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The Last Judgment of sinners by Jesus Christ; carving on the central portal of Amiens Cathedral, France.

The Last Judgment[a][b] is a concept found across the Abrahamic religions and the Frashokereti of Zoroastrianism.

Christianity considers the Second Coming of Jesus Christ to entail the final judgment by God of all people who have ever lived,[1] resulting in the salvation of a few and the damnation of many. Some Christian denominations believe most people will be saved, some believe most people will be damned, and some believe the number of the saved and of the damned is unknown. The concept of the Last Judgment is found in all the canonical gospels, particularly in the Gospel of Matthew. The Christian tradition is also followed by Islam, where it is mentioned in many chapters of the Quran, according to some interpretations.

The Last Judgment has inspired numerous artistic depictions, including painting, sculpture and evangelical work.

In Judaism

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Main article: Jewish eschatology

In Judaism, beliefs vary. Rosh HaShanah is sometimes referred to as a 'day of judgement', but it is not conceptualized as the Day of Judgement. Some rabbis hold that there will be a future day following the resurrection of the dead. Others hold that the final accounting and judgment happens when one dies.[citation needed] Still others hold that the Last Judgment applies to only the gentiles, not the Jewish People.[2] The Babylonian Talmud has a lengthy passage describing the future Judgement Day.[3]

In Christianity

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Main articles: Christian eschatology and Amillennialism
Print of the Last Judgment, made by Johannes Wierix in the 16th century[4]
The Last Judgment mosaic (14th century), south facade of Saint Vitus Cathedral, Prague, Czech Republic

Biblical sources

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The doctrine and iconographic depiction of the Last Judgment are drawn from many passages from the apocalyptic sections of the Bible, but most notably from Jesus' teaching of the narrow gate in the Gospel of Matthew and in the Gospel of Luke.

Salvation and damnation

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In Christianity, there are three main beliefs about who will be saved (go to heaven) and who will be damned (go to hell) on Judgment Day. All three beliefs are based on biblical interpretation and Christian tradition.[5][6][7][8]

Some Christians who believe in universal salvation say most people and angels will go to heaven on Judgment Day.[9] Some Christians who believe in double predestination say most people and angels will go to hell on Judgment Day.[10] Other Christians who disbelieve in universal salvation and double predestination say the number of the saved and of the damned on Judgment Day is unknown.[11][12]

Anglicanism and Methodism

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Article IV – Of the Resurrection of Christ in Anglicanism's Articles of Religion and Article III – Of the Resurrection of Christ of Methodism's Articles of Religion state that:[13][14]

Christ did truly rise again from death, and took again his body, with flesh, bones, and all things appertaining to the perfection of Man's nature; wherewith he ascended into Heaven, and there sitteth, until he return to judge all Men at the last day.[13][14]

Anglican and Methodist theology holds that "there is an intermediate state between death and the resurrection of the dead, in which the soul does not sleep in unconsciousness, but exists in happiness or misery till the resurrection, when it shall be reunited to the body and receive its final reward."[15][16] This space, termed Hades, is divided into Paradise (the Bosom of Abraham) and Gehenna "but with an impassable gulf between the two".[17][18] Souls remain in Hades until the Last Judgment and "Christians may also improve in holiness after death during the middle state before the final judgment".[19][20]

Anglican and Methodist theology holds that at the time of the Last Day, "Jesus will return and that He will 'judge both the quick [the living] and the dead',"[21] and "all [will] be bodily resurrected and stand before Christ as our Judge. After the Judgment, the Righteous will go to their eternal reward in heaven, and the Accursed will depart to hell (see Matthew 25)."[22] The "issue of this judgment shall be a permanent separation of the evil and the good, the righteous and the wicked" (see The Sheep and the Goats).[23][24] Moreover, in "the final judgment every one of our thoughts, words, and deeds will be known and judged," and individuals will be justified on the basis of their faith in Jesus. However, "our works will not escape God's examination."[21]

Catholicism

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The Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo (1536–1541)

Belief in the Last Judgment (often linked with the general judgment) is held firmly in Catholicism. Immediately upon death, each person undergoes the particular judgment, and depending upon one's behavior on earth, goes to heaven, purgatory, or hell. Those in purgatory will always reach heaven, but those in hell will be there eternally.

The Last Judgment will occur after the resurrection of the dead, and "our 'mortal body' will come to life again."[25] The Catholic Church teaches that at the time of the Last Judgment Christ will come in His glory, and all the angels with him, and in his presence the truth of each one's deeds will be laid bare. Each person who has ever lived will be judged with perfect justice. The believers who are deemed worthy as well as those ignorant of Christ's teaching who followed the dictates of conscience[26] will go to everlasting bliss; those who are judged unworthy will go to everlasting condemnation.

A decisive factor in the Last Judgment will be the question, were the corporal works of mercy practiced or not during one's lifetime. They rate as important acts of charity. Therefore, and according to the biblical sources (Mt 25:31–46), the conjunction of the Last Judgment and the works of mercy is frequent in the pictorial tradition of Christian art.[27]

Before the Last Judgment, all will be resurrected. Those who were in purgatory will have already been purged, meaning they would have already been released into heaven, and so like those in heaven and hell will resurrect with their bodies, followed by the Last Judgment.[28]

According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church:

1038 The resurrection of all the dead, "of both the just and the unjust" (Acts 24:15), will precede the Last Judgment. This will be "the hour when all who are in the tombs will hear [the Son of man's] voice and come forth, those who have done good, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the resurrection of judgment" (Jn 5:28–29) Then Christ will come "in his glory, and all the angels with him... . Before him will be gathered all the nations, and he will separate them one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats, and he will place the sheep at his right hand, but the goats at the left... . And they will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life" (Mt 25:31, 32, 46).

1039 In the presence of Christ, who is Truth itself, the truth of each man's relationship with God will be laid bare (Cf. Jn 12:49). The Last Judgment will reveal even to its furthest consequences the good each person has done or failed to do during his earthly life.

1040 The Last Judgment will come when Christ returns in glory. Only the Father knows the day and the hour; only he determines the moment of its coming. Then through his Son Jesus Christ he will pronounce the final word on all history. We shall know the ultimate meaning of the whole work of creation and of the entire economy of salvation and understand the marvelous ways by which his Providence led everything towards its final end. The Last Judgment will reveal that God's justice triumphs over all the injustices committed by his creatures and that God's love is stronger than death. (Cf. Song 8:6)[29]

— Catechism of the Catholic Church

The Eastern Orthodox and Catholic teachings of the Last Judgment differ only on the exact nature of the in-between state of purgatory/Abraham's Bosom. These differences may only be apparent and not actual due to differing theological terminology and evolving tradition.

Eastern Orthodoxy

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The Last Judgment, 17th century icon from Lipie. Historic Museum in Sanok, Poland.
The Last Judgment, mural from Voroneț Monastery, Romania

The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that there are two judgments: the first, or particular judgment, is that experienced by each individual at the time of his or her death, at which time God will decide where[30] one is to spend the time until the Second Coming of Christ (see Hades in Christianity). This judgment is generally believed to occur on the fortieth day after death. The second, General or Final Judgment will occur after the Second Coming.

Although in modern times some have attempted to introduce the concept of soul sleep into Orthodox thought about life after death, it has never been a part of traditional Orthodox teaching, and it contradicts the Orthodox understanding of the intercession of the Saints.[citation needed]

Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that salvation is bestowed by God as a free gift of divine grace, which cannot be earned, and by which forgiveness of sins is available to all. However, the deeds done by each person are believed to affect how he will be judged, following the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats. How forgiveness is to be balanced against behavior is not well-defined in scripture, judgment in the matter being solely Christ's.

Similarly, although Orthodoxy teaches that sole salvation is obtained only through Christ and his Church, the fate of those outside the Church at the Last Judgment is left to the mercy of God and is not declared.

Icons
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Viktor Vasnetsov's The Last Judgment, 1904

The theme of the Last Judgment is important in Orthodoxy. Traditionally, an Orthodox church will have a fresco or mosaic of the Last Judgment on the back (western) wall so that the faithful, as they leave the services, are reminded that they will be judged by what they do during earthly life.

The icon of the Last Judgment traditionally depicts Christ Pantokrator, enthroned in glory on a white throne, surrounded by the Theotokos (Virgin Mary), John the Baptist, the Apostles, saints and angels. Beneath the throne the scene is divided in half with the "mansions of the righteous" (John 14:2), i.e., those who have been saved, to Jesus' right (the viewer's left), and the torments of those who have been damned to his left. Separating the two is the river of fire which proceeds from Jesus' left foot. For more detail, see below.

Hymnography
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Theodore Poulakis The Hymn to the Virgin with Last Judgment, 1622

The theme of the Last Judgement is found in the funeral and memorial hymnody of the Church, and is a major theme in the services during Great Lent. The second Sunday before the beginning of Great Lent is dedicated to the Last Judgement. It is also found in the hymns of the Octoechos used on Saturdays throughout the year.

Cretan School

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There were many renditions of the Last Judgment completed by Greek painters living in Crete which was held by the Venetian Empire. Most of the works of art were influenced by Venetian painting but were considered to be painted in the Maniera Greca.

The Last Judgment by Francheskos Kavertzas, 1648

Georgios Klontzas painted many triptychs featuring the Last Judgment some include The Last Judgment, The Last Judgement Triptych, and The Triptych of the Last Judgement. Klontzas was the forerunner of a new painting style.[31][32]

Other Greek painters followed the precedent set by Klontzas. Theodore Poulakis added the last judgment to his rendition of Klontzas' In Thee Rejoiceth. The painter incorporated the Last Judgement into one of Klontzas' earlier works entitled In Thee Rejoiceth. Poulakis paid homage to the father of the Last Judgement style.[33] Leos Moskos and Francheskos Kavertzas also followed the outline for the stylistic representation of the Last Judgement set by Klontzas. Their works were The Last Judgment (Kavertzas) and The Last Judgment (Moskos). Both paintings resemble Klontas' Last Judgement painting.[34][35]

Lutheranism

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Lutherans do not believe in any sort of earthly millennial kingdom of Christ either before or after his second coming on the last day.[36] On the last day,[37] all the dead will be resurrected.[38] Their souls will then be reunited with the same bodies they had before dying.[39] The bodies will then be changed, those of the wicked to a state of everlasting shame and torment,[40] those of the righteous to an everlasting state of celestial glory.[41] After the resurrection of all the dead,[42] and the change of those still living,[43] all nations shall be gathered before Christ,[44] and he will separate the righteous from the wicked.[45] Christ will publicly judge[46] all people by the testimony of their faith[47] – the good works[48] of the righteous in evidence of their faith,[49] and the evil works of the wicked in evidence of their unbelief.[50] He will judge in righteousness[51] in the presence of all and men and angels,[52] and his final judgment will be just damnation to everlasting punishment for the wicked and a gracious gift of life everlasting to the righteous.[53][54][55]

William Blake's The Day of Judgment, printed in 1808 to illustrate Robert Blair's poem "The Grave"

Esoteric Christian traditions

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See also: Second Coming § Esoteric Christian teachings, and Esoteric Christianity

Although the Last Judgment is believed by a great part of Christian mainstream churches; some members of Esoteric Christian traditions like the Rosicrucians, the Spiritualist movement, and some liberals instead believe in a form of universal salvation.[citation needed]

Max Heindel, a Danish-American astrologer and mystic, taught that when the Day of Christ comes, marking the end of the current fifth or Aryan epoch, the human race will have to pass a final examination or last judgment, where, as in the Days of Noah,[56] the chosen ones or pioneers, the sheep, will be separated from the goats or stragglers,[57] by being carried forward into the next evolutionary period, inheriting the ethereal conditions of the New Galilee in the making. Nevertheless, it is emphasized that all beings of the human evolution will ultimately be saved in a distant future as they acquire a superior grade of consciousness and altruism. At the present period, the process of human evolution is conducted by means of successive rebirths in the physical world[58] and the salvation is seen as being mentioned in Revelation 3:12 (KJV), which states "Him that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple of my God and he shall go no more out". However, this western esoteric tradition states – like those who have had a near-death experience – that after the death of the physical body, at the end of each physical lifetime and after the life review period (which occurs before the silver cord is broken), a judgment occurs, more akin to a Final Review or End Report over one's life, where the life of the subject is fully evaluated and scrutinized.[59] This judgment is seen as being mentioned in Hebrews 9:27, which states that "it is appointed unto men once to die, but after this the judgment".

Swedenborgian

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Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) had a revelation that the church has gone through a series of Last Judgments. First, during Noah's Flood, then Moses on Mount Sinai, Jesus' crucifixion, and finally in 1757, which is the final Last Judgment. These occur in a realm outside earth and heaven, and are spiritual in nature.[60][61][62]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teaches that the last judgment for each individual occurs after that individual has been resurrected.[citation needed] People will be judged by Jesus Christ.[63] Jesus' twelve apostles will help judge the twelve tribes of Israel and the twelve Nephite disciples from the Book of Mormon will help to judge the Nephite and Lamanite people.[63]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that people will be judged by their words, their works, their thoughts, and the intents of their hearts.[63] Records that have been kept in heaven and on earth will also be used to judge people.[63] Jesus Christ will act as the advocate for people who had faith in him and such people will enter God's presence based on Jesus' merits as opposed to their own.[64]

After the final judgment, an individual is assigned to one of the three degrees of glory.

Artistic representations

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Main article: Doom paintings
Doom painting, St Mary's Church, North Leigh, Oxfordshire, 15th century
Armenian manuscript depicts the Last Judgment, 1679.

In art, the Last Judgment is a common theme in medieval and renaissance religious iconography. Like most early iconographic innovations, its origins stem from Byzantine art, although it was a less common subject than in the West during the Middle Ages.[65] In Western Christianity, it is often the subject depicted in medieval cathedrals and churches, either outside on the central tympanum of the entrance or inside on the (rear) west wall, so that the congregation attending church saw the image on either entering or leaving.

In the 15th century it also appeared as the central section of a triptych on altarpieces, with the side panels showing heaven and hell, as in the Beaune Altarpiece or a triptych by Hans Memling. The usual composition has Christ seated high in the centre, flanked by angels, the Virgin Mary, and John the Evangelist who are supplicating on behalf of those being judged (in what is called a Deesis group in Orthodoxy). Saint Michael is often shown, either weighing the deceased on scales or directing matters, and there might be a large crowd of saints, angels, and the saved around the central group.

The Last Judgment by Georgios Klontzas late 1500s

At the bottom of the composition a crowd of the deceased are shown, often with some rising from their graves. These are being sorted and directed by angels into the saved and the damned. Almost always the saved are on the viewer's left (so on the right hand of Christ), and the damned on the right. The saved are led up to heaven, often shown as a fortified gateway, while the damned are handed over to devils who herd them down into hell on the right; the composition therefore has a circular pattern of movement. Often the damned disappear into a Hellmouth, the mouth of a huge monster, an image of Anglo-Saxon origin. The damned often include figures of high rank, wearing crowns, mitres, and often the Papal tiara during the lengthy periods when there were antipopes, or in Protestant depictions. There may be detailed depictions of the torments of the damned.

Last Judgment (Russia, 18th century)

The most famous Renaissance depiction is Michelangelo Buonarroti's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel. Included in this fresco is his self-portrait, as St. Bartholomew's flayed skin.[66]

The image in Eastern Orthodox icons has a similar composition, but usually less space is devoted to hell, and there are often a larger number of scenes; the Orthodox readiness to label figures with inscriptions often allows more complex compositions. There is more often a large group of saints around Christ (which may include animals), and the hetoimasia or "empty throne", containing a cross, is usually shown below Christ, often guarded by archangels; figures representing Adam and Eve may kneel below it or below Christ. A distinctive feature of the Orthodox composition, especially in Russian icons, is a large band leading like a chute from the feet of Christ down to hell; this may resemble a striped snake or be a "river of Fire" coloured flame red. If it is shown as a snake, it attempts to bite Adam on the heel but, as he is protected by Christ, is unsuccessful.

In Islam

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Main article: Judgement Day in Islam
Further information: Akhirah and Resurrection in Islam
Diagram of "Plain of Assembly" (Ard al-Hashr) on the Day of Judgment, from an autograph manuscript of Futuhat al-Makkiyya by Sufi mystic and Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi, c. 1238. Shown are the 'Arsh (Throne of God), pulpits for the righteous (al-Aminun), seven rows of angels, Gabriel (al-Ruh), A'raf (the Barrier), the Pond of Abundance, al-Maqam al-Mahmud (the Praiseworthy Station; where Muhammad will stand to intercede for the faithful), Mizan (the Scale), As-Sirāt (the Bridge), Jahannam (Hell), and Marj al-Jannat (Meadow of Paradise).[67]

Belief in Judgment Day (Arabic: یوم القيامة, romanized: Yawm al-qiyāmah, lit. 'Day of Resurrection' or Arabic: یوم الدین, romanized: Yawm ad-din, lit. 'Day of Judgement') is considered a fundamental tenet of faith by all Muslims. It is one of the six articles of faith. The trials and tribulations associated with it are detailed in both the Quran and the hadith, (sayings of Muhammad), from whence they are elaborated on in the creeds, Quranic commentaries (tafsịrs), and theological writing,[68] eschatological manuals, whose authors include al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, and Ibn Khuzaymah. According to some Islamic teachings, there are two categories of heaven: those who go directly to it and those who enter it after enduring some torment in hell; Also, the people of hell are of two categories: those who stay there temporarily and those who stay there forever.[citation needed]

Similarities to the Judgement Day of Christianity

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Like Christianity, Islamic eschatology has a time of tribulation preceding Judgement Day where strange and terrible events will serve as portents; there will be a second coming of Jesus (but in different roles); battles with an AntiChrist (Al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl, literally "Deceitful Messiah"[69]) and struggles with Gog and Magog; and a Rapture-like removal of all righteous believers before the end. A "Day of Resurrection" of the dead (yawm al-qiyāmah), will be announced by a trumpet blast.[70] Resurrection will be followed by a "Day of Judgment" (yawm ad-din) where all human beings who have ever lived will be held accountable for their deeds by being judged by God. Depending on the verdict of the judgement, they will be sent for eternity to either the reward of paradise (Jannah) or the punishment of hell (Jahannam).[71]

Salvation and damnation

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In this process, the souls will traverse over hellfire[72] via the bridge of sirat. For sinners, the bridge will be thinner than hair and sharper than the sharpest sword, impossible to walk on without falling below to arrive at their fiery destination,[73] while the righteous will proceed across the bridge to paradise (Jannah).

Not everyone consigned to hell will remain there. Somewhat like the Catholic concept of purgatory, sinful Muslims will stay in hell until purified of their sins. According to the scholar Al-Subki (and others), "God will take out of the Fire everyone who has said the testimony" (i.e. the shāhada testimony made by all Muslims, "There is no deity but The God") "and none will remain to save those who rejected or worshipped other than God."[74]

Literal or figurative interpretation

While early Muslims debated whether scripture on Judgement day should be interpreted literally or figuratively, the school of thought that prevailed (Ashʿarī) "affirmed that such things as the individual records of deeds (including the paper, pen, and ink with which they are inscribed), the bridge, the balance, and the pond are realities to be understood in a concrete and literal sense."[75]


In Jainism

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In Jainism, there is no day of judgement as such. Jains believe, however, that as the 5th era comes to an end, evil will increase and the religion and good will decrease. Only four Jains will remain in the world: a monk, a female monk, a shravak and a shravika. A deity from the heavens will descend upon the earth and gather them, and ask them to take "Anshan", or vow to fast (without any food or water) until death.

In Zoroastrianism

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Further information: Frashokereti

Frashokereti is the Zoroastrian doctrine of a final renovation of the universe, when evil will be destroyed, and everything else will be then in perfect unity with God (Ahura Mazda).

The doctrinal premises are (1) good will eventually prevail over evil; (2) creation was initially perfectly good, but was subsequently corrupted by evil; (3) the world will ultimately be restored to the perfection it had at the time of creation; (4) the "salvation for the individual depended on the sum of [that person's] thoughts, words and deeds, and there could be no intervention, whether compassionate or capricious, by any divine being to alter this." Thus, each human bears responsibility for their own fate, and simultaneously shares in the responsibility for the fate of the world.[76]

In Yarsanism

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In Yarsanism is a belief that people reincarnate until the Day of Resurrection when the last reincarnation occurs and pious people will be separated from sinful. God will forgive sins of pious souls and they will be rewarded with two paradises to which they will be sent according to what they look for. If they look for worldly pleasures, they will be sent to a mortal paradise, where they will perish one day. If they look for the mystical joy, then they will be sent to the immortal paradise, where they will live in the presence of God. Sinners will go to hell.[77]

Crack of doom

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In English, crack of doom is an old term used for the Day of Judgment, referring in particular to the blast of trumpets signalling the end of the world in Chapter 8 of the Book of Revelation. A "crack" had the sense of any loud noise, preserved in the phrase "crack of thunder",[78] and "doom" was a term for the Last Judgment, as Eschatology still is.

The phrase is famously used by William Shakespeare in Macbeth, where on the heath the Three Witches show Macbeth the line of kings that will issue from Banquo:

"Why do you show me this? A fourth! Start, eyes!
What, will the line stretch out to the crack of doom?
Another yet! A seventh! I'll see no more." (Act 4, scene 1, 112–117)

The meaning was that Banquo's line will endure until the Judgment Day, flattery for King James I, who claimed descent from Banquo.

Music

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Also known as the Final Judgment, Day of Reckoning, Day of Judgment, Judgment Day, Doomsday, Day of Resurrection or The Day of the Lord.
  2. ^ Hebrew: יום הדין, romanized: Yom ha-Dīn; Arabic: یوم القيامة, romanized: Yawm al-Qiyāmah or یوم الدین, Yawm ad-Dīn.

References

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Last Judgment

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from Grokipedia
The Last Judgment, also known as the Final Judgment or Day of Reckoning, is a foundational eschatological doctrine in the —, —referring to the divine event at the end of time when adjudicates the deeds of all humanity, resurrects the dead, and assigns eternal destinies of reward or punishment based on and moral conduct. This concept underscores themes of divine justice, accountability, and the ultimate triumph of good over evil, permeating scriptural texts and theological traditions across these faiths. In , the eschatological judgment is tied to the "end of days" (aḥarit ha-yamim), where , as the ultimate , evaluates the righteous and wicked amid cosmic upheaval, leading to and entry into (Olam Ha-Ba). Key scriptural foundations include Daniel 12:2, which describes the awakening of the dead "some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt," and prophetic visions in and Joel of nations gathered for . This judgment follows the Messianic era, involving retribution for the unjust and a renewed paradise, though details vary between rabbinic and apocalyptic texts, emphasizing collective national redemption alongside individual accountability. Christianity portrays the Last Judgment as occurring at the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, who, seated on a glorious throne, separates the righteous for eternal life in heaven from the wicked destined for hell, with all humanity resurrected bodily for this reckoning based on works and belief. Biblical references, such as Matthew 25:31–46 and Revelation 20:11–14, depict Christ as the judge who weighs deeds against faith, resulting in everlasting reward or punishment, as affirmed in 2 Corinthians 5:10: "For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ." This event culminates in the establishment of God's eternal kingdom, free from sin, and has inspired extensive theological reflection and artistic depictions throughout church history. In Islam, the Last Judgment is the Day of Resurrection (Yawm al-Qiyamah or yawm al-ḥisāb), when Allah resurrects all beings from their graves—often described in hadith as reforming from the coccyx bone (ajb adh-dhanab)—for a universal accounting of deeds recorded in divine books, leading the faithful to paradise (Jannah) and the unrepentant to hellfire (Jahannam). The Qur'an extensively details this, with verses like 75:3–4 questioning and affirming resurrection ("Does man think that We will not assemble his bones? Nay, We are able to proportion his whole fingers") and 56:1 heralding the cataclysmic event ("When the Event inevitable cometh to pass"). Preceded by major signs such as the appearance of the Mahdi and Jesus's return to defeat the Antichrist (Dajjal), the process may span 50,000 years for the disbelievers, emphasizing mercy through prophetic intercession while upholding strict justice.

Overview

Definition and Etymology

The Last Judgment, also referred to as the Final Judgment or Day of Judgment, is a pivotal eschatological doctrine in , denoting the ultimate divine adjudication of all human souls at the end of time. This event involves , or in Christ as judge, evaluating the lives, actions, and of every individual, past and present, to assign eternal rewards or punishments, such as paradise or perdition. It underscores themes of divine justice, accountability, and the culmination of history, often linked to the of the dead and the renewal of creation. The English phrase "Last Judgment" first appears in records from the late , building on earlier medieval usages, where it specifically evoked the apocalyptic trial of humanity. The word "" itself traces to jugement (attested around the 11th century), signifying a legal , , or the eschatological reckoning, derived from the verb jugier ("to "), which stems from Latin iudicare ("to , to form an "), combining iudex ("," from "" + dicere "to say"). This Latin root influenced translations of biblical texts, embedding the concept in Western theology. In scriptural languages, the concept lacks a single fixed term but is conveyed through related expressions. In the Hebrew Bible, eschatological judgment appears in phrases like ʾaḥarit ha-yamim ("end of days," implying final reckoning) and yom YHWH ("Day of the Lord," a time of divine intervention and justice), with mishpat denoting judgment or ordinance. The New Testament employs Greek words such as krisis (a decision or separation, used for divine discernment, as in Matthew 12:41) and krima (a verdict or condemnation, as in Romans 2:2-3), often in compounds like hemera kriseōs ("day of judgment"). These terms highlight the event's role as the conclusive act of God's sovereignty.

Significance in Eschatology

In , the study of ultimate destiny and end times, the Last Judgment represents the climactic event where divine authority evaluates human actions, determines eternal outcomes, and resolves cosmic history. This concept underscores God's , ensuring accountability for moral choices and the triumph of over evil. Across Abrahamic traditions, it serves as the final reckoning following , where souls face reward or punishment based on adherence to divine will, thereby providing a teleological purpose to existence. Theologically, the Last Judgment affirms the moral order of the universe by vindicating the righteous and condemning the wicked, often linked to and the renewal of creation. In , it highlights God's glory through balanced justice and , assigning eternal destinies—heaven for believers and condemnation for unbelievers—while motivating ethical living in anticipation of this event. Similarly, in Islamic eschatology, known as Yawm al-Qiyamah, it is a foundational pillar of , emphasizing personal responsibility and , with cosmic signs like the splitting of heavens preceding the judgment of deeds for paradise or perdition. Jewish eschatology views it as part of the , involving (as in 26:19) and judgment leading to , where righteousness is eternally rewarded. Furthermore, the Last Judgment imparts profound meaning to history and individual life by framing temporal events within an eternal perspective, countering and fostering hope amid suffering. It portrays as a linear progression toward divine resolution, where provisional judgments culminate in ultimate vindication, ensuring that no act of evil escapes scrutiny and every life holds intrinsic value before God. This eschatological framework, originating in Zoroastrian influences but central to Abrahamic faiths, reinforces communal and personal ethics, urging vigilance and faithfulness until the end.

Historical Origins

In Zoroastrianism

In , the concept of the Last Judgment is integral to the eschatological doctrine known as , or the "making wonderful," which envisions the final renovation and purification of the universe at the end of time. This process culminates in the triumph of good over evil, led by the divine figure of , and involves the resurrection of all humanity for a universal reckoning of deeds. The doctrine emphasizes cosmic renewal, where the material world returns to a state of perfection free from death, decay, and suffering, as described in ancient texts. Central to Frashokereti is the arrival of the Saoshyant, a messianic savior prophesied to be born of a virgin impregnated by the preserved of the . The final Saoshyant, also called Astvat-ereta ("he who embodies righteousness"), will initiate the by reconstructing the bodies of the dead from the four elements—earth, water, plants, and fire—beginning with the primordial human Gayomard and extending to all souls. This event triggers a final battle against Angra Mainyu (the destructive spirit) and his forces, resulting in the complete eradication of evil. The Saoshyant's role is detailed in the Gathas of the , where he is depicted as aiding in restoring immortality to humanity. The Last Judgment itself occurs during this eschatological climax, following the , in a grand assembly where all human actions——are reviewed and weighed. Souls, reunited with their bodies, face a collective ordeal: they must pass through a river of molten metal that serves as a purifying . For the righteous, this flows like warm milk, affirming their virtue; for the wicked, it inflicts torment proportional to their sins, purging impurities before ultimate . This universal judgment builds on the individual postmortem evaluation at the , where souls are preliminarily assessed, but the final reckoning ensures no eternal damnation, as all are eventually reconciled in the renewed creation. Later Pahlavi texts like the elaborate this as a transformative process leading to eternal bliss. Post-judgment, the world undergoes Frashokereti's full renewal: mountains are leveled, valleys filled, and humanity achieves perpetual youth—adults appearing at age 40 and children at 15—with the sun standing still for 30 days to illuminate the victory of light. Evil is annihilated, and the entire cosmos unites in harmony with , marking the end of the 12,000-year cycle of creation. This optimistic underscores Zoroastrianism's dualistic worldview, where serves renewal rather than retribution.

Influence on Abrahamic Religions

The concept of the Last Judgment in , involving a final of the dead, individual judgment of souls at the based on deeds, and the ultimate renovation of the world () where good triumphs over evil, exerted significant influence on the eschatological frameworks of the during periods of Persian cultural and political dominance. This impact is particularly evident following the Achaemenid conquest of in 539 BCE, when Zoroastrian ideas permeated the regions inhabited by , and later spread through Hellenistic and Sassanian interactions. Scholars attribute this transmission to direct contact, such as the Jewish in Persia, where Zoroastrian priests () interacted with Jewish communities, fostering the adoption of structured beliefs. In , pre-exilic texts like those in the show minimal emphasis on personal or a cosmic final judgment, with the afterlife often depicted vaguely as , a shadowy realm for all souls. Post-exilic writings, however, reflect Zoroastrian influences, introducing of the body and a Last Judgment where the righteous awaken to everlasting life and the wicked to contempt. For instance, Daniel 12:2 states, "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt," a concept absent in earlier but aligned with Zoroastrian . Similarly, 65:17 describes the creation of "new heavens and a new earth," paralleling the Zoroastrian . These developments occurred during Persian rule (538–331 BCE), as noted by historian Mary Boyce, who highlights the refinement of Jewish angelology (e.g., ) and demonology (e.g., figures like Aeshma ) from Zoroastrian models. further elaborates on a final , drawing implicitly from these Persian encounters. Christianity inherited and amplified these Jewish eschatological elements, which had been shaped by Zoroastrianism, integrating them into New Testament teachings on the Last Judgment. The Gospels and Epistles describe a final resurrection and judgment by Christ, with the righteous entering eternal life and the unrighteous facing punishment, echoing Zoroastrian dualism of light versus darkness and the adversary figure of Angra Mainyu, reimagined as Satan. For example, Revelation 20:12–13 portrays books being opened for judgment based on deeds, akin to the Zoroastrian weighing of souls, while the temptations of Jesus in Matthew 4:1–11 parallel Zoroastrian ethical trials. Early Christian interactions with Mithraism, a Zoroastrian-derived cult popular in the Roman Empire, reinforced these ideas, including baptismal rites and a solar savior figure influencing depictions of Christ. Scholar R.C. Zaehner argues that Zoroastrian virgin birth prophecies for the Saoshyant (world savior) contributed to messianic expectations in Christianity. Additionally, Manichaeism, founded by Mani in the 3rd century CE and blending Zoroastrian dualism with Christian elements, perpetuated these eschatological motifs in gnostic traditions. In , Zoroastrian influences on the Last Judgment arrived indirectly through Jewish and Christian intermediaries but were directly reinforced during the Sassanian era and early Islamic expansions into Persia. The 's descriptions of the Day of Resurrection (Yawm al-Qiyamah) include a universal judgment where souls cross a razor-sharp bridge (as-Sirat, analogous to the ) and deeds are weighed on scales, determining entry to paradise or —concepts with clear Zoroastrian parallels. Quran 22:17 and 18:60–101 outline and accountability, while the idea of as a place of temporary purification before final bliss mirrors Zoroastrian molten metal ordeals for the wicked. The eschatological savior figure, , echoes the Zoroastrian , and the three ages of cosmic history (triumph of light over darkness) influenced Islamic apocalyptic narratives. Louis H. Gray's analysis in "Zoroastrian Elements in Muhammedan " traces these to Pahlavi texts encountered by early Muslims, including Salman al-Farsi, a former Zoroastrian who advised Prophet Muhammad. Ignaz Goldziher further documents how Parsism shaped Islamic views on ethical judgment and end times.

In Judaism

Scriptural References

In the , or Tanakh, the concept of a final or last is not articulated as a single, comprehensive event like in later Christian or Islamic traditions, but it emerges through prophetic visions of eschatological reckoning, often termed the "Day of the Lord" (Yom YHWH), where God intervenes in history to judge nations, vindicate the righteous, and establish justice. These references emphasize divine sovereignty, retribution against wickedness, and restoration for , with judgment portrayed as both cosmic and moral. A central motif is the "Day of the Lord," depicted as a time of darkness, wrath, and upheaval for the unrighteous. In Amos 5:18-20, the prophet warns that this day will bring no light but gloom and distress, underscoring its punitive nature even for those who eagerly await it. Similarly, Isaiah 13:6 and 9 describe it as a "day of the Lord" involving destruction from the Almighty, a "cruel day" of vengeance against Babylon as a symbol of oppressive powers. Zephaniah 1:14-18 intensifies this imagery, portraying the great day as near, with a cry of alarm, where the whole earth is consumed by God's indignation and the fire of His jealousy. These passages frame the judgment as universal, affecting all peoples, yet often with a focus on Israel's enemies. The judgment of nations is another key theme, where God assembles the world for trial in a final confrontation. Joel 4:2 (3:2 in some translations) envisions God gathering all nations into the Valley of to judge them for scattering among the peoples and dividing the land. Jeremiah 25:31 prophesies a noise reaching the ends of the earth, as the pleads with the nations, entering judgment against them for their wickedness. Isaiah 66:16 adds that by fire and sword, God will execute judgment on all , with many slain as a result. Psalms 96:13 and 98:9 echo this, calling the earth to rejoice as the comes to judge the world with righteousness and the peoples with equity. Resurrection emerges as a pivotal element tied to final , ensuring that the dead receive their due reward or punishment, addressing the problem of deferred . The clearest appears in Daniel 12:2: "And many of those who sleep in the dust of the shall awake, some to everlasting life, others to everlasting reproach and contempt." This verse, set in the of end-time tribulation (Daniel 12:1), implies a discriminating for , where the wise shine like stars while others face contempt. 26:19 complements this with a poetic call: "Your dead shall live; their bodies shall rise," linked to God's on the and the wicked's downfall. Earlier foundations for include Genesis 18:25, where Abraham affirms God as the " of all the " who will do , a principle extending to eschatological scales. Other prophets reinforce these ideas, such as 4:1 (3:19), warning that the day comes burning like an oven, consuming the arrogant and evildoers like stubble, while the righteous are spared. Deuteronomy 32:41 depicts God whetting His sword for vengeance on adversaries, and 30:18 portrays waiting on God for merciful . Collectively, these Tanakh references portray the last as God's ultimate act of , balancing and retribution in the .

Rabbinic and Medieval Views

In , the concept of the Last Judgment, often termed Yom ha-Din or the Great Day of Judgment, is envisioned as an event at the end of days, involving the of the dead (teḥiyat ha-metim) and divine of all humanity based on deeds. This judgment is tied to the messianic era and (olam ha-ba), where the righteous receive eternal reward and the wicked face punishment in , a temporary realm of purification lasting up to twelve months. The Babylonian in 90a affirms belief in as essential to the , with God as the ultimate who weighs actions impartially, as depicted in vivid aggadic narratives such as 2a–3b, where nations plead their cases before the divine , highlighting themes of fairness and Israel's unique covenantal role. However, rabbinic exhibits notable ambiguity and self-criticism; texts suggest collective accountability and the potential for all to face , serving as rhetorical tools for ethical reflection rather than dogmatic certainty. While the annual observance functions as a personal day of judgment for the coming year—evident in Rosh Hashanah 16a-b, where individuals are inscribed in the based on and merit, with books opened for the righteous, wicked, and intermediate, the latter judged by their actions alone—rabbinic sources distinguish this from the final, cosmic judgment following . In Pesahim 54a, discussions of underscore its role in purification. Eschatological narratives often blend mythological elements, such as the slaying of in Bava Batra 74b–75a, symbolizing the banquet for the righteous post-judgment, yet rabbis avoid precise timelines, emphasizing deferred hope to encourage present observance of mitzvot. This complexity reflects rabbinic avoidance of apocalyptic speculation, prioritizing moral urgency over detailed prophecy. Medieval Jewish thought on the Last Judgment built upon rabbinic foundations but diversified through philosophical, mystical, and regional influences, particularly in and . Philosophers like (1138–1204) in his (Laws of Repentance 8:2) subordinated bodily to intellectual immortality in , viewing the Last Judgment as a validation of rational s' adherence to , with serving as a miraculous prelude rather than the ultimate reward. In contrast, kabbalistic traditions, as in the (13th century), elaborated a multi-tiered structure (nefesh, ruach, neshamah) judged separately, with the final reuniting body and for eternal bliss or torment, influenced by earlier midrashim but emphasizing divine mercy through tikkun (rectification). Ashkenazi medieval views, shaped by proximity to Christian eschatology, incorporated novel elements like extended Gehenna as a purgatorial process and anxieties about the dead's unrest, evident in ghost tales from Sefer Ḥasidim (12th–13th centuries), where souls return to atone or warn the living ahead of the final judgment. This influx of Germano-Christian motifs—such as fears of undead spirits—contrasted with Sephardi rationalism but reinforced belief in resurrection as corporeal and collective, as articulated by Naḥmanides (1194–1270) in his commentary on Genesis 3:19, affirming bodily integrity in judgment to counter philosophical immaterialism. Overall, medieval thinkers maintained resurrection's centrality while debating its mechanics, using the Last Judgment to navigate cultural pressures and affirm Jewish distinctiveness.

In Christianity

Biblical Sources

The concept of the Last Judgment in Christian scripture refers to a final divine tribunal at the end of time, where God, through Jesus Christ, evaluates humanity's actions, faith, and allegiance, determining eternal destinies. This theme emerges in both the Old and New Testaments, with roots in prophetic visions of resurrection and accountability. Old Testament passages lay foundational imagery, while New Testament texts, particularly Jesus' teachings and apostolic writings, provide explicit details on the judgment's nature, judge, and criteria. In the , the offers one of the earliest explicit references to a following . Daniel 12:2 states, "Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the will awake: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt," envisioning a dual outcome based on . Similarly, 12:14 affirms universal accountability: "For God will bring every deed into , including every hidden thing, whether it is good or evil." These texts, part of the Hebrew Scriptures adopted by , prefigure a eschatological reckoning without specifying a single event, influencing later Christian interpretations. Joel 3:2 further describes God gathering nations for in the Valley of , emphasizing justice for Israel's oppressors. The Gospels center the Last Judgment on Jesus' return and authority. In Matthew 25:31-46, Jesus depicts himself as the Son of Man on his glorious throne, separating nations like a shepherd divides sheep from goats; the righteous inherit eternal life for aiding the needy, while the unrighteous face eternal punishment for neglect. This parable underscores judgment by works reflecting compassion, tied to treatment of "the least of these." Matthew 12:36-37 adds personal responsibility: "But I tell you that everyone will have to give account on the day of judgment for every empty word they have spoken," highlighting verbal accountability. In John 5:22-29, Jesus claims divine prerogative: "Moreover, the Father judges no one, but has entrusted all judgment to the Son," linking it to resurrection and eternal life or condemnation based on response to his voice. These teachings portray judgment as imminent yet universal, integrated with the Kingdom of God's arrival. Apostolic writings in the Epistles and Acts reinforce the Gospels' framework, emphasizing Christ's role and inevitability. Acts 17:31 declares, "For he has set a day when he will the living and the dead with justice by the man he has appointed," identifying as the appointed , validated by . In 2 Corinthians 5:10, Paul writes, "For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each of us may receive what is due us for the things done while in the body, whether good or bad," applying it to believers and unbelievers alike. Romans 14:10-12 echoes this: "For we will all stand before ’s judgment seat... each of us will give an account of ourselves to ." 9:27 succinctly captures finality: "Just as people are destined to die once, and after that to face ." These passages stress ethical living in light of impending accountability. The culminates biblical with apocalyptic visions of the Last Judgment. Revelation 20:11-15 describes the Great White , where a great white throne appears and earth and heaven flee from its occupant; the dead, great and small, stand before it as books are opened, including the book of life, and the dead are judged according to what they had done as recorded in the books. The sea gives up its dead, and Death and Hades give up their dead, who are judged according to their works; then Death and Hades are thrown into the , along with anyone whose name was not found written in the , this being the second death. :7 calls for worship amid judgment's hour, tying it to creation's Creator. These images synthesize earlier themes into a cosmic finale, influencing and doctrine.

Theological Developments

In early Christianity, the concept of the Last Judgment was less emphasized than the and immediate , with depictions rare in art such as catacomb frescoes, contrasting with its later prominence in medieval . like stressed divine justice as a consequence of human choice, leading to separation from , while viewed it with a sense of eschatological hope amid , blending melancholy and optimism. and shifted focus toward spiritual purification and possibilities of universal , downplaying punitive aspects. By the patristic period, developed the idea further, proposing that some post-death forgiveness could occur before the final judgment, with eternal punishments commencing thereafter, as outlined in . In the medieval era, the Last Judgment became central to , intertwined with the of the body for eternal reward or , influencing theological reflections on and divine justice. systematized these views in his and biblical commentaries, distinguishing the at death (affecting the soul alone) from the general or Last Judgment at the , where Christ, using both divine and human natures, judges all humanity, revealing hidden intentions and assigning bodily rewards or punishments. Aquinas emphasized Christ's judicial authority as derived from his exaltation at the Father's right hand, linking judgment to mercy that delays the Parousia to allow . During the Reformation, theologians like anticipated an imminent Last Judgment tied to the defeat of the (identified with the papacy), viewing it as a sudden event following the of spiritualized bodies, providing eternal verdict based on . , in contrast, portrayed the judgment as a visible return of Christ assessing deeds for consolation of the , with resurrected bodies identical to earthly ones reuniting with souls that had rested in intermediate states. These views, formalized in confessional documents like the , rejected medieval notions of purgatory's role in judgment while affirming a future, universal reckoning without chiliastic expectations. In modern theology, developments diverged toward existential and symbolic interpretations. demythologized the Last Judgment as an outdated myth, reinterpreting it existentially as present decision-making under God's crisis. integrated judgment into Christ's reconciling work, seeing it as God's eternal decision in Jesus rather than a future event punishing individuals. and revived future-oriented eschatology, framing the Last Judgment as a cosmic revelation of hope and justice, transformative for history rather than merely retributive. These shifts reflect broader tensions between literal and in 20th-century thought.

Denominational Perspectives

In , views on the Last Judgment vary across denominations, though all affirm its occurrence as a divine event at Christ's , based on biblical . The teaches that the Last Judgment will follow the resurrection of the dead, where Christ separates the righteous from the wicked, revealing each person's relationship with and the ultimate triumph of divine and over all injustices and death. This judgment manifests the destiny of human works, particularly acts of mercy toward the needy, as described in Matthew 25:31–46, and serves as a call to conversion and in Christ's mercy. Eastern Orthodox theology emphasizes the Final Judgment as a universal event where every person stands before Christ, judged according to their words and deeds, with eternal destiny determined by love for God and neighbor. Drawing from Matthew 25:31–46, the judgment portrays Christ as identifying with humanity, especially the suffering, such that service to others equates to service to Him, leading the righteous to inherit the Kingdom and the unrighteous to face eternal punishment. Orthodox doctrine underscores that this judgment, occurring at the end of the ages with the general resurrection, depends on whether one embraces divine light through faith and mercy, rather than isolated acts. Among Protestant denominations, perspectives align closely with scriptural accounts but diverge in emphasis on , assurance of , and the role of works. In Lutheran theology, the Last Judgment transpires at Christ's visible return, where He separates the righteous and wicked based on the fruits of , not to determine —which is by grace through alone—but to manifest God's glory and . The judgment, supported by passages like 2 Corinthians 5:10 and Matthew 25:31–46, reunites souls with glorified bodies, awarding eternal life to believers and punishment to unbelievers, without a separate evidentiary process. Reformed traditions, as articulated in the , hold that God has appointed a specific day for Christ to the world in , calling all humans and to account for their thoughts, words, and deeds before His . This event reveals God's mercy to the and to the reprobate, with the righteous receiving everlasting life and the wicked eternal condemnation, its unknown timing intended to foster constant watchfulness. Baptist confessions, such as the , affirm Christ's personal and visible return to judge all humanity righteously, accompanied by the of the dead, consigning the unrighteous to hell's eternal while the righteous, in glorified bodies, enter heaven's reward. This view prioritizes personal faith in Christ as the basis for at judgment, echoing evangelical emphases on individual accountability before God.

Artistic Representations

The artistic representations of the Last Judgment in emerged in the early Christian period and evolved through Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic, and styles, serving as a visual exhortation to the faithful on themes of , , , and . These depictions draw primarily from biblical sources such as Matthew 25:31–46, Revelation 20:11–15, and 1 Corinthians 15:52, emphasizing Christ's role as judge separating the elect from the damned. Common iconographic elements include Christ enthroned within a (almond-shaped aura), angels sounding trumpets to raise the dead from their tombs, the by St. Michael, intercession by the Virgin Mary and St. John the Baptist (the Deësis group), and contrasting scenes of and . Early examples date to the 4th–6th centuries, with the Barberini terracotta plaque, dated to the 4th or 5th century and sometimes regarded as one of the first Christian portrayals of the Last Judgment (though this interpretation is debated, with some scholars viewing it as a secular Roman distribution scene), adapts Roman imperial tribunal imagery to show Christ as judge, flanked by the elect on his right and the damned on his left. In Ravenna, the 5th–6th-century mosaics of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo illustrate a more literal interpretation of Matthew 25, with processions of the saved approaching Christ. By the Carolingian era (9th–11th centuries), frescoes like the 11th-century example at St. Michael in Burgfelden, Germany, placed the scene on church east walls, integrating resurrection motifs with heavenly and hellish realms influenced by both Western Ascension iconography and Eastern Syrian manuscripts. Medieval art standardized the Last Judgment on west church walls or portals by the , often in horizontal registers to convey hierarchy and narrative flow. Byzantine influences are evident in the 12th-century mosaic at , , which features trumpeting angels, a river of fire for the damned, and the dead rising in shrouds from tombs, reassembling fragmented bodies to underscore bodily as affirmed by the Fourth of 1215. In Romanesque and Gothic sculpture, French cathedral tympana like those at (12th century) and (c. 1230) depict Christ in a raising his right arm in blessing toward the saved, while realistic hell scenes—such as cauldrons and devouring monsters—emerged to heighten moral urgency. examples, including 13th-century roundels at (c. 1205–1210) and panels in the Glencairn Museum collection, show nude figures emerging from sarcophagi, directed left to heaven or right to hell's maw. Italian frescoes advanced emotional depth: Pietro Cavallini's work in , (1289–1293), and Giotto's in the , (c. 1305), introduce spatial realism and individualized expressions among the rising dead, apostles, and tormented souls. The mosaic by Coppo di (c. 1270) similarly layers registers with prophets, angels, and vivid infernal punishments. In the Renaissance, depictions shifted toward classical anatomy and dynamism, exemplified by Michelangelo's fresco on the Sistine Chapel altar wall (1536–1541), commissioned by Pope Paul III amid the Reformation's theological crises. Over 300 nude or semi-nude figures swirl in contrapposto poses across an unbounded composition: Christ gestures authoritatively at the center, the Virgin Mary beside him, saints like St. Bartholomew displaying flayed skin (a self-portrait allusion), the blessed ascending amid angels, and the damned dragged downward by demons, with Charon and Minos evoking classical underworld motifs at hell's edge. This work's emotional intensity and physicality marked a departure from medieval hierarchy, influencing later Baroque art, though its nudity sparked controversy and partial censorship after the Council of Trent (1564). Manuscripts, such as Lorenzo Monaco's 15th-century illuminations, retained medieval motifs like the soul-weighing but adopted Renaissance perspective. Overall, these representations not only illustrated doctrine but also reinforced ecclesiastical authority, adapting to cultural shifts while preserving core eschatological themes.

In Islam

Quranic Accounts

The Quran extensively depicts the Last Judgment, referred to as Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Day of Resurrection) or Yawm al-Dīn (Day of Recompense), as an inevitable event underscoring divine justice, where every soul will be held accountable for its deeds. This eschatological narrative appears throughout the text, with over 70 mentions of the alone, serving as a foundational pillar of that motivates ethical living. The Hour (al-Sā‘ah) arrives suddenly, marked by cosmic upheaval: the is blown twice—once causing universal death and the second reviving all creation—leading to the collapse of heavens and earth (Quran 69:13–16). The earth itself will convulse, ejecting its burdens and testifying to human actions, as described in Surah Az-Zalzalah: "When the earth is shaken with its [final] earthquake and the earth discharges its burdens and man says, 'What is [wrong] with it?'—that Day, it will report its news" (Quran 99:1–4). Resurrection follows the second trumpet blast, restoring bodies in full detail to affirm , countering skeptics who doubt the reassembly of bones or (Quran 75:3–4). Al-Qiyamah vividly portrays this: "Does man think that We will not assemble his bones? Yes. [We are] Able [even] to proportion his ," emphasizing the certainty of revival despite human denial ( 75:1–6). All beings—humans, , prophets, and even animals—will be gathered (ḥashr) before on a vast plain, where familial bonds dissolve amid overwhelming terror: "On the Day a man will flee from his brother and his mother and his father and his wife and his children" ( 80:34–37). The duration of this gathering feels instantaneous to the resurrected, like "not remaining except an hour of a day" ( 30:55), highlighting the relativity of time in the divine realm. The reckoning (ḥisāb) involves a meticulous of deeds recorded in personal books, presented from the right hand for the righteous or the left/behind the back for the wicked (Quran 69:19–25). Scales (mawāzīn) will weigh actions, where even an atom's weight of good or evil determines fate: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it, and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it" ( 99:7–8). Al-Qari'ah evokes the day's chaos, likening people to scattered moths and mountains to carded wool, with outcomes hinging on the scales: heavy good deeds lead to serene paradisiacal life, while light ones result in abysmal plunges ( 101:1–11). This process ensures no , as states, "Indeed, your Lord is not unjust to [His] servants" ( 41:46). Post-reckoning, souls are directed toward eternal abodes, with paradise (al-Janna) for the faithful and (Jahannam) for disbelievers. Paradise is depicted as gardens of perpetual bliss, with rivers, fruits, and companions, where the righteous dwell in : "Indeed, those who have believed and done righteous deeds—the Most Merciful will appoint for them affection" ( 19:96). , conversely, is a blazing renewing skins for endless torment, reserved for those who rejected truth: "Every time their skins are roasted through, We will replace them with other skins so they may taste the punishment" ( 4:56). While some verses suggest for both (Quran 11:107–108), the overarching theme balances justice with , as proclaims, "Say, 'O My servants who have transgressed against themselves [by sinning], do not despair of the of '" ( 39:53). These accounts, structured in contrasting diptychs throughout the , reinforce (ma‘ād) to as the ultimate purpose of creation.

Prophetic Traditions

In , prophetic traditions, primarily collections, elaborate on the Quranic concept of the Last Judgment, known as Yawm al-Qiyamah or the Day of . These narrations, attributed to the Prophet Muhammad, describe the signs preceding the event, the process, the gathering of humanity, the reckoning of deeds, and the ultimate outcomes of paradise and . Authentic emphasize accountability, divine justice, and the opportunity for , serving as moral exhortations for believers. Numerous hadiths outline the minor and major signs heralding Qiyamah. For instance, the stated that the Hour would not arrive until fight , with stones and trees calling out to reveal hidden enemies, except for the tree. This tradition underscores the eschatological conflicts anticipated before the final . Another narration predicts widespread tribulations, including years of deception where liars are trusted and the trustworthy doubted, signaling moral decay as a precursor to the end times. The itself is vividly depicted in prophetic sayings. The described how, on the Day of Judgment, will fold the heavens like a and seize the , questioning the mighty rulers of the world about their power, rendering all earthly insignificant. Humanity will be gathered on a vast, barren plain—described as white with a reddish hue, smooth like fresh —where distinctions of race, status, or wealth vanish, and all stand equal before divine scrutiny. The sun will draw perilously close, its heat causing sweat to drench according to their deeds, with the righteous shaded while others suffer immensely. During the judgment process, hadiths detail the weighing of deeds and personal accountability. The narrated that will converse directly with each individual, reviewing their life, youth, wealth, knowledge, and prayers, with the first deed judged being (prayer), determining entry to paradise or . A person of apparent worldly success might find their deeds weighing less than a gnat's wing if lacking , while even minor acts of charity could shield one from the . The emphasized , stating he would plead for his , allowing entry to paradise for those with an atom's weight of after initial judgments. These traditions also portray the eternal abodes. Paradise is likened to a loaf of bread from the transformed earth, providing boundless sustenance for the blessed, while hell's torments await the unrepentant, with disbelievers vainly offering their worldly possessions as ransom, only to be rejected. Such narrations, preserved in canonical collections like and Jami' at-Tirmidhi, reinforce the Islamic imperative of righteous living in anticipation of this inevitable reckoning.

Comparative Aspects with

Both Islam and Christianity envision the Last Judgment as a pivotal eschatological event involving the resurrection of the dead, divine reckoning of human deeds, and assignment to eternal reward or punishment. In Christianity, this is depicted in the New Testament as the "day of the Lord," where Christ returns to judge all humanity based on faith and works, leading to eternal life or damnation (Matthew 25:31-46). Similarly, Islamic tradition describes Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Day of Resurrection) in the Qur'an as a universal gathering before Allah, where deeds are weighed and individuals are consigned to paradise (Jannah) or hell (Jahannam) (Qur'an 99:7-8). These shared elements underscore a common Abrahamic emphasis on accountability and divine justice at the end of time. A core similarity lies in the concept of bodily resurrection preceding judgment. , as outlined in 1 Corinthians 15:22, promises a physical rising of the dead at Christ's , enabling all to face judgment (Revelation 20:12-13). Islam affirms this through Qur'anic verses like 75:3-4, which detail the reassembly of bodies for the final accounting. Both traditions reject , viewing resurrection as a singular, irreversible event that aligns with God's and ( 9:27 in Christianity; Qur'an 23:99-100 in Islam). The judgment process also exhibits parallels, with records of deeds serving as evidence. In the , books are opened to evaluate lives, determining separation of the righteous from the wicked (Revelation 20:12). The Qur'an similarly portrays a of deeds handed to individuals—on the right for the blessed, on the left for the damned—ensuring precise accountability (Qur'an 84:7-10). Eternal outcomes reinforce this: as unending bliss for the faithful and as perpetual torment for the unrighteous, reflecting moral order (:46; Qur'an 69:19-25). Differences emerge prominently in the identity of the judge and intercessory roles. attributes ultimate judgment to Jesus Christ, who acts as both redeemer and arbiter (John 12:48; Matthew 25:31). In contrast, reserves judgment solely for , with permitted to intercede on behalf of believers (Qur'an 17:79), emphasizing (divine unity) over any divine . criteria diverge as well: prioritizes in Christ's , with works as evidence (2 Corinthians 5:10), while stresses submission to through the Five Pillars and balanced deeds, without a sacrificial savior (Qur'an 23:101). Descriptions of afterlife realms further highlight variances. Christian heaven centers on spiritual communion with , often symbolized as the free from sorrow (:4). Islamic Jannah, however, vividly details sensual and material rewards like gardens, rivers, and companions, alongside spiritual fulfillment (Qur'an 55:46-78). Hell in Christianity evokes separation from and fiery torment (Matthew 10:28), whereas Islamic Jahannam amplifies physical agonies like boiling water and chains, serving as a deterrent (Qur'an 74:42-48). An additional Islamic feature is barzakh, an intermediate state post-death before (Qur'an 23:100), absent in standard Christian doctrine. These comparative elements reveal intertwined yet distinct theological frameworks, influencing interfaith dialogues on .

In Other Traditions

In

In , eschatological concepts differ markedly from linear notions of a final judgment found in Abrahamic traditions, emphasizing instead an eternal, cyclical view of time known as the kālacakra or , which perpetually alternates between ascending (utsarpini) and descending (avasarpini) phases without beginning or end. This cosmology posits no ultimate or collective reckoning; rather, the "judgment" of s occurs continuously through the inexorable law of karma, a subtle physical substance that binds to the () based on thoughts, words, and deeds, determining its rebirths across realms such as human, divine, hellish, or subhuman. Positive karma elevates the toward higher births conducive to spiritual progress, while negative karma leads to and lower existences, perpetuating the cycle of rebirth (samsara) until all karmic matter is eradicated. The current descending phase, avasarpini, comprises six eras (aras) of progressively declining virtue and lifespan, with humanity now in the fifth era, duṣamā (era of woe), which spans 21,000 years and began shortly after the nirvana of the last Tirthankara, Mahavira, around 527 BCE. In this era, moral decay intensifies—marked by shortened lifespans, environmental degradation, and societal strife—but individual liberation (moksha) is theoretically possible for ascetics who achieve perfect knowledge (kevala-jnana) and destroy all karma, ascending to the liberated realm of siddha-śilā. However, Jain doctrine holds that no further Tirthankaras—enlightened teachers who reestablish the faith—will appear in this sub-era, making spiritual advancement arduous amid widespread ignorance and violence. The sixth and final era of avasarpini, duḥṣamā-duḥṣamā (extremely woeful), lasting another 21,000 years, represents the nadir of cosmic degeneration, characterized by total anarchy, rampant destruction, and the impossibility of moksha due to the utter absence of dharma (right conduct) and conducive conditions for asceticism. Souls continue to accrue karma and suffer rebirths, but no liberation occurs, underscoring karma's role as an impersonal, mechanistic arbiter rather than a divine judge. Following this, the cycle inexorably shifts to utsarpini, the ascending phase, where virtue, lifespan, and happiness gradually renew over immense timescales, eventually allowing Tirthankaras to emerge again and moksha to become attainable in later eras. This renewal without destruction highlights Jainism's optimistic undertone amid cyclical pessimism, where individual karma alone dictates eternal progress or stagnation, independent of any terminal event.

In Yarsanism

In , also known as Ahl-e , eschatological beliefs center on a cyclical understanding of existence, emphasizing (known as dun or ) and the eventual culmination in a final judgment. Souls undergo multiple transmigrations across 1,001 cycles, or doons, each potentially lasting up to 1,000 years, progressing from plant, animal, to forms, and ultimately to union with the divine if purified through ethical living and spiritual devotion. After the 1,001 incarnations, the righteous souls unite with the divine, while the unrighteous face destruction or punishment at the final judgment, reflecting a where personal evolution across lives determines fate. These individual soul cycles intersect with a broader cosmic framework of seven divine manifestations, or epochs, in which incarnates through key figures like ibn Abi Talib and subsequent spiritual leaders, accompanied by seven angelic beings (Haft Tan). The seventh and final cycle is expected to conclude with the advent of an eschatological savior, referred to as the or Lord of the Time (Sāheb-e Zamān), who will usher in the end of the current world order. This manifestation is prophesied to occur in the Yarsan homeland, such as the plains of Shahrazur or Soltaniya, marking the transition to ultimate truth and judgment. The Last Judgment, termed Pardivari or "the bridge crossing," follows this consummation, where souls are evaluated based on their accumulated purity across reincarnations. The righteous, created from or "white earth" (khāk-e safid), cross the bridge to eternal union with the divine, while the impure, formed from "black earth" (khāk-e siāh), face punishment. Unlike linear Abrahamic eschatologies, Yarsan judgment integrates , minimizing mourning for the dead as they are seen as continuing their spiritual journey. Resurrection day (Rūz-e Qiyāmat) is affirmed, aligning with beliefs in a collective renewal, though oral traditions like the sacred kalāms emphasize esoteric interpretation over literal .

Cultural and Secular Interpretations

The Crack of Doom

The term "crack of doom" is an archaic English expression denoting the Day of Judgment in , specifically evoking the resounding blast that signals the of the dead and the final divine reckoning of souls. This draws from biblical descriptions of the end times, where a —often called the "last trump"—heralds God's intervention, as in 1 Corinthians 15:52, which states that the dead will rise "at the last trump: for the shall sound, and the dead shall be raised incorruptible." Similarly, 1 Thessalonians 4:16 describes the Lord descending "with the trump of God," awakening the faithful, while –11 portrays apocalyptic trumpets unleashing judgments upon the earth. The "crack" implies a sharp, thunderous peal, akin to a cosmic rupture, underscoring the cataclysmic finality of the event. The phrase first appears in William Shakespeare's Macbeth (1606), in Act 4, Scene 1, where Macbeth laments the endless line of Banquo's descendants: "What, will the line stretch out to the crack of doom?" Here, it signifies an interminable duration extending to the , reflecting Elizabethan familiarity with the concept as the ultimate endpoint of . This usage popularized the term in English literature and , transforming it into a for inevitable catastrophe or the end of an era, detached from its strictly theological roots. In broader cultural contexts, it evokes secular notions of doom, as seen in 19th-century and where it symbolizes personal or , though always traceable to its origins. In artistic and performative traditions, the "crack of doom" has influenced depictions of , such as in medieval mystery plays where sounds mimicked the divine call during Judgment scenes. Modern interpretations, including literary allusions, maintain this resonance; for instance, it appears in J.R.R. Tolkien's (1954–1955) as the "Crack of Doom," a chasm in Mount Doom alluding to the Shakespearean phrase while evoking destructive finality, though repurposed in a fantasy framework. Overall, the term bridges religious doctrine and cultural , encapsulating the awe-inspiring terror of through its vivid sonic imagery.

Representations in Literature and Music

In medieval European literature, the Last Judgment was a central theme in dramatic cycles such as the , a series of 48 pageants performed by trade guilds in , , from the 14th to 16th centuries, culminating in Play 47, "The Last Judgement," which dramatizes Christ's return, the of the dead, and the separation of the saved from the damned based on biblical accounts from 20. These plays, performed on movable wagons during the Corpus Christi festival, served as public instruction on , emphasizing moral accountability through vivid dialogues among angels, demons, and souls. A seminal literary depiction appears in Dante Alighieri's (completed 1320), particularly in Canto 20 of Paradiso, where the pilgrim beholds a prophetic vision of the Last Judgment: the earth quakes as graves open, the dead rise in transformed bodies, and divine justice weighs souls before the throne of Christ, drawing from scriptural imagery in Daniel 12 and 1 Corinthians 15 to explore themes of and mercy. This episode underscores Dante's synthesis of theology and poetry, portraying judgment not merely as punishment but as cosmic restoration, influencing subsequent Western eschatological narratives. In John Milton's (1667), Book 3 presents the Last Judgment through God's soliloquy to the Son, foretelling the final reckoning where the elect are glorified and the reprobate condemned, reflecting Protestant emphases on and amid the epic's broader exploration of . In music, the Last Judgment motif permeates the ("Day of Wrath"), a 13th-century Latin attributed to , which vividly describes the call summoning souls for judgment, eternal flames, and pleas for ; it forms the core of the Requiem Mass's and has been set by composers across centuries to evoke apocalyptic terror and hope. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's in D minor (1791), left unfinished at his death, intensifies the with dramatic —thundering and choral fury—portraying the wrathful day as both horrifying and redemptive, while Giuseppe Verdi's (1874) amplifies it through operatic scale, with brass fanfares and soloists embodying the trembling of the guilty before the Judge. Berlioz's Grande Messe des Morts, Op. 5 (1837), expands the judgment scene across vast forces, including four brass bands simulating angelic s, to create an immersive sonic depiction of universal resurrection and divine scrutiny. Dedicated oratorios further represent the theme, such as Louis Spohr's Die Letzten Dinge ("The Last Judgment," 1826), a three-part work for soloists, chorus, and orchestra that narrates the end times from —featuring the opening of the seals, the final , and the new heaven and earth—blending Handelian grandeur with Romantic expressivity to moralize on human destiny. These compositions, rooted in liturgical traditions, transformed the Last Judgment from abstract doctrine into emotionally resonant experiences, reinforcing its cultural role in prompting reflection on mortality and ethics.

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