the country inhabited by the patriarchs, laid out for the good understanding of sacred history, by Pierre Daniel Huet (1700)

The location of Eden is described in Genesis 2:10–14:[31]

And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and became four heads. The name of the first is Pishon; that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; and the gold of that land is good; there is bdellium and the onyx stone. And the name of the second river is Gihon; the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Cush. And the name of the third river is Tigris; that is it which goeth toward the east of Asshur. And the fourth river is the Euphrates.

Suggestions for the location of Eden include[3][32] the head of the Persian Gulf, as argued by Juris Zarins, in southern Mesopotamia where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea;[4] and in the Armenian Highlands or Armenian National Plateau.[5][33][6][7] British archaeologist David Rohl locates it in Iran, and in the vicinity of Tabriz, but this suggestion has not been adopted by mainstream academia.[34]

Others theorize that Eden was merely a region of "considerable size" in Mesopotamia, where its native inhabitants still exist in cities such as Telassar, based on verses such as Isaiah 37:12.[9][10] Or that it encompassed the entire Fertile Crescent.[8]

According to Terje Stordalen, the Book of Ezekiel places Eden in Lebanon.[35] "[I]t appears that the Lebanon is an alternative placement in Phoenician myth (as in Ez 28,13, III.48) of the Garden of Eden",[36] and there are connections between paradise, the Garden of Eden and the forests of Lebanon (possibly used symbolically) within prophetic writings.[37] Edward Lipinski and Peter Kyle McCarter have suggested that the garden of the gods, the oldest Sumerian analog of the Garden of Eden, relates to a mountain sanctuary in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges.[38]

Some religious groups have believed the location of the garden to be local to them, outside of the Middle East. Some early leaders of Mormonism held that it was located in Jackson County, Missouri.[39] The 20th-century Panacea Society believed it was located at the site of their home town of Bedford, England,[40] while preacher Elvy E. Callaway believed it was on the Apalachicola River in Florida, near the town of Bristol.[41] Some suggested that the location is in Jerusalem.[42]

On his third voyage to the Americas in 1498, Christopher Columbus thought he may have reached the Earthly Paradise upon first seeing the South American mainland.[43]

Following its acceptance of Christianity in 1491, leaders of the Kingdom of Kongo came to believe that the Terrestrial Paradise, and thus the Garden of Eden was in Central Africa. Following logic of medieval European maps, Portuguese cartographers claimed that both the Congo River and the Zambezi flowed out from the Paradise, and Kongolese intellectuals, perhaps students in Lisbon, accepted that its location in maps drawn in Mediterranean Europe showed Kongo's eastern border of the Paradise. The idea was fully accepted, as Italian missionary Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi, reported in 1687 that the Kongolese "constantly assert that in the creation of the Universe, God assigned to the angels and his other ministerial confidants the task of putting the rest of the earth in order, reserving for himself alone, according to his sublime idea and his genius, the forming of the countries of Ethiopia, and especially the kingdoms of Congo. All the rest were extracted from nothing in the dark night of shapeless Chaos, and only this one part, with singular privilege received its most perfect form in the serenely bright light of a beautiful afternoon."[44]

In his book The Creation, the Garden of Eden and the Origin of the Chinese, Tse Tsan-tai argued that the Garden of Eden was located in modern-day Xinjiang.[45]

Blissful garden concept

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Scholars have identified and proposed connections to similar concepts from ancient religions and mythologies, and have studied the post-scriptural evolution of the concept in religion and arts.

Sumeria and ancient Greece; Renaissance

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A number of parallel concepts to the biblical Garden of Eden exist in various other religions and mythologies. Dilmun in the Sumerian story of Enki and Ninhursag is a paradisaical abode[46] of the immortals, where sickness and death were unknown.[47] The garden of the Hesperides in Greek mythology was also somewhat similar to the Jewish concept of the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century a larger intellectual association was made in the Cranach painting.

Canaanite origin theory

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By studying late-13th-century BCE clay tablets from Ugarit, Hebrew Bible scholars M.J.A. Korpel and J.C. de Moor reconstructed close Canaanite parallels, which they posit as being the origin of the biblical creation myth from the first chapters of Genesis including the Garden of Eden and Adam narrative.[48] Their reconstructed texts talk about the creator deity El, who lived in a vineyard or garden together with his wife Asherah on Mount Ararat.[48] Another god, Horon, tries to depose El and when thrown down from the mountain, he transforms the Tree of Life from the garden into a Tree of Death.[48] Horon also spreads around a poisonous fog, Adam is sent from the mountain to restore life on earth, Horon takes the shape of a large serpent and bites him, which leads to Adam and his wife losing their immortality.[48] However, John Day argues that these stories are not explicitly attested in the Ugaritic texts but are reconstructed on the basis of speculative and dubious suppositions.[49]

Evolution of Old Iranian "paradise" concept

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The word "paradise" entered English from the French paradis, inherited from the Latin paradisus, paradisum, from the Greek parádeisos (παράδεισος). The Greek, in turn, was derived from an Old Iranian form, ultimately from Proto-Iranian *paridayjah, which also derived Old Persian 𐎱𐎼𐎭𐎹𐎭𐎠𐎶 (p-r-d-y-d-a-m, /paradayadām/, and Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌⸱𐬛𐬀𐬉𐬰𐬀, pairi.daēza. The literal meaning of this word is 'walled enclosure', from *pari- 'around' (cognate with the Greek περί and the English peri-, of identical meaning), and *dáyjah, "to make, form (a wall), build" (cognate with the Greek τοῖχος, 'wall'). The word's etymology is ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *per- 'around', and the word *dʰóyǵʰos, 'something that is formed'.[50][51][52]

By the 6th/5th century BCE, the Old Iranian word had been borrowed into the Akkadian language as pardesu, 'domain'. It subsequently came to indicate the expansive walled gardens of the First Persian Empire, and was later borrowed into a number of languages: into Greek as παράδεισος (parádeisos), 'park for animals', cf. Anabasis, the most famous work of Xenophon; into Aramaic as pardaysa, 'royal park'; and into Hebrew (see below).[53]

The idea of a walled enclosure was not preserved in most Iranian usage, and generally came to refer to a plantation or other cultivated area, not necessarily walled. For example, the Old Iranian word survives as pardis in New Persian, as well as its derivative pālīz (or jālīz), which denotes a vegetable patch.[citation needed]

Hebrew Bible and Jewish literature

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The word entered the Hebrew language with the meaning of pardes (פַּרְדֵּס), 'orchard', appearing thrice in the Tanakh: in the Song of Solomon (4:13), Ecclesiastes (2:5), and Nehemiah (2:8).[54]

The word pardes occurs three times in the Hebrew Bible, but always in contexts other than a connection with Eden: in the Song of Solomon 4:13: "Thy plants are an orchard (pardes) of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard"; Ecclesiastes 2:5: "I made me gardens and orchards (pardes), and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits"; and in Nehemiah 2:8: "And a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king's orchard (pardes), that he may give me timber to make beams for the gates of the palace which appertained to the house, and for the wall of the city". In these examples, pardes clearly means 'orchard' or 'park', but in the Jewish apocalyptic literature and in the Talmud paradise gains its associations with the Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype, a meaning also present in the New Testament.[citation needed]

Italian historian Mario Liverani argues that the Garden of Eden was modeled on Persian royal gardens,[55] while John Day argues that linguistic and other evidence indicates that the yahwistic Eden story was composed before the Persian period.[56] US archaeologist Lawrence Stager posits that the biblical Eden narrative drew from aspects of Solomon's palace and temple compound and Jerusalem.[12]

Septuagint and New Testament

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In the Septuagint (3rd–1st centuries BCE), the Greek παράδεισος (parádeisos) was used to translate both the Hebrew פרדס (pardes) and גן (gan), meaning 'garden' (e.g. Genesis 2:8, Ezekiel 28:13): it is from this usage that the use of paradise to refer to the Garden of Eden derives.[19]

In the New Testament paradise becomes the realm of the blessed (as opposed to the realm of the cursed) among those who have already died,[57] with literary Hellenistic influences.[citation needed]

Quran

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The same usage as in the Septuagint also appears in Arabic and in the Quran as firdaws فردوس.[58]

Other views

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Jewish eschatology

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The Garden of Eden in the left panel of Bosch's The Garden of Earthly Delights

In the Talmud and the Jewish Kabbalah,[59] the scholars agree that there are two types of spiritual places called "Garden in Eden". The first is rather terrestrial, of abundant fertility and luxuriant vegetation, known as the "lower Gan Eden" (gan meaning garden). The second is envisioned as being celestial, the habitation of righteous, Jewish and non-Jewish, immortal souls, known as the "higher Gan Eden". The rabbis differentiate between Gan and Eden. Adam is said to have dwelt only in the Gan, whereas Eden is said never to be witnessed by any mortal eye.[59]

According to Jewish eschatology,[60] the higher Gan Eden is called the "Garden of Righteousness". It has been created since the beginning of the world, and will appear gloriously at the end of time. The righteous dwelling there will enjoy the sight of the heavenly chayot carrying the throne of God. Each of the righteous will walk with God, who will lead them in a dance. Its Jewish and non-Jewish inhabitants are "clothed with garments of light and eternal life, and eat of the tree of life" (Enoch 58,3) near to God and his anointed ones.[60] This Jewish rabbinical concept of a higher Gan Eden is opposed by the Hebrew terms gehinnom and sheol, figurative names for the place of spiritual purification for the wicked dead in Judaism, a place envisioned as being at the greatest possible distance from heaven.[citation needed]

Some modern Orthodox Jews believe that history will complete itself and the ultimate destination will be when all mankind returns to the Garden of Eden.[61]

Legends of the Jews

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In the 1909 book Legends of the Jews, Louis Ginzberg compiled Jewish legends found in rabbinic literature. Among the legends are ones about the two Gardens of Eden. Beyond Paradise is the higher Gan Eden, where God is enthroned and explains the Torah to its inhabitants. The higher Gan Eden contains three hundred and ten worlds and is divided into seven compartments. The compartments are not described, though it is implied that each compartment is greater than the previous one and is joined based on one's merit. The first compartment is for Jewish martyrs, the second for those who drowned, the third for "Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai and his disciples," the fourth for those whom the cloud of glory carried off, the fifth for penitents, the sixth for youths who have never sinned; and the seventh for the poor who lived decently and studied the Torah.[62]

In chapter two, Legends of the Jews gives a brief description of the lower Gan Eden. The tree of knowledge is a hedge around the tree of life, which is so vast that "it would take a man five hundred years to traverse a distance equal to the diameter of the trunk". From beneath the trees flow all the world's waters in the form of four rivers: Tigris, Nile, Euphrates, and Ganges. After the fall of man, the world was no longer irrigated by this water. While in the garden, though, Adam and Eve were served meat dishes by angels and the animals of the world understood human language, respected mankind as God's image, and feared Adam and Eve. When one dies, one's soul must pass through the lower Gan Eden in order to reach the higher Gan Eden. The way to the garden is the Cave of Machpelah that Adam guards. The cave leads to the gate of the garden, guarded by a cherub with a flaming sword. If a soul is unworthy of entering, the sword annihilates it. Within the garden is a pillar of fire and smoke that extends to the higher Gan Eden, which the soul must climb in order to reach the higher Gan Eden.[62]

Christian views

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Atemporal fall view

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For some Christians, especially in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Eden is considered a reality outside of empirical history that affects the entire history of the universe as seen in the idea of an atemporal fall which separates humanity's current reduced form of time from the divine life enjoyed in Eden. This idea of an atemporal separation from Eden has been most recently defended by theologians David Bentley Hart, John Behr, and Sergei Bulgakov as well as having roots in the writings of several early church fathers, especially Origen and Maximus the Confessor.[63][64][65][66]

Islamic view

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Mozarabic world map from 1109 with Eden in the East (at top)

The term جنات عدن jannāt ʿadn ("Gardens of Eden" or "Gardens of Perpetual Residence") is used in the Quran for the destination of the righteous. There are several mentions of "the Garden" in the Quran,[67] while the Garden of Eden, without the word ʿadn,[68] is commonly the fourth layer of the Islamic heaven and not necessarily thought as the dwelling place of Adam.[69] The Quran refers frequently over various Surah about the first abode of Adam and his spouse (told to be Hawwa or Eve, her name is never given in the Quran), including surah Sad, which features 18 verses on the subject (38:71–88), surah al-Baqara, surah al-A'raf, and surah al-Hijr although sometimes without mentioning the location. The narrative mainly surrounds the resulting expulsion of Adam and his spouse after they were tempted by Iblis (Satan).

Despite the biblical account, the Quran mentions only one tree in Eden, the tree of immortality, from which God specifically forbade Adam and his spouse. Some exegesis added an account, about Satan, disguised as a serpent to enter the Garden, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree, and eventually both Adam and his spouse did so, resulting in disobeying God.[70] These stories are also featured in the hadith collections, including al-Tabari.[71]

Quranic scripture of story

Quranic verses Q. 2:35–38, are believed to tell the story of Adam disobeying God's command and eating the Forbidden Fruit, and of God ordered him out of the Garden. One translation (the Clear Quran) that indicates that the Garden of Eden was in Heaven goes:

  • We cautioned, "O Adam! Live with your wife in Paradise (lit. "the Garden") and eat as freely as you please, but do not approach this tree, or else you will be wrongdoers." (2:35)
  • But Satan deceived them—leading to their fall from the [blissful] state they were in,1 and We said, "Descend from the heavens [to the earth] as enemies to each other.2 You will find in the earth a residence and provision for your appointed stay." (2:36)
  • Then Adam was inspired with words ˹of prayer˺ by his Lord, so He accepted his repentance. Surely He is the Accepter of Repentance, Most Merciful. (2:37)
  • We said, "Descend all of you! Then when guidance comes to you from Me, whoever follows it, there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve. (2:38)[72]
Location

Quranic verses describe Adam was being expelled from al-Jannah, "the garden", which is the commonly used word for paradise in Islam. However, according to Ibn Kathir (d. 1372) and Ar-Razi (d. 1209), (exegetes of the Quran), four interpretations of the location of the garden prevailed among early Muslims:

  • that the garden was Paradise itself,
  • that it was a separate garden created especially for Adam and his spouse,
  • that it was located on Earth,
  • that it was best for the Muslims not to be concerned with the location of the garden.[73]

According to T. O. Shanavas however, contextual analysis of Quranic verses suggests the Garden of Eden could not have been in Paradise and must have been on earth. (For example, a sahih hadith reports Muhammad said: "Allah says: I have prepared for my righteous servants that which has neither been seen by eyes, nor heard by ears, nor ever conceived by any man." i.e. no man has ever seen Paradise. Since Adam was a man, he could not have seen paradise, therefore he could not have lived there.)[73]

Doctrine of "The Fall of Man"

Islamic exegesis does not regard Adam and his spouse's expulsion from paradise as punishment for disobedience or a result from abused free will on their part.[74]: 171  Instead, ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) writes, God's wisdom (ḥikma) destined humanity to leave the garden and settle on earth. This is because God wants to unfold the full range of his attributes.[74]: 171  If humans were not to live on earth, God could not express his love, forgiveness, and power to his creation.[74] Further, if humans were not to experience suffering, they could neither long for paradise nor appreciate its delights.[74] Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (1006–1088) describes Adam and his spouse's expulsion as ultimately caused by God.[75]: 252  Nonetheless, despite the paradoxical notion that man has no choice but to comply to God's will, this does not mean that humans should not blame themselves for their "sin" of complying.[75]: 252  This is exemplified by Adam and his spouse in the Quran (Q. 7:23 "Our Lord! We have wronged ourselves. If You do not forgive us and have mercy on us, we will certainly be losers"), in contrast to Iblis (Satan) who blames God for leading him astray (Q. 15:37).[75]

Latter Day Saints

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See also: Adam and Eve (LDS Church)

Followers of the Latter Day Saint movement believe that after Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden they resided in a place known as Adam-ondi-Ahman, located in present-day Daviess County, Missouri. It is recorded in the Doctrine and Covenants that Adam blessed his posterity there and that he will return to that place at the time of the final judgment[76][77] in fulfillment of a prophecy set forth in the Bible.[78]

Numerous early leaders of the Church, including Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and George Q. Cannon, taught that the Garden of Eden itself was located in nearby Jackson County,[39] but there are no surviving first-hand accounts of that doctrine being taught by Joseph Smith himself. LDS doctrine is unclear as to the exact location of the Garden of Eden, but tradition among Latter-Day Saints places it somewhere in the vicinity of Adam-ondi-Ahman, or in Jackson County.[79][80]

Gnosticism

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The 2nd-century Gnostic teacher Justin held that there were three original divinities, a transcendental being called the Good, an intermediate male figure known as Elohim and Eden who is an Earth-mother. The world is created from the love of Elohim and Eden, but evil later is brought into the universe when Elohim learns of the existence of the Good above him and ascends trying to reach it.[81]

Art and literature

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Art

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One of oldest depictions of Garden of Eden is made in Byzantine style in Ravenna, while the city was still under Byzantine control. A preserved blue mosaic is part of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Circular motifs represent flowers of the garden of Eden. The Garden of Eden motifs most frequently portrayed in illuminated manuscripts and paintings are the "Sleep of Adam" ("Creation of Eve"), the "Temptation of Eve" by the Serpent, the "Fall of Man" where Adam takes the fruit, and the "Expulsion". The idyll of "Naming Day in Eden" was less often depicted. Michelangelo depicted a scene at the Garden of Eden on the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

Literature

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For many medieval writers, the image of the Garden of Eden also creates a location for human love and sexuality, often associated with the classic and medieval trope of the locus amoenus.[82]

In the Divine Comedy, Dante Alighieri places the Garden at the top of Mt. Purgatory. Dante, the pilgrim, emerges into the Garden of Eden in Canto 28 of Purgatorio. Here he is told that God gave the Garden of Eden to man "in earnest, or as a pledge of eternal life," but man was only able to dwell there for a short time because he soon fell from grace. In the poem, the Garden of Eden is both human and divine: while it is located on earth at the top of Mt. Purgatory, it also serves as the gateway to the heavens.[83]

Much of Milton's Paradise Lost occurs in the Garden of Eden.

The first act of Arthur Miller's 1972 play Creation of the World and Other Business is set in the Garden of Eden.

See also

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Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Garden of Eden

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The Garden of Eden, often simply called Eden or Paradise, is the biblical paradise depicted in the as a lush, divinely created garden in the east where placed the first humans, , to live in harmony with creation. According to the narrative, a single river flowed out of Eden to water the garden before dividing into four branches—the , which winds through the land of rich in gold, , and onyx; the , encircling Cush; the , flowing east of ; and the —suggesting a location associated with ancient Near Eastern geography. Within the garden grew every tree pleasant to the sight and good for food, prominently featuring the and the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil at its center. instructed to tend and keep the garden freely but forbade eating the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, warning that violation would lead to death. The account in Genesis 3 describes a serpent tempting to eat the , which she shares with Adam, resulting in their eyes being opened to , awareness of their nakedness, and divine curses upon the serpent, woman, man, and ground itself. Consequently, expelled them from Eden, stationing cherubim and a to guard the way to the Tree of Life and prevent eternal life in their fallen state. The Garden of Eden narrative forms a foundational element in the creation stories of the Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—exploring themes of innocence, obedience, the introduction of sin and mortality, and humanity's separation from divine presence. Scholarly interpretations often situate the garden's conceptual origins in ancient Mesopotamian motifs while emphasizing its theological role in explaining human origins and moral agency. Proposed geographical locations vary, with many experts linking it to the region of Mesopotamia based on the named rivers, though its precise site remains a subject of ongoing debate.

Primary Biblical Accounts

Account in Genesis

The Book of Genesis describes the Garden of Eden as a paradisiacal setting planted by eastward in Eden, where every tree pleasant to the sight and good for food grew, including the and the tree of knowledge of good and evil in the midst of the garden. A river went out of Eden to water the garden, parting into four heads: the , which winds through with its gold, , and onyx; the , encircling Cush; the , running east of Asshur; and the . formed from the dust of the ground, breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and placed him in the garden to work it and keep it, establishing it as a divine of pre-fall . God commanded Adam freely to eat from any tree in the garden except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, warning that in the day he ate from it, he would surely die. Adam named all the animals and birds formed by God from the ground, but found no suitable helper among them, underscoring his unique role in the garden's ordered creation. To provide companionship, God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, took one of his ribs, and fashioned Eve as a helper fit for him, after which the man and woman were naked and unashamed. The serpent, more crafty than any beast of the field, tempted by questioning God's command and asserting that eating the would not bring death but open their eyes to become like God, knowing . saw the as good for , pleasing to the eye, and desirable for , so she ate and gave some to , who also ate; immediately, their eyes were opened, they realized their nakedness, and sewed leaves to cover themselves. Hearing God walking in the garden, hid; God confronted them, leading to admissions of disobedience, with blaming and blaming the serpent. God cursed the serpent to crawl on its belly and eat dust, pronounced enmity between its offspring and the woman's, increased the woman's pain in childbearing and desire for her husband, and subjected to toil for food from the ground, which would return to dust as he would through mortality. To prevent access to the , God expelled them from the garden, stationing cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to it from the east.

References in Ezekiel and Other Prophets

In the Book of Ezekiel, the Garden of Eden serves as a potent symbol of divine favor and subsequent judgment, particularly in oracles against foreign rulers. Chapter 28 contains a lamentation over the king of Tyre, portraying him as an "anointed cherub" who was placed in Eden, the garden of God, where he walked among fiery stones and was adorned with precious gems, signifying his initial perfection and guardianship role. This figure's beauty and wisdom elevated him above other created beings, but his corruption through pride and violence led to his expulsion and fiery destruction by divine agents, underscoring themes of hubris and downfall. Scholars interpret this passage as drawing on Edenic imagery from Genesis to critique tyrannical power, emphasizing the loss of primordial harmony through moral failure. Ezekiel 31 extends this motif in a against of , likening Assyria's fall to that of a majestic cedar in , which grew taller than all others due to abundant waters and became a gathering place for birds and beasts. This cedar is explicitly placed in , among the trees of Eden, which were lush and envied by other nations for their splendor and provision from divine streams. The describes how the cedar's pride in its height led to its uprooting and descent to the , mirroring Eden's role as an of exalted status reduced to desolation through arrogance. Here, Eden symbolizes the pinnacle of natural and political flourishing under God's blessing, contrasted with inevitable judgment for self-exaltation. Beyond , other prophetic texts evoke Eden to depict judgment and restoration. In Joel 2:3, the invading army transforms a land "like the garden of Eden" into a desolate of fire and barrenness, illustrating the reversal of paradisiacal abundance as divine punishment. Conversely, 51:3 promises that God will comfort , turning her deserts into the garden of the , filled with joy and gladness like Eden, evoking eschatological renewal where lost perfection is restored. These allusions reinforce Eden as an enduring biblical archetype for God's intimate presence, the consequences of sin-induced , and the hope of ultimate redemption.

Etymology and Ancient Origins

Linguistic and Etymological Analysis

The Hebrew term for Eden, ʿēḏen (עֵדֶן), derives from the ʿ-d-n, signifying "delight," "pleasure," or "luxury," evoking a place of abundant enjoyment and . This interpretation aligns with related usages in Hebrew, such as ʿēdān for "" or "dainty," reinforcing the notion of a lush, pleasurable locale. Scholars also connect ʿēḏen to Aramaic cognates meaning "fruitful" or "abundant," and to Ugaritic ʿdn, denoting a "well-watered place," highlighting shared Northwest Semitic linguistic features of prosperity and vitality. Alternatively, some etymologists link it to the Akkadian edinu (from Sumerian edin), referring to a "" or "," suggesting a Mesopotamian influence on the biblical depiction of an open, fertile expanse. The full biblical phrase gan ʿēḏen incorporates gan (גַּן), from the root g-n-n, meaning "to surround," "enclose," or "protect," which describes a fenced or walled garden, distinct from and implying a cultivated paradise under divine care. This term appears in ancient , such as Akkadian gannatu and Arabic janna, consistently connoting an enclosed, verdant space. The four rivers emerging from Eden—, , , and —further enrich the linguistic portrait; Pishon (פִּישׁוֹן) stems from the root p-w-š, implying "to increase," "flow abundantly," or "disperse," possibly alluding to a winding or expansive . Likewise, Gihon (גִּיחוֹן) derives from g-y-ḥ, meaning "to burst forth" or "gush," evoking a surging spring, with associations to the land of Cush potentially linking it to African hydrological features like the . Scholarly debates on Eden's etymology center on whether the Hebrew root ʿ-d-n primarily conveys delight or if Akkadian-Sumerian influences dominate, reaffirming Semitic origins tied to "abundance" while noting Mesopotamian borrowings for concepts of "pure" or "fertile" lands. John H. Walton, in his examinations of ancient Near Eastern contexts, emphasizes the Aramaic sense of "enrich" or "make abundant," underscoring Eden as a symbol of divine provision rather than a literal geography. In the Septuagint, the Greek translation renders gan ʿēḏen as paradeisos (παράδεισος), derived from Old Persian pairidaēza meaning "enclosed park," which popularized the term "paradise" in Western languages and shifted emphasis toward an idyllic, walled sanctuary. This translation influenced subsequent Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions, evolving the concept from a specific Hebrew garden to a broader archetype of heavenly bliss.

Parallels in Ancient Near Eastern Myths

The Garden of Eden narrative shares notable motifs with ancient Near Eastern myths, including paradisiacal settings free from suffering, divine interactions with sacred flora, serpentine guardians, and quests for eternal life. In Sumerian mythology, the myth of and depicts as a pristine, disease-free land elevated above the earth, transformed into a lush paradise by Enki's introduction of from the underworld, enabling plant growth and fertility. Enki then consumes eight plants cultivated by the goddess Ninhursag in her , incurring corresponding illnesses that she heals through the birth of remedial deities; this sequence evokes a on eating sacred vegetation in a divine garden, leading to physical consequences akin to the Eden story's themes of prohibition and expulsion from purity. Babylonian traditions, as seen in the Enuma Elish creation epic and the Epic of Gilgamesh, further parallel these elements through primordial realms of abundance and guarded sources of immortality. The Enuma Elish portrays a cosmic order emerging from chaos into a fertile world under divine stewardship, with motifs of watery origins and life-sustaining plants that resonate with Eden's irrigated garden at the earth's convergence. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the survivor Utnapishtim reveals a thorny plant at the Apsu (freshwater abyss) that rejuvenates old age, which Gilgamesh retrieves but loses to a vigilant snake that steals it and sloughs its skin, symbolizing the creature's appropriation of eternal youth while denying it to humanity—this directly mirrors the serpent's role in tempting toward knowledge and blocking access to the tree of life. Canaanite and Ugaritic myths, particularly in the , employ garden imagery for divine abodes of fertility and vitality, often situated on with rivers flowing from their peaks to nourish the land below. palace complex, built by the craftsman Kothar-wa-Hasis, features enclosures of abundance protected by guardians, including sphinx-like figures that evoke the cherubim barring Eden's entrance; these motifs underscore a shared of enclosed, life-giving paradises as seats of divine power and human-divine interaction. Recent scholarship (2020–2025) reinforces the composite nature of the Genesis account, attributing Genesis 2:4b–3:24 primarily to the Yahwist (J) source with Priestly (P) redactional layers, such as the tree of life emphasis, drawn from multiple ANE traditions to form a polemical yet adaptive Israelite etiology. Analyses highlight how redactors during the Babylonian exile (ca. 6th century BCE) wove in Dilmun's purity, Gilgamesh's immortality quest, and Ugaritic garden symbolism to critique surrounding polytheisms while affirming monotheistic themes of human responsibility and divine sovereignty; for example, a 2024 study reinterprets the narrative through J's lens as illustrating natural consequences rather than curses, aligning with ANE legal and mythic precedents without direct borrowing. A 2019 examination further details this redaction as a deliberate synthesis, using ANE motifs to convey theological distinctiveness amid cultural exchange.

Proposed Geographical Locations

Traditional Theories in Mesopotamia and the Levant

Traditional theories regarding the location of the Garden of Eden often centered on the regions of and the , drawing directly from the biblical description of four rivers emanating from Eden: the , , , and . In ancient Jewish and early Christian interpretations, the and were understood as the literal rivers known from , leading scholars to propose Eden at their headwaters in the mountainous regions near (modern eastern and ), where multiple tributaries converge before flowing southward into the plains of . This placement aligned with the fertile landscapes of the , evoking a paradisiacal abundance of vegetation and water sources essential for sustaining life. Early Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, in his , reinforced a Mesopotamian orientation by identifying the as the Ganges River in and the as the in , suggesting Eden as a central point from which these major waterways diverged eastward and westward, though he emphasized the ' sources in the east as a key marker. This view influenced subsequent , with early Christian maps, such as those derived from Ptolemaic traditions, depicting Eden near or the to reconcile the rivers' disparate paths. Medieval scholars like , in his Etymologies, further popularized this by positioning Paradise in the eastern quadrant of T-O world maps, symbolizing as the origin of creation and placing it adjacent to the sources of the and amid imagined encircling oceans. Shifting to the Levant, some ancient texts linked Eden to locales in modern-day , , and surrounding areas, interpreting the rivers more locally. The prophet Ezekiel's oracle against Tyre portrays the city as situated in "Eden, the garden of God," implying a paradisiacal setting in the Phoenician coastal region of , rich in cedars and trade goods akin to the biblical and . , such as the Bereshit Rabbah, occasionally situated elements of Eden within the , suggesting the Valley's fertility mirrored the original garden and that the spared , preserving Edenic remnants there. Interpretations of the as the persisted in some traditions, while the was equated with the in or wadis in Arabia, positioning Eden near or Mount Moriah, where midrashic accounts claim offered sacrifices post-expulsion. Early rabbinic sources, including the and , also proposed a dual nature for Eden, with a terrestrial garden in the physical world—potentially in the or —and a celestial counterpart in the "third heaven" or upper realms, accessible only to the righteous and symbolizing spiritual paradise beyond earthly geography. The , a foundational Kabbalistic text, reinforced Levantine ties by associating Eden's burial sites with in the , envisioning the garden as encompassing sacred spaces like the Cave of Machpelah. These theories, rooted in scriptural and regional symbolism, underscored Eden not merely as a lost locale but as an archetypal ideal intertwined with the cultural heartlands of ancient .

Modern and Archaeological Perspectives

In the 20th and 21st centuries, archaeological and scholarly perspectives on the Garden of Eden have shifted toward viewing it primarily as a symbolic or mythical construct rather than a verifiable historical site, often interpreted as an etiological narrative explaining the origins of , human , and the human condition in the . Experts such as of the emphasize that the Eden story draws from broader West Asian cultural motifs of paradisiacal royal gardens, potentially idealized around or the , without implying a literal geography. Similarly, Mark Leuchter of and Joel Baden of argue that the four rivers in Genesis 2:10-14 function symbolically to connect Eden to , rendering precise localization archaeologically untenable due to post-flood geological changes and the narrative's poetic nature. A 2025 analysis underscores this consensus, noting that while the story may preserve faint memories of prehistoric fertile landscapes, no physical evidence confirms a singular "Eden" site, and claims of discovery often stem from interpretive overreach rather than empirical data. One prominent modern theory posits the Garden of Eden as a submerged landscape in the , proposed by archaeologist Juris Zarins in the and revisited in subsequent studies linking it to post-Ice Age environmental shifts around 6000 BCE. Zarins, drawing on NASA's satellite imagery of ancient riverbeds such as and the River (identified as the biblical ), argued that rising sea levels after the flooded a once-fertile oasis at the gulf's head, where the and converged with two other waterways, aligning with Genesis's description of a watered paradise. This hypothesis gained traction through geological evidence of a lush, riverine plain supporting early before inundation. Another enduring proposal locates Eden in the Armenian Highlands of eastern , near the sources of the and rivers in the , supported by geological surveys indicating a pre-flood era of exceptional fertility around 10,000 BCE. Early church scholars and modern geologists point to the region's volcanic soils and abundant springs as evidence of a paradisiacal environment that could have sustained early agrarian communities, with the and rivers potentially corresponding to local waterways like the Araxes or upper tributaries. A 2025 overview by biblical geographers notes that tectonic activity and meltwater created temporary lush valleys here, aligning with Eden's imagery, though archaeological digs have uncovered only general prehistoric sites without specific Eden-linked features. Theories proposing locations in Africa have also emerged, linking biblical references to the land of Cush with modern scientific findings. One suggestion places Eden in northwestern Ethiopia, near Bahir Dar and Lake Tana, where the Blue Nile (equated with the Gihon) originates, based on hydrological data indicating ancient river confluences in a fertile highland basin. Another perspective draws from genetic studies tracing modern human origins to northern Botswana around 200,000 years ago, south of the Zambezi River, where mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests a long-term homeland with a large lake supporting early populations, interpreted by some as a scientific parallel to the biblical Garden of Eden. Among recent theories from 2020 to 2025, computational models and reinterpretations of ancient maps have sparked debate. In 2024, computer engineer Konstantin Borisov published a peer-reviewed paper arguing for Eden's location beneath the Giza Plateau in Egypt, using medieval cartography like the Hereford Mappa Mundi and geospatial analysis to map the four rivers as Nile branches and ancient canals originating from a sacred garden near the Great Pyramid, interpreted as the "sacred mount." Borisov's work, featured in Archaeological Discovery, posits that Egyptian hieroglyphs and pyramid alignments preserve Edenic motifs, though it faces skepticism for relying on symbolic rather than stratigraphic evidence. A fringe proposal from 2024 suggests a cave system in northern Iraq near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers as the entrance to Eden, based on reports of underground tunnels with unique plant life and ancient artifacts, though this lacks substantial archaeological verification. In Latter-day Saint doctrine, the Garden of Eden is believed to have been located in Jackson County, Missouri; for details, see the section on Latter-day Saint Beliefs. Despite these proposals, the archaeological community maintains caution, with ongoing debates highlighting how Eden's narrative likely amalgamates real prehistoric ecologies—such as the post-glacial "Green Sahara" or —into a theological framework rather than pinpointing a lost paradise.

The Paradise Concept Across Cultures

Mesopotamian and Iranian Influences

In ancient Mesopotamian mythology, Dilmun emerges as a paradisiacal realm characterized by purity, abundance, and life-giving waters, often depicted as a divine garden free from disease and death. This Sumerian concept portrays Dilmun as an idyllic land where fresh waters flow eternally, sustaining orchards and palms, and serving as the abode of the god Enki (Ea in Akkadian), who resides in the primordial freshwater ocean known as the Apsu. Similarly, Eridu, the mythical first city, functions as a sacred center tied to Enki's temple, envisioned as a fertile oasis where cosmic order and civilization originate through divine irrigation and watery abundance. These motifs of enclosed, watered gardens symbolize divine favor and the origins of human prosperity in Sumerian and Babylonian lore. Associated with these realms are the , seven sages created by to impart , arts, and rituals to humanity from paradisiacal domains like the Apsu or . Often depicted as part-human, part-fish or bird figures, the emerge from watery paradises to civilize early kings and establish sacred knowledge, guarding cosmic boundaries and warding off chaos in Babylonian traditions. Their role underscores the Mesopotamian view of divine gardens as sources of enlightenment and protection, bridging the mortal world and immortal realms. Turning to Iranian influences, the Avestan term pairi-daēza, meaning "enclosed park" or "walled garden," denotes a sacred, verdant space reserved for immortals and divine communion in early Zoroastrian texts. This concept evolves in Zoroastrianism into afterlife paradises, such as Garōdmān, the highest heaven and abode of Ahura Mazda, depicted as a radiant, pleasant realm symbolizing eternal life, renewal, and the soul's ascent, with sacred plants like haoma playing a role in broader eschatological motifs. These enclosed oases, irrigated by pure waters and guarded by divine beings, represent cosmic harmony and eschatological reward. The influence on biblical Eden likely occurred during the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), when Judean communities encountered Persian imperial culture, including Zoroastrian ideas of paradise transmitted through Achaemenid administration. Conceptual parallels between these traditions and Eden include quests for immortality, often thwarted by serpentine figures, and fertile oases as divine abodes. In the , the hero's search for eternal life leads to a stolen by a serpent at the earth's edge, echoing Eden's and the serpent's role in disrupting human . Mesopotamian serpents, like those guarding sacred trees in or the myth, parallel Eden's guardian cherubim and the tempting serpent, symbolizing wisdom's dual nature and boundaries between human and divine. Iranian motifs reinforce this with sacred trees in pairidaeza offering to the righteous, while oases like prefigure Eden's watered garden as a primordial haven of fertility and divine presence. Scholarly analysis highlights how Gilgamesh's garden motifs, including divine forests and pursuits, shaped the Hebrew redaction of Eden during , integrating Eastern Near Eastern elements into .

Greek, Canaanite, and Other Ancient Parallels

In , the Garden of the served as a paradisiacal enclosure located at the western edge of the world, where a bearing golden apples grew, symbolizing immortality and divine abundance. This garden was guarded by the serpent-like dragon Ladon, who coiled around the to protect its fruit from intruders, drawing parallels to the cherubim and flaming sword barring access to the biblical Eden after humanity's expulsion. The , daughters of the Titan Atlas, tended the garden alongside their father, who held up the heavens nearby, evoking motifs of vigilant divine custodians over a sacred, lush domain. Canaanite religious traditions featured sacred groves and fertile enclosures associated with deities like and , which paralleled the Edenic concept of a divine, verdant . , a linked to and trees, was worshipped in asherim—sacred poles or groves representing stylized trees that symbolized and , often planted near altars as holy spaces of encounter with the divine. These groves functioned as enclosed, lush areas for and communion, mirroring the protected motif in Eden as a place of abundance and . , the storm god embodying and renewal, ruled over domains of thriving vegetation brought by his rains, depicted in myths as verdant realms under divine oversight, akin to the irrigated paradise of Eden. Among other ancient parallels, the Egyptian Field of Reeds (A'aru) represented an paradise of eternal abundance, where the righteous deceased cultivated lush fields without toil, echoing Eden's idyllic harmony with nature. This realm, ruled by , featured mirrored earthly landscapes of reeds, crops, and waterways under perpetual sunlight, serving as a perfected existence free from suffering. The Septuagint's translation of the Hebrew "gan" (garden) in Genesis 2:8 as "paradeisos" shifted the Eden narrative toward a Greek archetype of an idyllic, walled garden, influencing later Western conceptions of paradise as a serene, enclosed haven. This term, derived from the "pairi-daēza" via Achaemenid trade and conquest, entered Greek as "paradeisos" to denote royal hunting parks and lush enclosures, subtly blending Eastern and Hellenistic imagery in biblical interpretation.

Interpretations in Abrahamic Religions

Jewish Traditions and Eschatology

In post-biblical Jewish tradition, the Garden of Eden expands beyond the Genesis narrative as a multifaceted realm embodying divine reward and spiritual ascent for the righteous. Rabbinic sources portray Eden as divided into seven compartments, each vast in scope—measuring twelve myriads of miles—and reserved for specific categories of the pious, such as martyrs, penitents, and those who studied diligently, where Himself expounds the law to the souls dwelling there. These compartments, guarded by angels and featuring rivers of milk, wine, , and , underscore Eden's role as a paradise of eternal study and joy, distinct from the earthly garden once inhabited. Rabbinic legends further elaborate on Adam's life following his expulsion from Eden, depicting him as wandering in remorse and engaging in acts of repentance that lead to divine forgiveness, allowing him a partial spiritual reconnection with paradise through prayer and labor. In these tales, Adam is said to have glimpsed possibilities of return, either through personal merit or in the collective redemption of humanity, symbolizing the human capacity for teshuvah (repentance) to restore lost harmony. Midrashic expansions describe the four rivers of Eden originating from the divine throne, flowing as streams of honey, milk, oil, and wine to nourish the garden, representing the outpouring of God's justice and bounty from the supernal realm. These rivers, parting into the familiar Pishon, Gihon, Tigris, and Euphrates, link the primordial paradise to the world's sustenance, with their source in Eden signifying the throne's eternal life-giving flow. Symbolic and allegorical interpretations in Jewish tradition often view the Garden of Eden as a metaphor for primordial perfection, peace, and abundance, representing the soul's spiritual evolution through the physical world and the development of moral awareness following the fall into self-awareness and duality. These views draw parallels to ancient Near Eastern myths of paradisiacal realms and emphasize archetypal themes of divine provision and the ideal human-divine relationship, as explored in mystical sources like the Zohar. Jewish eschatology envisions Eden's restoration as central to the messianic age, where the desolated land of Israel will revert to paradisiacal abundance, fulfilling prophetic promises of renewal. Isaiah 51:3 declares that God "will comfort all her waste places; he will make her wilderness like Eden, her desert like the garden of the LORD; joy and gladness will be found in her, thanksgiving and melody to music," portraying Zion's revival as a return to Edenic fertility and divine presence amid end-times redemption. Similarly, Ezekiel 36:35 prophesies that observers will exclaim, "This land that was desolate has become like the garden of Eden; the cities that were lying in ruins, desolate and destroyed, are now fortified and inhabited," interpreted by Jewish sages as the messianic transformation of exile into eternal peace and prosperity. The Zohar elevates Eden to a spiritual realm, known as Upper Gan Eden, comprising gradations of supernal abodes where purified souls ascend post-death, experiencing continual elevation through Torah study and divine light, far beyond the physical garden of creation. In Louis Ginzberg's compilation of rabbinic lore, The Legends of the Jews, Eden is detailed as pre-existing the world's full formation among seven primordial phenomena—alongside , repentance, the Temple, and —created before the six days of Genesis to serve as archetypes of divine order and human destiny. Modern Orthodox perspectives maintain Eden's historicity as the literal origin of humanity while emphasizing its symbolic depth as the archetype of the covenantal relationship between and , where obedience yields paradisiacal harmony and the messianic era promises a collective return to this ideal state. This dual view integrates literal belief in Adam's expulsion with metaphorical lessons on moral choice and eschatological hope.

Christian Theology and the Fall

In , the Garden of Eden narrative from Genesis 2–3 serves as the foundational account of humanity's primordial state and the Fall, profoundly shaping doctrines of , , and redemption. Early , particularly , developed the concept of as arising from Adam's disobedience in Eden, whereby all humanity inherits both the guilt and corruption of that primal act. Augustine argued in (Book XIV) that Adam's prideful transgression introduced a vitiated will and mortality into , transmitted seminally through generation, rendering all descendants liable to unless redeemed by grace. This inherited guilt underscores the universality of , as "by one man entered into the world, and death by ; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned" (Romans 5:12), a verse Augustine interpreted as linking Eden's events to collective human culpability. Contrasting yet complementary to Augustine's emphasis on guilt, of Lyons articulated a in Against Heresies (Book V), portraying Christ as the second who reverses the Fall by assuming human nature and fulfilling obedience where failed, thereby restoring humanity to Edenic communion with . viewed the as a divine "recapitulation" of all stages of human life—from infancy to maturity—undoing the damage of Eden's disobedience and enabling participation in eternal life, symbolized by access to the . This soteriological framework positions the Fall not merely as a legal but as a disrupted trajectory toward deification, with Christ's life, death, and resurrection reorienting humanity toward paradisiacal harmony. Medieval theologians, building on patristic foundations, further elaborated the prelapsarian state in Eden as one of perfect immortality, impassibility, and rational harmony, as detailed by in the Summa Theologica (I, q. 97). Aquinas explained that possessed immortality not as an intrinsic property but as a supernatural gift from God, sustained by grace and potentially perfected through the , which would have preserved their bodies from decay indefinitely. In this state, human reason fully aligned with divine will, free from or bodily rebellion, allowing dominion over creation without toil or suffering (Genesis 2:15–17). Aquinas's analysis highlights the Fall's disruption of this integrated soul-body unity, necessitating Christ's redemptive work to reinstate eschatological immortality. Allegorical and psychological interpretations within Christian thought portray the Garden of Eden as a symbol of primordial perfection and direct communion with the divine, with the expulsion representing humanity's fall into self-awareness, duality, and temporal existence, facilitating spiritual evolution through historical and redemptive processes. These views, influenced by connections to ancient myths and archetypal symbolism, are evident in modern theological reflections that see Eden as embodying cosmological ideals of creation's beauty and the human journey toward restoration. Some modern interpreters, including C.S. Lewis, have explored atemporal dimensions of the Fall, conceptualizing the expulsion from Eden as humanity's irrevocable entry into linear time and historical contingency, rather than a strictly chronological event. In works like The Problem of Pain and the Space Trilogy (e.g., Perelandra), Lewis depicts the Edenic loss as a mythic archetype where timeless innocence yields to temporal struggle, emphasizing God's foreknowledge and the redemptive narrative unfolding through history. This perspective aligns the Fall with broader theological motifs of divine providence, where Eden represents an eternal ideal disrupted to allow for free response and ultimate restoration. During the Reformation, Protestant thinkers intensified the focus on grace as the sole remedy for the post-Fall condition, viewing Eden's legacy as total depravity rendering humans incapable of meritorious works. Martin Luther, in his Lectures on Romans, asserted that original sin from Adam's Edenic rebellion corrupted the entire human will, making justification by faith alone essential, as "the law reveals sin but cannot remove it; grace alone does." John Calvin, in the Institutes of the Christian Religion (Book II, Chapter 1), similarly defined original sin as a "hereditary depravity" extending to all faculties of the soul, originating in Eden and necessitating unconditional election and irresistible grace for salvation. These reformers underscored that without divine initiative post-Fall, humanity remains enslaved to sin, echoing Paul's contrast between Adam's disobedience and Christ's obedience (Romans 5:19). In contemporary Catholic doctrine, the (paragraphs 396–409) affirms the Eden narrative as a historical event conveying profound symbolic truths about human freedom, the origins of evil, and the transmission of through propagation, while rejecting purely mythical interpretations. It describes the Fall as Adam and Eve's abuse of liberty in Eden, leading to a wounded marked by , yet redeemable through and grace, with the event's reality underscoring Christ's role as the new . The culminates these themes in eschatological restoration, linking Eden to the renewed creation in :1–5, where the reappears in the , bearing fruit for healing and signifying the reversal of the cherubim-guarded expulsion (Genesis 3:24). This vision portrays a paradisiacal city with a life-giving river flowing from 's throne, evoking Eden's river (Genesis 2:10) and fulfilling the promise of unbroken , free from or night. Scholarly identifies this as the ultimate recapitulation of Eden, where sin's dominion ends, and humanity reigns eternally with God (:5).

Islamic Views in the Quran and Hadith

In Islamic scripture, the Garden of Eden, referred to as Adan or simply al-Jannah, serves as the initial abode for and his wife, Hawwa (), following their creation. The Quranic narrative begins with announcing to the angels His plan to appoint a (khalifah) on , prompting their query about potential and bloodshed, to which responds by demonstrating 's superiority through teaching him the names of all things (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:30-33). then forms from clay, breathes into him, and commands the angels to prostrate before him as a sign of respect; all comply except (), who refuses out of arrogance, leading to his expulsion from divine favor (2:34). and his wife are subsequently placed in the , granted permission to enjoy its bounties freely but warned against approaching a specific forbidden tree, lest they become wrongdoers (2:35). Tempted by Iblis, who whispers doubts about God's intentions and promises immortality and eternal kingship, Adam and Hawwa eat from the tree, resulting in their immediate awareness of nakedness and an attempt to cover themselves with paradise leaves (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:36; Surah Al-A'raf 7:20-22). Confronted by God, they acknowledge their error and offer a supplication of repentance (tawbah): "Our Lord, we have wronged ourselves, and if You do not forgive us and have mercy upon us, we will surely be among the losers" (Surah Al-A'raf 7:23). God accepts their tawbah, forgives them, and provides guidance through revealed words, but decrees their descent to earth as a fulfillment of the original purpose for humanity, where they and their descendants will face trials, with the promise that the righteous will receive direction to the straight path (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:37-39; Surah Ta-Ha 20:121-123). Hadith literature expands on the Garden's features, portraying it as a located in the third heaven, distinct from the eternal abode of the yet archetypal of paradise's delights. Narrations describe four rivers originating there—one of pure water, one of milk unchanged in flavor, one of wine delightful to drinkers without intoxication, and one of honey—flowing as sources of sustenance and pleasure ( 2825). The Garden is depicted with lush trees providing shade and fruit, including exalted ones like the (Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary), symbolizing the limits of created knowledge and divine proximity, which the Prophet Muhammad encountered during his ascension ( 3207). These descriptions emphasize the Garden's role as a provisional bliss, lost through disobedience but evocative of the rewards awaiting the faithful. In Islamic interpretive traditions, the Garden of Eden is often seen allegorically as a symbol of primordial harmony and divine mercy, with the narrative illustrating the human fall into self-awareness and the potential for spiritual evolution through repentance and submission, connecting to broader cultural symbols of abundance in ancient Near Eastern contexts. Mystical perspectives, such as those in Sufi thought, view it as an archetypal representation of the soul's journey toward union with the divine. Theologically, the Garden functions as a primordial test of obedience and , highlighting humanity's capacity for both submission to and vulnerability to temptation. Unlike the everlasting promised to believers as an eschatological reward, Adam's Garden represents a , from which expulsion initiates human life on earth as decreed (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:36). Central to Islamic doctrine is the acceptance of Adam's , affirming that his error was a personal lapse rather than an inherited "original sin" transmitted to descendants; each bears , born in a state of fitrah (natural purity) and judged by its own deeds ( 1385). This underscores (divine oneness) and , with the story serving as a model for seeking forgiveness and striving toward ultimate paradise. Classical (exegeses) by scholars such as and connect the Quranic imagery of the Garden—enclosed oases with flowing waters and abundant shade—to pre-Islamic Arabian cultural motifs, where janna denoted lush, irrigated gardens as ideals of refuge amid the arid peninsula's harshness. These traditions interpret the narrative as elevating indigenous lore of paradisiacal enclaves into a monotheistic framework, symbolizing divine provision and the soul's yearning for eternal serenity.

Views in Other Traditions

Gnostic and Esoteric Interpretations

In traditions, the is reimagined not as a paradise of innocence but as a material realm crafted by the , , a flawed and ignorant who seeks to keep humanity in bondage. In the text , and his archons fashion from earthly matter and place him in the to till it, forbidding the of the tree of knowledge to prevent enlightenment. The serpent, animated by a higher spiritual principle from the divine realm, serves as an instructor, urging to partake of the , which opens their eyes to divine truth and exposes the 's deception. This act of acquiring —esoteric knowledge—transforms the biblical narrative, portraying the serpent as a liberator rather than a tempter, and the expulsion from Eden as a necessary escape from the archons' prison-like domain. Unlike orthodox interpretations that view the acquisition of knowledge as sinful disobedience, Gnostic texts emphasize as the positive force for spiritual awakening, enabling the soul's ascent beyond material illusion. The depicts Yaldabaoth's rage upon discovering the enlightenment, leading to curses on the serpent, , and , and their banishment, which frees the within humanity from the Demiurge's control. This inversion highlights Eden as a of entrapment by lower cosmic powers, with the Fall representing liberation toward reunion with the true, transcendent . Esoteric Kabbalistic traditions interpret the Garden of Eden as a metaphysical framework intertwined with the , comprising the ten —emanations of divine energy that map the soul's journey from creation to redemption. In these views, Eden embodies the primordial harmony of the , split into earthly and heavenly planes symbolizing the ’s structure, with the process of tikkun (repair) implied in theurgic shifts within Paradise. Theosophical interpretations, as articulated by , recast Eden as a symbolic state of primordial unity between spirit and matter, rather than a literal locale, with the garden representing the fertile potential of cosmic evolution across root-races. Blavatsky describes Eden as the condition of the soul in the higher Buddhic plane, where dualistic knowledge from the marks humanity's transition from ethereal to denser forms, echoing ancient myths of lost paradises. In , the serpent emerges as a bearer of intellectual enlightenment, transforming the Fall into a progressive step toward freedom from ignorance, akin to the dawn of self-conscious individuality. In modern esotericism, Rudolf Steiner's portrays the Garden of Eden as an evolutionary stage in Earth's development, where early humanity possessed innate , perceiving spiritual realities directly amid a more fluid, dreamlike existence. Steiner explains that the Fall, influenced by Luciferic forces, severed this visionary connection, compelling humans to engage the physical world through intellect and will, thus initiating individual freedom at the cost of paradise. This loss of , detailed in Steiner's lectures on , marks the shift from collective spiritual perception to ego-consciousness, with Eden symbolizing a pre-dualistic epoch before the necessary descent into matter for soul maturation.

Latter-day Saint Beliefs

In the theology of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Garden of Eden narrative is expanded upon in the Pearl of Great Price, particularly in the chapters 3 and 4, which provide additional details beyond the Genesis account, including references to a pre-mortal council where God's plan for humanity was presented. These scriptures describe the Garden as a paradisiacal state where lived in innocence, without knowledge of good and evil, and emphasize the divine purpose behind their eventual expulsion. According to revelation received by , the Garden was located in what is now , with —a site in nearby Daviess County—serving as the place where later gathered and blessed his posterity after leaving Eden. Central to Latter-day Saint doctrine is the identity of Adam as Michael, the archangel, who held leadership in the premortal existence and will play a key role in future events. The Fall is viewed not as a tragic mistake but as a necessary step in God's plan of , enabling mortality, agency, procreation, and eternal progression, as articulated in 2 Nephi 2:25: "Adam fell that men might be; and men are, that they might have ." Prior to the Fall, there was no or procreation in the Garden, as existed in a state of and , with their bodies lacking blood and subject to no decay. This event introduced physical and but also opened the path to redemption through Jesus Christ. Latter-day Saints anticipate a future gathering of the righteous at prior to the Second Coming of Christ, where (Michael) will convene with other priesthood keys holders to render an accounting, ushering in the —a thousand-year period of peace centered in the near the original Eden site. identified this region through revelation as the location of Eden and the future center place of , reinforcing its doctrinal significance. Contemporary Church teachings maintain a literal interpretation of the as a historical reality tied to the plan of salvation, while acknowledging symbolic elements that convey deeper spiritual truths, without emphasis on archaeological validation.

Cultural Representations

In Visual Art and Iconography

Depictions of the Garden of Eden in visual art trace a rich evolution from symbolic early Christian mosaics to more narrative and surreal interpretations in later periods, often emphasizing themes of paradise, temptation, and expulsion. In medieval , such as the 5th-century ceiling mosaic in Ravenna's , the Garden is rendered as a starry blue vault adorned with golden crosses, flowers, and birds against a lush green ground, evoking the idyllic innocence of Eden without explicit human figures. Similarly, in the 12th-13th century mosaics of in , which blend Byzantine influences, appear with the Tree of Knowledge, where the serpent is portrayed as a half-woman figure coiled around the trunk, underscoring temptation in a paradisiacal setting. Gothic frescoes, like those in Giotto's early 14th-century in , portray in prelapsarian harmony amid verdant landscapes and animals, highlighting their original innocence through soft, naturalistic forms and serene compositions before the fall. The Renaissance brought heightened drama and humanism to Edenic scenes. Michelangelo's fresco The Fall and Expulsion from Garden of Eden (1508-1512) on the Sistine Chapel ceiling divides the composition with the Tree of Knowledge: on one side, a serpentine figure with Eve's arm extended offers the fruit to Adam, while on the other, an angel wields a sword to drive the remorseful pair from paradise, their bodies contorted in anguish. Hieronymus Bosch's The Garden of Earthly Delights (c. 1490-1500), in its left triptych panel housed at the Prado Museum, presents a fantastical Eden teeming with exotic animals, crystalline fountains, and nude figures in harmonious abundance under God's watchful gaze, blending biblical paradise with surreal, otherworldly elements like giraffes and oversized fruits. In the , Pre-Raphaelite artists reimagined Eden through romanticized naturalism and symbolism. Edward Burne-Jones's series The Days of Creation (1870-1876) depicts emerging in a luminous, enclosed garden filled with blooming , evoking the enclosed as a for prelapsarian purity and Victorian ideals of . Salvador Dalí's later lithographs, such as in the Garden of Eden (1979), transform the scene into a dreamlike, mystical with elongated figures, melting forms, and ethereal trees, infusing biblical motifs with Surrealist ambiguity and psychological depth. Recurring iconographic elements unify these depictions across eras. Cherubim are frequently shown as multi-winged, humanoid guardians barring Eden's entrance, as in expulsions where they wield flaming swords to symbolize divine protection of sacred knowledge. The four rivers of Eden—, , , and —are stylized as flowing, life-giving streams in medieval and , often radiating from a central source to represent abundance and the paradise's geographical-spiritual outflow. The serpent evolves from a simple coiled reptile in early mosaics, signifying cunning, to more anthropomorphic forms like a legged or female-headed creature in Byzantine and Gothic works, embodying and the loss of . The Garden of Eden has profoundly influenced classical literature, most notably in John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), where it serves as the idyllic setting for the prelapsarian world of Adam and Eve in Books IV and IX. Milton depicts Eden as a lush, harmonious paradise teeming with diverse flora and fauna, symbolizing divine order and human innocence before the Fall, with the serpent's temptation leading to expulsion and the introduction of sin and toil. This portrayal draws on biblical sources but expands them into a dynamic landscape that reflects Milton's Protestant theology, emphasizing free will and the consequences of disobedience. Similarly, Dante Alighieri's (c. 1320) places the Garden of Eden at the summit of Mount in the Purgatorio , portraying it as where souls achieve final purification before ascending to . Dante encounters the Matelda in this verdant, timeless garden, which represents restored innocence and the reversal of the original through penance, with the river washing away memory of and the Eunoe granting eternal joy. This vision integrates classical and Christian elements, positioning Eden as a transitional realm of grace. In modern literature, Ernest Hemingway's posthumously published novel The Garden of Eden (1986) employs the biblical paradise as a for lost innocence and the complexities of desire, set against idyllic European backdrops that evoke prelapsarian harmony disrupted by jealousy and role reversals. The protagonists, and Catherine Bourne, honeymoon in a sun-drenched coastal "Eden," where their experiments with gender and sexuality mirror the Fall, leading to emotional exile and the erosion of marital bliss. This thematic use underscores Hemingway's exploration of human vulnerability and the fragility of utopian ideals. Eco-fiction has increasingly invoked Eden to critique , as seen in Margaret Atwood's trilogy (2003–2013), where the Garden of Eden motif recurs through the eco-religious sect God's Gardeners, who envision a post-apocalyptic restoration of paradise amid corporate exploitation and . In (2009), the narrative contrasts the ravaged world with Edenic visions of sustainable harmony, using the garden as a for humanity's potential redemption through ecological stewardship and resistance to dominion over nature. These works highlight Eden as an for urgent calls to reclaim balance with the environment. In film, the biblical epics popularized Eden's visual and narrative allure, exemplified by John Huston's The Bible: In the Beginning... (1966), which dramatizes the Creation and the Garden sequence with Adam (Michael Parks) and (Ulla Bergryd) in a lush, serpentine paradise, culminating in their expulsion after tasting the . This adaptation, spanning Genesis chapters 1–22, emphasizes the mythic scale of innocence lost, influencing subsequent Hollywood interpretations of sacred . More contemporarily, Terrence Malick's The Tree of Life (2011) interweaves Edenic imagery—dinosaurs in primordial grace, a beachside evoking paradise—with a family drama, exploring grace versus nature through the lens of loss and cosmic origins. The film's dreamlike sequences portray Eden as an eternal, redemptive state amid human suffering. A more recent example is the Garden of Eden (2025), directed by Marcel Walz, which reimagines the paradise theme in a modern context where a devout family grants life-changing opportunities to guests, but with nightmarish consequences. Television has adapted Eden as a modern afterlife utopia in series like (2016–2020), where the titular realm functions as a bespoke paradise tailored to the virtuous dead, echoing Eden's bliss but subverted by ethical dilemmas and bureaucratic twists. Protagonist Eleanor Shellstrop's arc in this "Good Place" navigates moral growth toward an idealized harmony, blending humor with philosophical reflections on paradise as earned rather than innate. In , the term "Edenic" has entered common parlance to describe any idyllic or pristine state, deriving from the biblical garden's of untouched perfection and often invoked in discussions of utopias or lost simplicities. Video games like the series (2007–present) incorporate Eden through "Pieces of Eden" artifacts from an ancient precursor civilization, with lore in (2009) featuring and Eve's escape from a controlled paradise using a holographic Apple of Eden, reimagining the myth as a tale of against divine surveillance. Post-pandemic cultural discourse in the 2020s has seen a resurgence of "" motifs, manifesting in memes and essays longing for pre-industrial harmony and nature reconnection amid global disruptions, as in reflections on ecological renewal after isolation. This trend continued into 2025 with Lady Gaga's song "Garden of Eden," which explores themes of temptation and paradise in a contemporary musical context.

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