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Soup
Asparagus soup
Main ingredientsLiquid, meat or vegetables
VariationsClear soup, thick soup
  • Cookbook: Soup
  •   Media: Soup
French onion soup

Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot – though it is sometimes served chilled – made by cooking or otherwise combining meat or vegetables with stock, milk, or water. According to The Oxford Companion to Food, soup is the main generic term for liquid savoury dishes; others include broth, bisque, consommé, potage and many more.

The consistency of soups varies from thin to thick: some soups are light and delicate; others are so substantial that they verge on being stews. Although most soups are savoury, sweet soups are familiar in some parts of Europe.

Soups have been made since prehistoric times and have evolved over the centuries. The first soups were made from grains and herbs; later, legumes, other vegetables, meat or fish were added. Originally, sops referred to pieces of bread covered with savoury liquid; gradually the term soup was transferred to the liquid itself. Soups are common to the cuisines of all continents and have been served at banquets as well as in peasant homes. Soups have been the primary source of nourishment for poor people in many places; in times of hardship soup-kitchens have provided sustenance for the hungry.

Some soups are found in recognisably similar forms in the cuisines of many countries and regions – chicken soups and oxtail soups are known round the world. Others remain almost entirely exclusive to their region of origin.

Name

[edit]

The term soup, or words like it, can be found in many languages. Similar terms include the Italian zuppa, the German Suppe, the Danish suppe, the Russian суп (pronounced "soup"), the Spanish sopa and the Polish zupa.[1] According to The Oxford Companion to Food, "soup" is "the most general of the terms which apply to liquid savoury dishes";[1] other terms embraced by soup include broth, bisque, bouillon, consommé, potage and many more.[1][2]

According to the lexicographer John Ayto, "the etymological idea underlying the word soup is that of 'soaking'". In his 2012 The Diner's Dictionary Ayto writes that the word dates back to an unrecorded post-classical Latin verb suppare – "to soak", which was derived from the prehistoric Germanic root "sup–", which also produced the English "sup" and "supper". The term passed into Old French as soupe, meaning a piece of bread soaked in liquid" and, by extension, "broth poured on to bread".[3] The earliest recorded use in English of "sop" in the first sense dates from 1340.[2] The ancient conjunction of bread and soup still exists not only in the croutons often served with soup, and the slice of baguette and Gruyère floating on traditional French onion soup, but also in bread-based soups including the German Schwarzbrotsuppe (black bread soup), the Russian Okroshka and the Italian pappa al pomodoro (tomato pulp).[4] The Dictionnaire de l'Académie française records the term "soupe" in French use from the twelfth century but adds that it is probably earlier.[5] [n 1] The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word in English in the fourteenth century: "Soppen nim wyn & sucre & make me an stronge soupe".[2] The first known cookery book in English, The Forme of Cury, c. 1390, refers to several "broths", but not to soups.[6]

The Oxford Companion to Food (OCF) comments that soups can "stray, over what is necessarily an imprecisely demarcated frontier", into the realm of stews. The Companion adds that this tendency is noticeable among fish soups such as bouillabaisse.[1] The Hungarian goulash is regarded by many as a stew but by others, particularly in Hungary, as a soup (Gulyás).[7] The food writer Harold McGee contrasts soups with sauces in On Food and Cooking, commenting that they can be so similar that soups may only be distinguished as less intensely flavoured, permitting them to be "eaten as a food in themselves, not an accent."[8]

History

[edit]

Prehistory

[edit]

Before the invention of boiling in water, cooking was limited to simple heating and roasting.[9] The making of soup or something akin has been dated by some writers back to the Upper Palaeolithic (between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago).[9] Some archaeologists conjecture that early humans employed hides and watertight baskets to boil liquids.[10] According to a study by the academic Garritt C. Van Dyk, the first soup may have been made by Neanderthals, boiling animal bones and drinking the broth.[10] Archaeological evidence for bone broths has been found in sites from Egypt to China.[10]

Ancient times and later

[edit]

In 1988 the food writer M. F. K. Fisher commented, "It is impossible to think of any good meal, no matter how plain or elegant, without soup or bread in it. It is almost as hard to find any recorded menu, ancient or modern, without one or both".[11] Methods of making soup evolved from one culture to another. The first soups were made from grains and herbs; later, peas, beans, other vegetables, pasta, meat or fish were added.[12] In her 2010 work Soup: A Global History, Janet Clarkson writes that the ancient Romans had a great variety of soups. De re coquinaria (On the Subject of Cooking), a collection of Roman recipes compiled in the fourth or fifth century from earlier manuscripts gives details of numerous ingredients, mostly vegetable.[13]

Open-air soup cooking, by Bartolomeo Scappi, 1570

In European and Arab cuisines soups continued to feature after the fall of the Roman Empire. Clarkson writes that the earliest known German cookery book, the Buch von guter Spise (Book of Good Food) published in about 1345, includes recipes for many soups, including one made with beer and caraway seeds, another with leeks, almond milk and rice meal, others with carrots and almond milk or goose cooked in broth with garlic and saffron. The early fifteenth-century French book Du fait de cuisine (From the Kitchen) has many recipes for potages and "sops" including several regional variants.[14]

During the seventeenth century the soup itself, rather than the "sops" it contained, became seen as the most important element of the dish.[15] One of the most famous cookery books of its time was Robert May's The Accomplisht Cook (1660). Clarkson comments that about a fifth of May's recipes are for soups of one kind or another.[16]

The Huangdi Neijing, a Chinese medicinal text, describes the preparation of soups and clear liquids by steaming rice, and recommends soups as medicine.[17]

In the eighteenth century, meals at grand European tables were still served in the style that had persisted since the Middle Ages, with successive courses of three or four dishes placed on the table simultaneously and then replaced by three or more contrasting dishes.[18] Soup was typically part of the first course. Exceptionally, at particularly grand dinners, a first course might consist of four different soups, succeeded by four dishes of fish and then four of meat.[n 2] In the early nineteenth century a new style of dining became fashionable in Europe and elsewhere: service à la russe – Russian-style service: dishes were served one at a time, usually beginning with soup.[18]

Soup for the poor

[edit]
Interior of temporary building with large boiler in them middle and stores and serving stations at each side. The space is full of the great and good in smart clothes for the official opening ceremony
Soup-kitchen in Dublin, 1847

In the OCF Alan Davidson writes that although soup is now typically served as the first of several courses in western menus, in many places around the world substantial soups have historically been an entire meal for poorer people, particularly in rural areas.[1] Many Russian peasants subsisted on rye bread and soup made from pickled cabbage.[20]

Charitable soup-kitchens preparing soup and supplying it to the needy, either free or at a very low charge,[21] were known in the Middle East in the sixteenth century.[22] From the late eighteenth century, soup-kitchens (in German Suppenküche, in French, soupes populaires) were set up in Germany, France, England and elsewhere.[23] In the 1840s the chef Alexis Soyer established a soup-kitchen in the East End of London to feed Huguenot silk weavers impoverished by cheap imports.[24] During the Irish famine, which began in 1845, he set up a kitchen in Dublin capable of feeding a thousand people an hour.[25]

In the United States soup-kitchens were set up in the 1870s. During the Great Depression, Al Capone established and sponsored a soup-kitchen in Chicago.[26] In the same period the Salvation Army ran similar operations elsewhere in the US and in Canada, Australia and Britain.[27]

Regional cuisines

[edit]

Asia

[edit]
See also: Soups in East Asian culture
alt= a bowl of light-brown-coloured soup with numerous strands of orange-coloured flesh
Chinese shark fin soup
a bowl of brightly coloured soup with vegetables and meat in it
Vietnamese pho

In Asian countries soup became a familiar breakfast dish, but has not, according to Clarkson, done so in the west.[28][n 3] In China and Japan, soup came to have a different place in meals. As in the west, there was a distinction between thick and thin soups, but the latter would often be treated as a beverage, to be drunk from the bowl rather than eaten with a spoon.[30] In Japan miso soup became the best known of the thick type, with many variations on the basic theme of dashi, a stock made from kombu (edible seaweed) and dried fermented tuna, with miso (fermented soy bean) paste. Clarkson writes, "Miso soup is the traditional breakfast soup in the ordinary home, and the traditional end to a formal banquet".[30] Ramen, a noodle soup, popular in Japan and latterly internationally, is documented only from the second half of the nineteenth century.[31]

In China, soups wholly unknown in the west were developed, including bird's nest and shark's fin soups.[32] Snake soup continues to be an iconic tradition in Cantonese culture, and that of Hong Kong.[33] In China, rat soup is considered the equal of oxtail soup.[34]

Indian cuisine includes rasam (sometimes called pepper-water), a thin, spicy soup, typically made with lentils, tomatoes, and seasonings including tamarind, pepper, and chillies.[35] In Thai cuisine gaeng chud are soups: the most popular are tom yum kung made with prawns and tom khaa gai made from galangal, chicken and coconut milk.[36] Pho is a Vietnamese soup, usually made from beef stock and spices with noodles and thinly sliced beef or chicken added.[37] In Filipino cookery sinigang is a soup made with meat, shrimp, or fish and flavoured with a sour ingredient such as tamarind or guava;[38] also from the Philippines is caldereta, a goat soup.[39] The soups of Indonesia include soto ayam (chicken), sop udang (shrimp with rice vermicelli) and sop kepiting (crab).[40] Garudhiya is a soup served in the Maldives, with chunks of tuna in it.[41]

Two soups from Armenia are a cucumber and yoghurt soup called jajik, and bozbash, containing lamb and fruit;[42] dyushbara is a dumpling soup from Azerbaijan;[43] Tibetan cooking includes tsamsuk, made from grains, butter, soya and cheese.[44] An Iranian summer soup, mast-o khiar, is made with yoghurt, cucumber, and mint.[45] Turkish kelle-paça is made from the meat from animal heads and feet.[46] Tarhana, one of the oldest traditional Turkish soups, is made by mixing and fermenting yoghurt, cereal flours and a variety of cooked vegetables, producing a soup with a sour and acidic tang and a yeasty flavour.[47] Also from Turkey is Yayla çorbasi, a yoghurt soup with rice or barley. Like chicken soup it has curative properties ascribed to it by some.[48]

Europe

[edit]

From the sixteenth century onwards, Paris was known for its street vendors selling soup,[n 4] and in mid-nineteenth-century Paris, Les Halles, the large central food market, became known for its stalls selling onion soup with a substantial topping of grated cheese, put under a grill and served au gratin.[50][51] This gratinée des Halles transcended class distinctions, becoming the breakfast of the forts des Halles – the workers responsible for transporting the goods – and a restorative for the party people leaving the cabarets of Paris late at night.[52]

a bowl of brown coloured soup with egg white flecks
Italian stracciatella
a bowl of green coloured soup with light-coloured vegetables
Portuguese caldo verde

The many cuisines of Europe have a wide range of soups. Among the soups of Italy are minestrone, zuppa pavese and straciatella, respectively a vegetable broth, consommé with poached eggs, and a meat broth with eggs and cheese.[53] From Belgium there are potage liégeois – a pea and bean soup – and soupe tchantches, a vegetable soup with fine vermicelli and milk.[54] Bulgarian cuisine includes tarator, a cold yoghurt and cucumber soup.[55] Dutch soups include erwtensoep – a split pea soup – and bruinebonensoep, a brown bean soup eaten with rye bread and bacon.[56] A soup from the Faeroe Islands is raskjøt, made with dried mutton.[57] Erbensuppe mit Schweinsohren, is a German split pea soup with pig's ear.[58] Zivju supa, a Latvian fish soup incorporates whole pieces of cooked fish with potato;[59] The Finnish kesäkeitto is a light summer soup of seasonal vegetables cooked in milk and water;[60] the Swedish köttsoppa is a meat and vegetable soup;[61] the Norwegian blomkålspuré is cauliflower soup with egg yolks and cream.[60] Gehäck, from Luxembourg, is made with pork offal, and finished with prunes soaked in local white wine.[62]

Maltese soups include soppa tal-armla ("widow's soup"), made with green and white vegetables and garnished with a poached egg and cheese, and aljotta a light fish soup flavoured with garlic and marjoram.[63] Two soups from Poland are chlodnik, a crayfish and beetroot soup, served chilled[64] and grochowka, yellow-pea soup with barley.[65] Portuguese soups include canja (chicken) and caldo verde (potato and cabbage).[66] Cullen skink (smoked haddock soup)[67] and nettle soup[68] are of Scottish origin. A Welsh soup, cawl, is typically made with lamb or beef together with vegetables including potatoes, swedes and carrots.[69] Slovenian cuisine includes juha, a meat and vegetable soup.[70] Russian soups include schi (cabbage soup), solyanka (vegetable soup with meat or fish), rassolnik (pickled cucumber soup), and ukha (fish soup).[71]

Africa

[edit]
See also: List of soups
A bowl of light-coloured soup with meat, chickpeas and noodles
Moroccan harira

Arab shorba typically contains meat and oats;[72] Egyptian food includes melokhia, a soup of jute leaves and meat.[73] The Moroccan harira contains chickpeas, meat and rice.[74] In Nigeria, according to Davidson, "soupy stews or stewlike soups" are popular. He gives as examples egusi soup, often made with offal, palm oil, carob, lemon basil, and egusi powder, and various okra soups. He adds that in Nigeria soup made from goat is "so important that it is usually served at the most important functions".[75] In A Safari of African Cooking (1971) Bill Odarty also highlights goat soup from Liberia.[76] Other Nigerian soups include the spinach-based soup Efo.[77] A study in 2025 reported that despite their nutritional richness and cultural importance, traditional soups were declining in popularity, particularly among younger generations and in urban areas.[78]

Soups from other parts of Africa include Cheruba – a lamb and vegetable soup with lima beans or chickpeas – from north Africa;[79] a West African speciality is groundnut soup.[80] Abenkwan, from West Africa, is a soup of crab meat, pulped palm nuts and lamb.[81][82] East African cuisine includes bean soup with tomato, onion, pepper and curry powder.[83] Supuya papai, from Tanzania, is a cream soup containing papaya and onion.[84] A Congolese green papaya soup is made with bacon fat, chicken broth, milk and red pepper.[85] South African soups include curried snoek head soup.[86] A 2014 study records a Ghanaian saying, "I haven’t eaten if I don't have my soup and fufu" (a dough of pounded cocoyam or cassava).[87] The soup is typically based on okra.[88]

The Americas and Australasia

[edit]
brownish soup with unidentified bits of meat in it
Honduran mondongo

Soups from the Americas include a spiny lobster soup from Belize,[89] Cajun crayfish bisque,[90] and gumbo, a hearty soup (or stew) traditionally made from meat or shellfish with tomatoes, vegetables, herbs, and spices, thickened with okra.[91] In the Caribbean and Latin America sancocho is a thick soup typically consisting of meat, tubers, and other vegetables.[92] Callalloo soups are found in the West Indies and Brazil.[93]

A Brazilian favourite is Moqueca de camarão, a broth of tomato and coconut with shrimps: one food writer comments "locals eat steaming bowls on even the hottest days".[48] Ajiaco Santaferenio is a Colombian avocado soup),[94] and Mexico has a black bean soup.[95] Chupe de camarones, a Peruvian soup, is a chowder of shrimp and chilli pepper and is reputedly an aphrodisiac.[48] Honduras, the US and Mexico all have a tripe soup, respectively mondongo, pepper pot soup, and menudo.[48][96] The Mexican sopa de alb digas is a meatball soup.[97]

Soups from the US include the clam chowder of New England, which has entered the international culinary repertoire,[98] an American regional favourite, Maryland crab soup,[99] and cream of corn soup, which became popular in California during the 1980s.[100]

Australasian soups include two from New Zealand: toheroa (clam) and kumara (sweet potato and chilli).[101] Davidson remarks favourably on the Australian wallabi-tail soup.[102]

Classification

[edit]

In the western cuisine of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries there have been and are numerous soups. Auguste Escoffier divided them into two main types:

  • Clear soups, which include plain and garnished consommés
  • Thick soups, which comprise the purées, veloutés, and creams

He added, "A third class, which is independent of either of the above, in that it forms part of plain, household cookery, embraces vegetable soups and garbures or gratinéd soups. But in important dinners – by this I mean rich dinners – only the first two classes are recognised".[103]

plate of brightly multi-coloured vegetable soup, with pasta
Minestrone

Louis Saulnier's Le Répertoire de la cuisine, first published in 1914, contains six pages of details of potages (clear soups), two pages on soupes (moistened with water, milk or thin white stock), eight pages on veloutés (soups thickened with egg yolks) and crèmes (thickened with double cream),[104] as well as a further three pages on fifty-three "Potages étrangers" – foreign soups – including borscht from the Russian Empire, clam chowder from the United States, cock-a-leekie from Scotland, minestrone from Italy, mock turtle from England, and mulligatawny from British India.[105]

The French distinction between clear and thick soups is echoed in other languages: in German Klare Suppen and Gebundene Suppen; in Italian Brodi and Zuppe; and in Spanish Sopas claras and Sopas spessas.[106] Many soups are fundamentally the same in the cuisines of various countries, with minor local variations. Oxtail soup, a familiar item in British and American cooking, is one of several oxtail soups from round the world, including one from Sichuan, others from Austria (Ochsenschleppsuppe), Jamaica, South Africa and France (potage bergére – oxtail consommé thickened with tapioca, garnished with asparagus and diced mushrooms).[107] Chicken soups have been common to numerous cuisines since ancient times: they featured in east Asian cooking more than 5,000 years ago,[108] and were considered therapeutic in pharaonic Egypt, the Roman empire, Persia and biblical Israel.[109][n 5] Modern variants are found from Japan (tori no suimono)[111] to Portugal (canja),[112] Colombia (ajiaco)[113] and France (consommé de volaille).[114]

Elizabeth David comments in French Provincial Cooking (1960), "No doubt because the tin and the package have become so universal, people are astonished by the true flavours of a well-balanced home-made soup and demand more helpings if only to make sure that their noses and palates are not deceiving them".[115] In their Mastering the Art of French Cooking (1961), Simone Beck, Louisette Bertholle and Julia Child write:

a good home-made soup in these days of the tin opener is almost a unique and always a satisfying experience. Most soups are uncomplicated to make, and the major portion of them can be prepared several hours before serving.[116]

Cold soups

[edit]
bowl of brightly coloured vegetable soup
Gazpacho
See also: List of cold soups

Cold soups are a particular variation on the traditional soup. Two well-known chilled soups are the Franco-American vichyssoise and the Spanish gazpacho. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the former as "A soup made with potatoes, leeks, and cream, usually served chilled", and the latter as "A cold Spanish vegetable soup consisting of onions, cucumbers, pimentos, etc., chopped very small with bread and put into a bowl of oil, vinegar, and water".[117]

Sweet soups

[edit]

Many ancient cuisines developed versions of fruit soup: either fruits were added to a grain-based pottage or the soup consisted mostly of fruit flavoured with various spices.[12] The soups were made from whatever fruit was ready for harvest locally or from dried fruit.[12] Fruit soups remain well known in Germany and Nordic countries: although they may sometimes be served at the beginning of a meal they are sweet dishes. Davidson instances rødgrød, also known as rote Grütze, a red berry soup popular in Denmark, other parts of Scandinavia and Germany, sitruunakeitto, a creamy lemon soup from Finland, and the Middle Eastern khoshab, made with dried fruits.[118] Other fruits used to make sweet soups include apples, blueberries, cherries, gooseberries, rhubarb and rose-hips.[118]

Sour soups

[edit]

Davidson mentions a category, "sour soups", important in northern, eastern and central Europe. Some have a fermented beer base or use Sauerkraut, others are soured with vinegar, pickled beetroot, lemon or yoghurt. Examples include sinisang (above), chorba, a meat and vegetable soup found in many countries of eastern Europe, north Africa and Asia,[119] and sop ikan pedas, a fish soup from Indonesia.[120] Żurek, from Poland, is a sour bread soup based not on meat or vegetable stock but on fermented cereal such as rye. According to a Polish cookery book, "it is always sour, salty, and creamy at the same time".[121]

Portable, tinned and dried soups

[edit]
Advertisement for Campbell's soup, c. 1913

Food preservation has, in Clarkson's phrase, "always been a preoccupation of the human animal",[122] allowing food to be kept for long periods. In her Domestic Cookery (1806), Maria Rundell gave a recipe for "Portable Soup – a very useful thing"[123] – highly concentrated meat stock that set to a solid consistency: for a bowl of soup it was only necessary to dissolve some in hot water.[124] By the beginning of the nineteenth century the Royal Navy had been victualling its ships with portable soup for some years.[125] Recipes were published under many names; Clarkson lists "veal glew", "cake soup", "cake gravey", "broth cakes", "solid soop", "portmanteau pottage", "pocket soup", "carry soup and "soop always in readiness".[126]

In 1810 Peter Durand, an English inventor, was granted a patent for the first tin can for soup. The first commercial canning factory opened in England in 1813; it had a capacity of only six cans an hour; each can was cut by hand, filled and the lid soldered on individually.[127] With advances in technology the canning of food had expanded by the end of the century and companies such as Heinz were promoting their soups as gourmet products indistinguishable from home-made versions.[128] Canning made soup readily available, easily transportable, long-lasting and convenient.[129] In 1897 Heinz's rival Campbell's introduced condensed canned soups, to be diluted with water to produce double the volume.[n 6] According to the food historian Reay Tannahill, tomato soup was not popular in the US or Britain until Campbell's began marketing it.[131]

Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food, and in the nineteenth century Soyer praised commercially dried vegetables as a good ingredient of soldiers' soup during the Crimean War.[132] Dried soups remained in military use into the 1950s, but it was not until the mid-twentieth century that manufacturers began extensively marketing them for domestic use. The Good Nutrition Guide (2008) commented, "Although many types of processed soup have been criticised for their salt levels, packet soups are by far the worst".[133] Subsequently, some manufacturers have experimented with reduced-salt packet soups. A trial in France in 2012 found that reducing salt in chicken noodle soup by more than thirty per cent did not affect consumers' liking for the product.[134]

drawing of a creature with the body and front flippers of a turtle and the head and feet of a cow
The Mock Turtle in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

Literature, screen and stage

[edit]

Soups and sops are frequently encountered in literature. In the King James Bible, Jesus identifies his forthcoming betrayer: "'He it is, to whom I shall give a sop, when I have dipped it'. And when he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas."[n 7] Stone Soup, an old folk tale, tells of soup produced by travellers who have no food and promise to feed the inhabitants of a village who contribute what they have to a cauldron which at first contains only a stone but is quickly added to by the villagers, making a tasty soup for everyone.[136]

The figurative use of "milksop" – literally bread dipped in milk – to mean a feeble, timid or ineffectual person is found in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales and Shakespeare's Richard III.[137] In Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, Mr Bingley is kept waiting to announce his forthcoming ball until his cook has made enough white soup, a soup containing veal stock and almonds, much favoured for dances at the time.[138] One of Lewis Carroll's best-known characters, the Mock Turtle, who owes his name to the eponymous soup,[139] sings a song that begins "Beautiful Soup, so rich and green/ Waiting in a hot tureen!"[140] In Isak Dinesen's 1958 story "Babette's Feast", turtle soup is the first course of a magnificent dinner.[141]

Soup is frequently mentioned in films and on television. Though the foodstuff plays no part in the action, Duck Soup is used as the title of a 1927 film by Laurel and Hardy[142] and a 1933 film by the Marx Brothers.[143][n 8] In Alfred Hitchcock's 1972 film Frenzy, Mrs Oxford serves her nonplussed husband a soup containing "smelts, ling, conger eel, John Dory, pilchards and frogfish".[145] In the 1990s a character dubbed "the Soup Nazi" appeared in Seinfeld, an American television comedy series: his magnificent soup-making was offset by his bullying manner.[146] Tortilla Soup is a 2001 film comedy about a retired restaurateur and his family's love of food.[147]

In the theatre, Chicken Soup with Barley is the title of a 1956 stage play by Arnold Wesker.[n 9] A later stage play was the comedy There's a Girl in My Soup, in which, again, the actual soup is purely nominal; it ran in the West End for 2,547 performances between 1966 and 1969.[149]

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Notes, references and sources

[edit]

See also

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soups.
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Soup

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Soup is a flavorful, primarily liquid food prepared by simmering ingredients such as meat, vegetables, legumes, or grains in water, stock, or another liquid medium to extract and combine tastes, often resulting in a nutritious and easily digestible dish served warm or hot.
Archaeological evidence suggests soup's origins trace to prehistoric humans, possibly Neanderthals boiling animal bones for nutrient extraction as early as 20,000 BC, marking it as one of the oldest prepared foods tied to the advent of cooking liquids over fire.
Classified broadly into clear broth-based varieties and thick emulsions incorporating starches or dairy, soups adapt to diverse ingredients and techniques, reflecting efficient resource use in cooking while empirical research links their consumption to lower meal energy intake, enhanced satiety, and greater fiber and protein absorption compared to solid equivalents.

Definition and Fundamentals

Etymology and Terminology

The word soup entered English in the late from soupe, denoting broth or a piece of bread soaked in it, which itself derived from suppa ("soaked bread" or liquid food absorbed by ). This root traces further to a Proto-Germanic stem sup-, meaning "to sip" or "to soak," shared with terms like "," "sup," and "," emphasizing the act of absorbing liquid into solids as a foundational preparation method. The concept aligns with post-classical Latin suppāre ("to soak"), underscoring soup's historical identity as a simple, liquid-infused sustenance rather than a standalone dish. Culinary terminology distinguishes soup as a dish where liquid predominates, often resulting from simmering ingredients to extract flavors into a broth or stock base, with solids either strained or suspended for consumption. This contrasts with stew, which employs less liquid that barely covers chunkier ingredients, subjecting them to prolonged, low-heat cooking to tenderize solids while thickening the medium through reduction or starch release, yielding a heartier, semi-solid consistency served from the cooking vessel. Broth refers specifically to a clear, seasoned liquid extracted by gently simmering meat, bones, or vegetables, functioning as a finished, flavorful soup variant or base, whereas stock denotes an unseasoned, concentrated broth simmered longer from bones and aromatics, primarily for building other dishes. These distinctions arose from practical cooking evolutions, with soups prioritizing liquid extraction and versatility, as evidenced in historical recipes prioritizing infusion over structural integrity of solids.

Composition and Basic Characteristics

Soup consists primarily of a liquid medium in which solid ingredients are simmered to extract flavors, nutrients, and aromas through heat-induced solubilization of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and other compounds. The core composition includes a base such as , (derived from simmering bones, , or ), or , which constitutes the majority of the volume and serves as the vehicle for dissolved essences. Solid components typically encompass proteins from meats, , , or ; carbohydrates from , grains, or starches; and fats from animal sources or added oils, with seasonings like herbs, spices, and aromatics (e.g., onions, celery, carrots in ) enhancing and balance. In clear soups, the composition emphasizes unemulsified broths or stocks strained to remove particulates, preserving transparency while concentrating from breakdown in bones, which imparts body without opacity. Thick soups, by contrast, incorporate thickeners such as pureed starchy vegetables (e.g., potatoes or ), (flour-fat mixtures), , or dairy products like , which bind particles and increase through or emulsification. These elements result in a of textures from brothy lightness to velvety smoothness, with nutritional profiles varying by ingredients—e.g., vegetable-based soups providing and vitamins, while meat-inclusive variants adding bioavailable proteins and minerals. Basic characteristics of soup include its extractive preparation method, where prolonged (typically 1-4 hours depending on ingredients) facilitates Maillard reactions for depth and for tenderness, yielding a cohesive flavor profile distinct from mere mixtures. Soups are predominantly served hot to optimize aroma volatilization and sensory perception, though cold variants (e.g., ) rely on raw or chilled extraction for freshness, with overall liquid content exceeding 70-90% by volume to maintain pourability. Garnishes, such as diced or herbs added post-cooking, preserve textural contrast without overcooking, ensuring the final product balances homogeneity with identifiable elements.

Historical Development

Prehistoric and Ancient Origins

The practice of boiling ingredients to create soup-like preparations predates pottery, relying on stone-boiling techniques where heated rocks were dropped into water-filled containers made from animal hides, bark, or wooden vessels to cook food without direct fire contact. This method, evidenced by archaeological patterns of fire-cracked rocks and food residues in Paleolithic sites, likely produced early broths or stews from meat, bones, and plants as early as the Middle Paleolithic. Recent analysis of faunal remains from a 125,000-year-old Neanderthal site in Germany indicates systematic smashing of bones to access marrow, followed by inferred boiling to render and skim fat for caloric enrichment during lean periods, marking one of the earliest documented instances of nutrient extraction akin to broth-making. The invention of ceramic around 20,000 years before present in revolutionized by providing durable, heat-resistant vessels capable of sustaining prolonged simmering. Fragments from Xianrendong Cave in Province, China, dated to approximately 18,000–20,000 BP, bear scorch marks and residues suggestive of cooking or other proteins in , representing the earliest direct evidence of pottery used for soup preparation. Micromorphological studies of these contexts confirm repeated heating events consistent with starchy , seeds, or aquatic resources, enabling more efficient extraction of nutrients from otherwise indigestible materials. In ancient civilizations, soup evolved into a staple with documented recipes and residues. In , tablets from around 1750 BCE describe barley-based stews with leeks, onions, and meat simmered in broths, reflecting everyday and elite consumption patterns inferred from excavated cooking vessels. Egyptian archaeological sites yield evidence of bone broths dating to circa 6000 BCE, often incorporating or fish, as indicated by lipid residues in pottery, though textual records emphasize medicinal porridges over elaborate soups. In , by the (circa 400 BCE), sealed bronze vessels preserved meat and bone soups, such as a 2,400-year-old example unearthed near containing gelatinous remains of mutton or goat, demonstrating advanced preservation and flavoring techniques with herbs and spices. These developments underscore soup's role in utilizing available resources for sustenance and health across diverse environments.

Medieval to Early Modern Periods

In medieval Europe, pottages constituted a primary dietary staple, consisting of thick, boiled mixtures of available grains like oats or peas, vegetables such as leeks, cabbage, and onions, and sparse meat or fish additions when possible, simmered in water or rudimentary broths. These dishes served both as sustenance and preservation method for perishable ingredients amid agrarian economies prone to scarcity, with daily consumption varying by season and class—peasants relying on simple vegetable-heavy versions while nobility enhanced theirs with imported spices. The Forme of Cury, an English culinary manuscript compiled circa 1390 under the supervision of King Richard II's cooks, documents over 20 pottage variants, including "Caboches in Potage," which instructs boiling cabbage and onions in broth augmented with saffron, powder douce (a blend of spices like cinnamon and ginger), and optional meat, yielding a colored, aromatic soup served at courtly banquets. Other entries, such as "Iowtes of Almaund Mylke," feature herb-based green soups thickened with ground almonds instead of dairy, accommodating Lenten fasting or dairy scarcity. Monastic traditions further shaped soup preparation, emphasizing vegetable and pulse broths for ascetic diets, as evidenced in surviving herbals and rulebooks like the Regula Sancti Benedicti, which prescribed diluted, nourishing liquids during fasts to sustain laborers without excess. Transitioning into the early modern era (circa 1500–1800), Italian Renaissance cookery elevated soups through refined techniques and documentation, as seen in Bartolomeo Scappi's Opera dell'arte del cucinare (1570), a comprehensive papal cookbook outlining dozens of zuppe—thick or clear preparations using clarified meat stocks, foraged elements like field mushrooms sautéed with butter before simmering, or chickpeas pureed with prosciutto and broth for density. Scappi's recipes introduced layered flavors, such as hop-shoot soups parboiled then enriched with eggs and verjuice for acidity, reflecting access to diverse botanicals and a shift toward gastronomic precision in elite households. Northern European variants persisted, including beer soups favored as breakfast for rulers, prepared by heating ale with egg yolks, cream, mace, butter, and raisins for a spiced, restorative porridge-like dish. Printed cookbooks proliferated post-Gutenberg, disseminating these methods across classes, though socioeconomic divides endured—rural poor continued basic pottages while urban elites experimented with consommé precursors strained for clarity.

Industrial Revolution and Beyond

The facilitated the commercialization of soup through innovations in preservation and distribution. technology emerged in the early , enabling the production of shelf-stable soups for military provisions, westward migrations, and urban households. Dehydrated soups also appeared during this period, supporting chuck wagons and trains. Urban industrialization exacerbated poverty and famine, prompting organized soup relief efforts. In 1847, amid the Irish Potato Famine, French chef established model soup kitchens in , designing efficient systems with large boilers to serve up to 5,000 meals daily to the starving population. Soyer's approach emphasized nutritious, low-cost formulations using available ingredients like Indian meal and rice, influencing responses to destitution in growing industrial cities. Commercial soup production advanced significantly in the late 19th century. The Campbell Soup Company, founded in 1869 in , by and Abraham Anderson as a canning operation for fruits and , pivoted to soups. In 1897, chemist John T. Dorrance invented condensed soup by removing water content, reducing packaging size and costs, which made canned varieties affordable for mass markets and transformed soup from a luxury to a staple. In the , further mechanization and global supply chains expanded soup varieties and accessibility. techniques improved for instant preparations, while branding and advertising, exemplified by Campbell's iconic labels, integrated soup into everyday diets amid rising . These developments prioritized convenience and scalability, with production scaling to meet demands from wartime rations to household pantries.

Preparation Techniques

Stocks, Broths, and Bases

Stocks and broths serve as foundational liquids in soup preparation, extracting flavors, proteins, and minerals from animal tissues and vegetables through prolonged simmering to create a concentrated base that enhances umami and body in finished dishes. Stock specifically derives from bones, cartilage, and connective tissues, yielding a gelatinous liquid due to collagen breakdown after extended cooking, typically 4 to 12 hours depending on the type. Broth, by contrast, emerges from simmering meat or vegetables for shorter durations, often 1 to 3 hours, resulting in a lighter, more aromatic liquid suitable for direct consumption or simpler soups. These distinctions trace to French culinary codification in the 19th century, where stocks were refined as essences for sauces and reductions, building on ancient practices of boiling bones for sustenance. Preparation of stock begins with selecting bones—such as knuckles, carcasses, or fish heads—often roasted for brown stock to develop flavors via at temperatures around 300–400°F (149–204°C) for 30–. The bones are then covered with in a stockpot, brought to a gentle simmer, and augmented with (roughly equal parts onions, carrots, and , comprising about 20% of the total volume) plus aromatics like bay leaves, , stems, and peppercorns. Impurities are skimmed regularly to maintain clarity, and the mixture simmers uncovered to reduce volume by 20–50%, concentrating and extracting and minerals like calcium from bones. White stocks skip roasting, using raw ingredients blanched in boiling to preserve lightness for velouté-based soups. preparation mirrors this but prioritizes meat cuts like thighs or shanks, cut into pieces for faster flavor release, with less emphasis on bones and a shorter simmer to avoid cloudiness from over-extraction. Soup bases encompass commercial concentrates, such as bouillon cubes or pastes, which replicate or profiles through dehydration and seasoning, often invented in the early —Knorr's version dates to 1908—for efficient reconstitution in professional and home kitchens. These differ from homemade versions by incorporating salt (up to 30% by weight), MSG for enhancement, and preservatives, yielding a product with higher sodium content (around 800–1000 mg per cup reconstituted) but less nuanced depth due to processed ingredients. Vegetable-based s or s, lacking animal proteins, rely on high-water-content produce like leeks, mushrooms, and tomatoes simmered for 45–90 minutes, providing acidity and earthiness without , ideal for vegan soups. In soup-making, s impart structure for creamy or thick varieties via reduction, while s suit clear consommés or noodle-based preparations, with the choice influencing final texture— from sets upon cooling, signaling quality.

Cooking Methods and Variations

Soups are fundamentally prepared by ingredients in a liquid base, such as water, , or , to extract flavors, soften textures, and integrate components. Aromatics like onions, , celery, and carrots are typically sweated in fat (e.g., , , or bacon renderings) over low heat to release essential oils without browning, followed by the addition of liquid and primary ingredients, which are brought to a then reduced to a gentle simmer at approximately 85–95°C (185–205°F) to avoid clouding or toughening. This method preserves clarity in broths and allows for controlled flavor development, with cooking durations ranging from 30 minutes for vegetable-based soups to 3–8 hours for or stocks, depending on the of ingredients. Clear soup variations emphasize straining to remove solids after , yielding a transparent liquid such as or bouillon. For , additional clarification involves rafting—a process where , , and egg whites form a floating filter that traps impurities as the mixture gently for 1–2 hours, resulting in a refined, amber-hued . Straining through or fine mesh ensures particle-free results, often followed by degreasing via chilling or skimming. These techniques prioritize purity and lightness, contrasting with unstrained that retain subtle particulate matter for rustic presentations. Thick soup variations achieve body through pureeing, emulsification, or starch-based thickening. In pureed soups, ingredients are simmered until tender (e.g., root vegetables or legumes softening in 20–45 minutes), cooled slightly, then blended using an immersion blender submerged to avoid splatters or a food processor filled halfway to vent steam, yielding textures from chunky to silky; straining may follow for smoothness, with adjustments via additional stock for consistency. Roux-thickened types, like chowders or veloutés, incorporate equal parts fat and flour cooked to a pale golden stage (blond roux) before whisking in hot liquid, simmering 1 hour to develop flavor and prevent lumps, then finishing with dairy or pureed elements. Bisques extend this by pureeing shellfish post-simmering, straining, and enriching with cream or rice puree, while cream soups add dairy directly after base cooking to emulsify without curdling. These methods enhance mouthfeel but require vigilant stirring to maintain emulsion stability.

Classification of Soups

By Consistency and Texture

Soups are primarily classified by consistency into clear and thick categories, with texture arising from the presence or absence of solid particles, emulsions, or suspensions that alter and . Clear soups feature a thin, unthickened base derived from strained or broths, yielding a smooth, transparent texture free of visible solids or opacity. These maintain fluidity at serving temperature, allowing separation of fat if not skimmed, and rely on natural clarity from and clarification techniques like raft formation in consommés. Thick soups, by contrast, exhibit higher achieved through incorporation of , purees, or dairy, resulting in creamy, velvety, or chunky textures that coat the palate more substantially. Common thickening agents include —a cooked of and that gelatinizes upon heating—or slurries of cornstarch dispersed in liquid, both of which form suspensions that trap water and increase body without separation. Pureeing starchy like potatoes or provides inherent thickness via cell rupture and release, producing smooth consistencies in soups such as . Within thick soups, subtypes further delineate texture: bisques involve pureed enriched with and strained for silkiness, while chowders incorporate diced solids like potatoes or in a - or -based medium, yielding a hearty, particulate texture. Velouté-based creams use roux-thickened poultry or finished with liaison of yolks and for a light, emulsified smoothness, distinct from heavier purees reliant on alone. These variations in consistency and texture influence not only sensory appeal but also stability, with emulsions prone to breaking if overheated and suspensions requiring agitation to prevent settling.
TypeConsistency/Texture DescriptionThickening MethodExamples
Clear/BrothThin, smooth, transparent liquidNone (strained stock), bouillon
PureeSmooth, thick paste-likeVegetable/legume pulverization,
Cream/VeloutéVelvety, emulsified creaminess + dairy/egg liaison cream, chicken velouté
BisqueSilky, rich pureePuree + cream strainingLobster bisque
ChowderChunky, hearty with solidsStarch/dairy suspension,

By Temperature

Soups are classified by serving temperature into two primary categories: hot soups, which are consumed warm or piping hot to provide comfort and enhance flavor perception, and cold soups, which are chilled to offer refreshment, particularly in warmer climates or seasons./01:_Chapters/1.10:_Soups) This distinction influences preparation, as hot soups are typically simmered and served immediately at temperatures around 190–200°F (88–93°C) for cream-based varieties to maintain texture and safety, while cold soups are cooled to refrigerator temperatures, often below 40°F (4°C), to preserve freshness and prevent ./01:_Chapters/1.10:_Soups) Hot soups dominate global cuisine, forming the basis of daily meals in many cultures where they provide warmth during colder months and aid through gentle heat. In Japanese tradition, for instance, hot soups like miso-based varieties are staples in winter meals to combat seasonal chill, reflecting a cultural emphasis on seasonal alignment in diet. Chinese culinary norms similarly favor hot or warm soups, viewing cold preparations as uncommon due to beliefs in balancing body heat for health. Common examples include chicken noodle soup, simmered with , , and for immune support claims rooted in empirical observations of hydration and nutrient delivery, and , often thickened and paired with in American contexts since the late . These are served in preheated vessels to sustain heat, with portions typically 200–250 ml to optimize enjoyment without rapid cooling. Cold soups, conversely, emerged as adaptations for hot weather, emphasizing raw or lightly cooked ingredients blended into chilled liquids for cooling effects without cooking heat. Gazpacho, originating in Andalusia, Spain, during the 8th-century Al-Andalus period as a garlic-almond-vinegar base (ajoblanco precursor), evolved by the 16th century to include tomatoes post-New World introduction, featuring cucumber, bell peppers, onion, and olive oil for a raw vegetable puree served at chilled temperatures. Vichyssoise, a potato-leek-cream soup, was created in 1917 by chef at the New York Ritz-Carlton as a chilled riff on French potato-leek soup, though popularized for summer menus despite its creamy profile requiring careful chilling to avoid separation. Other examples include Russian , a kvass-based mix of vegetables, eggs, and meats chilled for fermentation tang, and cold variants, which are vegetarian beet soups distinct from hot meat-inclusive versions. These are presented in chilled bowls, often garnished minimally to highlight crispness, and hold cultural niches in Mediterranean and Eastern European diets for seasonal relief. Some soups, like , exhibit dual-temperature versatility, but classification prioritizes primary serving tradition.

By Flavor Profile and Ingredients

Soups can be classified by their dominant flavor profiles, which arise from the interplay of key ingredients, stocks, and seasonings that impart specific taste compounds such as glutamates for , acids for tanginess, and capsaicinoids for heat. This categorization emphasizes sensory characteristics over texture or temperature, with savory as the foundational profile in most broth-based soups derived from simmering bones, vegetables, or fermented elements like , yielding depth from and . Acidic profiles emerge from vegetables like tomatoes, which provide citric and malic acids, or from added vinegars and citrus, balancing richness in soups such as . Spicy variants incorporate peppers or spices, activating responses for perceived heat, as in Thai featuring , lemongrass, and bird's eye chilies. Umami-dominant soups rely on ingredients high in free glutamates, such as mushrooms, , aged cheeses, or meat extracts; for example, achieves its savory intensity through caramelized onions and beef stock, where Maillard reactions during cooking enhance content for prolonged . Vegetable-based umami soups, like Japanese , use fermented soybeans for a salty-savory base, often augmented with from , providing inosinate that synergizes with glutamate for amplified taste perception. Meat and poultry soups, exemplified by chicken noodle, derive umami from breakdown in bones during prolonged simmering, typically at 2-4 hours to extract 1-2% protein-derived flavors, with herbs like adding subtle bitterness for balance. Acidic soups highlight tartness from high-water-content produce; , a staple since the with U.S. consumption exceeding 50 million cases annually by 2020, uses ripe tomatoes' 0.2-0.6% content, often neutralized slightly with sugar or cream to prevent overpowering sourness. , rooted in Eastern European traditions, features beets' and betalains for an earthy-acidic profile, fermented in some Ukrainian variants to boost levels up to 1%, enhancing tang without . Fruit-inclusive acidic soups, rarer in savory contexts, appear in cold Spanish , blending cucumbers, peppers, and for a pH around 4.0-4.5, refreshing due to volatile aroma compounds evaporating at . Spicy soups leverage irritants like , which binds to receptors; Mexican uses and chilies for a Scoville heat index of 1,000-5,000 units, moderated by corn's mild from sugars. Indian combines spices—turmeric, , and —for a complex spicy-savory profile, with lentils providing textural starch that tempers heat perception by diluting volatile oils. In African cuisines, West African okra soups like incorporate and peppers, yielding a fiery, nutty flavor from melon seeds' oils and levels exceeding 100,000 Scoville units. Hybrid profiles blend elements for balance; for instance, chowders achieve umami-spicy notes from clams' and added , while minestrones layer umami from rinds with acidity from tomatoes and herbs. Empirical taste testing shows optimal balance occurs when umami constitutes 20-30% of perceived intensity, preventing monotony, as validated in sensory studies on variations. Ingredient sourcing impacts profile fidelity; organic tomatoes yield 15-20% higher and acid content than conventional, intensifying flavor without additives.

Regional and Cultural Variations

Asian Soups

Asian soups vary widely across the continent, incorporating local ingredients, fermentation techniques, and flavor profiles that range from subtle to intense heat and sourness. In East Asian traditions, soups often serve as daily staples or medicinal tonics, utilizing broths derived from bones, , or enhanced by fermented pastes. Southeast Asian counterparts emphasize aromatic , chilies, and sometimes for creamy textures, reflecting tropical climates and influences. In , exemplifies fermented sophistication, made from stock combined with paste fermented from soybeans, rice or barley, and salt. Introduced from around the 7th century CE, miso production evolved in Japan by the Neolithic with early grain and fish variants, becoming a staple by the Kamakura period (1185–1333 CE) as a samurai daily meal. Typically garnished with , , and green onions, it provides and nutrients from . Ramen, another Japanese innovation, traces to early 20th-century as an adaptation of Chinese noodle soups, gaining popularity post-World War II with regional styles like tonkotsu ( bone ) from . Noodles are served in seasoned broths with toppings such as chashu , eggs, and , evolving from simple worker fare to a global phenomenon with over 1,000 variations by the . Chinese wonton soup features or shrimp-filled dumplings poached in a clear or , often with ginger, , and . Traditional recipes emphasize fresh wrappers and a filling marinated with and , dating back centuries as a ; one method simmers a whole for 2 hours to yield a rich base skimmed of impurities. Vietnamese phở emerged in northern Vietnam's Nam Định province around the late 19th to early 20th century, spurred by French colonial demand for beef that made cattle more accessible beyond ritual slaughter. Consisting of rice noodles in aromatic beef or chicken broth infused with star anise, cinnamon, and charred onions, it is topped with rare beef slices, herbs, lime, and chili; Hanoi-style phở uses smaller noodles and simpler garnishes compared to southern variants. Thai highlights sour-spicy harmony, boiling prawns in stock with lemongrass, , kaffir lime leaves, and bird's eye chilies for a balancing four flavors: sour from lime, spicy from chilies, salty from , and subtly sweet. Documented in Thai culinary texts for centuries, its preparation emphasizes fresh ingredients simmered briefly to preserve vibrancy, often served with mushrooms and cilantro. Southeast Asia's , a Peranakan fusion of Chinese and Malay elements, originated in the amid hubs like and . Variants include curry laksa with , , and in rice noodle , or asam laksa with tamarind-sour fish ; it reflects intermarriage cultures blending wok-fried pastes with local and herbs.

European Soups

European soups encompass a diverse array of preparations shaped by regional , , and historical resource constraints, with roots tracing to prehistoric techniques and medieval potages that utilized available , grains, and occasional meats to sustain populations. By the , French innovations like restoratifs—thickened broths served in early Parisian restaurants—elevated soup as a refined starter, influencing broader continental cuisine. In , soupe à l'oignon features caramelized onions in beef broth topped with gruyère and croutons, evolving from peasant fare to a staple documented in 18th-century records. , a combining multiple seafood varieties simmered with tomatoes and herbs like , originated among Marseille fishermen using unsold catch, with recipes standardized by the 19th century. , a chilled potato-leek puree enriched with , was created in the early as a cold adaptation of traditional hot potage. Italian soups include minestrone, a thick vegetable medley with beans, pasta, and seasonal produce in broth, reflecting ancient Roman pottage traditions adapted over centuries for thriftiness. Straciatella alla romana consists of egg strands stirred into clear chicken broth with parmesan, a simple Roman dish dating to at least the Renaissance for its use of leftover elements. Spanish gazpacho, a cold raw soup from Andalusia blending tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, garlic, and olive oil, developed post-1492 with New World ingredients but rooted in Moorish ajo blanco, a bread-garlic-almond base. In , (Linsensuppe) combines brown lentils, vegetables, and in a hearty , a staple since for its protein content from . Cabbage-based soups, such as fermented variants, prevail in for winter preservation. Eastern European , prevalent in , , and , centers on beets fermented for tanginess, often with cabbage, potatoes, and meat, serving as a one-pot with origins in Slavic practices before the 16th century. Kapustnica, a Slovak cabbage soup with smoked meats and , exemplifies fermented vegetable use in colder climates. Portuguese caldo verde incorporates kale, potatoes, and chorizo in a green-hued , a from Minho region emphasizing local tubers and greens since the 15th century. These soups typically classify as clear (consommé-like), thick (pureed or chunky), or bisque (seafood-creamed), served hot to combat harsh winters or cold in Mediterranean summers, prioritizing seasonal, local sourcing over exotic imports historically.

African and Middle Eastern Soups

Soups in the Middle East and Africa utilize locally abundant legumes, grains, seeds, and meats, often thickened with ground seeds or pulses and flavored with spices like cumin and coriander. Middle Eastern varieties emphasize lentils and chickpeas, reflecting arid climates and pastoral traditions, while African soups incorporate peanuts, melon seeds, and okra, adapted to tropical agriculture and communal preparation methods. These dishes serve nutritional and ritual roles, such as breaking fasts during Ramadan in North Africa and the Levant. Harira, a tomato-based soup originating in , combines lentils, chickpeas, lamb or , onions, cilantro, and spices including , ginger, and , yielding a velvety texture akin to —its name derived from the word for . Traditionally consumed to break the fast during , it provides sustenance with approximately 200-300 calories per serving, rich in protein from and meat. Variations include vegetarian versions, but the classic recipe traces to pre-colonial Berber and Arab influences, predating the 16th century introduction of tomatoes from the . Shorbat adas, a staple across the from to the , features red lentils simmered with onions, garlic, , and carrots, often finished with lemon juice for acidity and crispy fried onions for texture. This simple preparation, using about 1.5 cups of lentils per six servings, delivers high fiber and iron content, supporting dietary needs in regions with limited fresh produce. Its origins align with ancient Mesopotamian and Levantine pulse-based broths, documented in medieval cookbooks, and it remains a daily or dish without significant post-20th-century alterations. In , peanut soup—known as groundnut stew—emerged centuries ago among Mandinka and Bambara peoples in and , blending ground with tomatoes, onions, peppers, and proteins like or beef for a creamy, nutty base. , introduced around the 16th century via , integrated into indigenous stews, yielding dishes with 400-500 calories per bowl from healthy fats and vegetables. This soup exemplifies resourcefulness, using affordable groundnuts to thicken and enrich otherwise sparse meals. Egusi soup, prevalent in Nigeria among Igbo, Yoruba, and Hausa groups, thickens with ground seeds from gourds or melons (Citrullullus lanatus varieties), combined with stockfish, beef, ugu leaves, and palm oil for a draw-soup consistency eaten with swallows like fufu. Each serving offers substantial protein from seeds (about 30g per 100g egusi) and meats, with recipes varying regionally but consistently using melon seed flour for viscosity since pre-colonial times. Archaeological evidence of gourd cultivation in West Africa dates to 3000 BCE, underscoring its deep roots. South African soups like mogodu, a tripe-based simmered with onions, potatoes, and spices, draw from Xhosa and Afrikaner traditions, providing collagen-rich nourishment from in pastoral diets. Prepared by slow-cooking for 2-3 hours, it reflects colonial and indigenous fusions, with nutritional profiles high in and essential for rural laborers.

American and Oceanian Soups

Soups in the United States exhibit regional diversity shaped by indigenous agriculture, European settler methods, African culinary imports, and industrial processing. Native American traditions include Three Sisters soup, combining corn, beans, and squash—staple crops interplanted by peoples in the Northeast since at least the 15th century for mutual soil enhancement and yield optimization. , mandatory on the U.S. menu since approximately 1901 (with recipes traced to Senator John Davis or Fred Dubois), consists of navy beans simmered with ham hocks, onions, and potatoes, yielding a thick, savory reflective of practical, economical federal dining. New England clam chowder traces to the 1700s among Breton and English fishermen in coastal , featuring a milk- or cream-based thickened by potatoes and incorporating quahog clams for briny depth, distinct from thinner European antecedents due to local availability and cold-climate preservation needs. clam chowder, emerging in New York by the mid-1800s amid immigrant communities, substitutes for cream—likely adapting to Prohibition-era scarcity or Italian influences—while retaining clams, potatoes, and but eschewing thickening agents beyond the vegetables. Louisiana gumbo coalesced in the early 1700s around New Orleans, fusing West African (derived from Bantu "ki ngombo") for viscous thickening with French techniques and Choctaw from leaves, incorporating , , or in a dark base; enslaved Africans arriving post-1719 supplied the , enabling nutrient-dense stews from foraged and farmed scraps. Campbell's chicken noodle soup, launched in 1934 as "Noodle with Chicken Soup" by chef Ernest Lacoutiere amid Depression-era demand for affordable sustenance, evolved into a canned icon by 1938 under its current name, blending broth, egg noodles, chicken, and carrots for rapid preparation and shelf stability via industrial . Oceanian soups blend British colonial legacies with indigenous foraging and Pacific maritime resources, emphasizing root vegetables, seafood, and coconut for caloric density in isolated island ecologies. In , —roasted butternut or kent pumpkin pureed with stock, onion, and cream—gained prominence in the as a simple, seasonal winter dish leveraging abundant squashes introduced via European settlement, often spiced with or for flavor enhancement. and corn soup, adapted from Chinese immigrant influences during 19th-century gold rushes, features kernels, shredded , and egg ribbons in a , becoming a commercial staple in urban eateries by the mid-1900s. New Zealand's boil-up, a pre-colonial sustenance method refined post-European contact, simmers pork bones or hocks with kūmara (), potatoes, carrots, and greens like pūhā (, a bitter native ), yielding a protein-rich that sustains through long preparation (up to 2-3 hours) and incorporates rewana (potato-fermented ) dumplings for bulk; this reflects adaptive in temperate climates with limited arable land. In Pacific islands, Samoan sua i'a boils fresh fish (often or reef species) in with onions, taro leaves, and green bananas, providing essential fats and electrolytes in tropical heat, a practice rooted in communal and coconut dominance since ancient Polynesian voyaging circa 1000 BCE. Similar coconut-based fish soups appear across and , prioritizing reef sustainability over large-scale agriculture.

Nutritional Science and Health Impacts

Empirical Benefits and Evidence

Consumption of soup, particularly as a preload before meals, has been shown in multiple studies to enhance satiety and reduce overall energy intake. A 2007 Penn State University study found that participants who consumed low-energy-dense soup before a meal ate fewer calories at the subsequent meal compared to those who did not. Similarly, a review of preload studies indicated that various forms of soup decrease hunger and increase fullness, leading to lower test meal consumption. Epidemiological data links regular soup consumption to lower dietary and reduced risk. A 2014 study reported that soup eaters exhibited decreased in their diets and lower prevalence, with intervention trials confirming reduced body weight in participants increasing soup intake. Soup consumption also correlates with higher intakes of beneficial nutrients, including , , magnesium, iron, and , as observed in dietary pattern analyses. For respiratory health, demonstrates mild properties. A 2000 in vitro study published in Chest found that chicken soup inhibited neutrophil more effectively than its individual ingredients, suggesting a mechanism for alleviating upper respiratory symptoms. Recent evidence from a 2025 trial indicated that soup intake shortened cold duration by 1.5 to 2 days and reduced symptom severity, potentially via lowered inflammatory markers like TNF-α and IL-6. The high water content of soups supports hydration, which is crucial during illness when fluid intake may otherwise decrease, aiding nutrient absorption and digestion. While bone broth soups contain collagen precursors, peer-reviewed evidence shows they provide unreliable concentrations compared to supplements, limiting claims of direct or benefits from broth alone.

Risks, Myths, and Criticisms

Processed soups, particularly canned varieties, often contain high levels of sodium, averaging 700-800 mg per serving, which can contribute to and cardiovascular strain by promoting fluid retention and increased blood volume. Long-term excessive sodium intake from such sources elevates , a key for heart , as evidenced by dietary surveys linking processed foods to these outcomes. Instant soups have been found to contain toxic such as aluminum, , and lead, posing potential hazards through , according to analysis of commercial products. Canned soups may also leach bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical associated with endocrine disruption and elevated risks of heart and upon regular consumption. In certain cultural contexts, like , frequent consumption of salty broth-based soups can irritate the stomach lining more than solid salty foods, potentially leading to chronic inflammation and gastrointestinal issues over time. Soup-only diets, promoted for rapid , carry risks of nutrient deficiencies by excluding diverse groups, and lack empirical support for sustained benefits, often resulting in rebound . A persistent myth holds that cures the , rooted in tradition but unsupported by robust evidence; while some studies indicate it may reduce and enhance nasal mucus clearance to alleviate symptoms, it does not eradicate viral infections. Claims of "detox" soups purging toxins from the body similarly lack scientific validation, as the liver and kidneys handle naturally, with no peer-reviewed data showing enhanced efficacy from such regimens. Critics argue that overhyped nutritional virtues of soups overlook their potential for caloric density in creamy or meat-heavy variants, which can undermine if portions are uncontrolled, contrary to perceptions of soups as inherently low-calorie. Reliance on soup for purported therapeutic effects, such as in fad cleanses, diverts from evidence-based , potentially fostering unbalanced diets without addressing underlying drivers like overall caloric balance and variety.

Commercialization and Economics

Preservation and Packaging Innovations

Canning emerged as a pivotal for soup preservation in the late , building on Nicolas Appert's 1809-1810 development of heat sterilization in sealed glass containers, later adapted to tin cans by in 1810. Commercial application to soups advanced significantly in 1897 when T. Dorrance at the Joseph A. Campbell Preserve Company invented condensed soup, reducing water content to enable smaller, lighter cans that lowered shipping costs by approximately 50% while maintaining shelf stability for years without . This method involved pre-cooking ingredients, concentrating the soup through , and sealing in tin-plated steel cans sterilized via retorting at high temperatures (typically 121°C for 3-5 minutes) to destroy spores, ensuring safety for low-acid soups like or meat-based varieties. Dehydration techniques revolutionized instant soups mid-20th century, with innovations like spray-drying and freeze-drying enabling powdered or granule forms that rehydrate rapidly in hot water, preserving flavor compounds better than traditional drying by minimizing heat exposure. For example, puffed dehydrated vegetables, developed using processes, allow rehydration in under 5 minutes for soup mixes, as seen in commercial products from the onward, extending to 12-24 months at ambient temperatures while reducing weight for portability. These methods rely on removing 95-98% of moisture to inhibit microbial growth, though they can degrade heat-sensitive nutrients like by 20-50% compared to fresh soups. Retort pouch packaging, introduced in the 1960s for and commercialized in the 1980s, offers a flexible, lightweight alternative to rigid cans for soups, consisting of multi-layer laminates (e.g., , aluminum foil, and ) that withstand sterilization at 121-135°C. This innovation cuts processing time by 30-50% due to thinner material enabling faster heat penetration, reduces packaging weight by up to 80% versus metal cans, and allows direct heating without transfer, as utilized in ready-to-eat soup products. Aseptic packaging, advanced in the 1950s for liquids and adapted for viscous soups, sterilizes product and pouch separately via ultra-high temperature (UHT) processing (140-150°C for 2-5 seconds) before filling in sterile environments, achieving shelf lives of 6-12 months without preservatives while retaining sensory qualities superior to retorted soups by avoiding post-sterilization cooking flavors. High-pressure processing (HPP), commercialized in the , represents a non-thermal preservation method for premium, chilled soups, applying isostatic pressures of 400-600 MPa for 3-5 minutes in water-filled chambers to inactivate pathogens like and E. coli by 5-log reductions without denaturing proteins or altering taste, unlike heat methods that can reduce volatiles by 10-20%. Applied to fresh or minimally processed soups, HPP extends refrigerated to 30-120 days, preserving up to 90% of heat-labile vitamins, though it requires logistics and targets high-acid formulations to avoid needing additional hurdles against spores. Empirical studies confirm HPP maintains soup and color better than thermal , supporting its use in artisanal or health-focused products. The global soup market, encompassing canned, dehydrated, instant, and fresh varieties, was valued at USD 19.05 billion in 2023 and reached an estimated USD 19.91 billion in 2024, with projections indicating continued modest expansion driven by demand for convenience foods. In the United States, a dominant regional market accounting for over 70% of North American consumption, the sector stood at USD 4.95 billion in 2024, anticipating a (CAGR) of 3.1% through 2030 amid stabilizing post-pandemic patterns and persistent pressures. Key dynamics include intense among major producers such as Campbell Soup Company, S.A., , Inc., and , which collectively influence pricing, innovation, and distribution through hypermarkets, supermarkets, and channels. Recent trends reflect consumer shifts toward health-oriented and sustainable products, with rising demand for organic, plant-based, and low-sodium options propelling premiumization in the category. The adoption of eco-friendly packaging, such as recyclable materials, has gained traction, aligning with broader environmental concerns and regulatory pushes in regions like Europe and North America. Convenience remains a core driver, evidenced by growth in ready-to-eat and instant soups, which benefit from urbanization and busy lifestyles, though overall volume growth is forecasted at around 4.1% for 2026 globally. E-commerce penetration has accelerated, particularly in the U.S., where online sales channels now capture a growing share amid diversified retail strategies by leading firms. These developments occur against a backdrop of supply chain resilience post-2020 disruptions, with manufacturers focusing on flavor innovation—like ethnic and fusion varieties—to counter market saturation in traditional segments.

Cultural and Social Dimensions

Representations in Literature, Media, and Folklore

In European folklore, the tale of Stone Soup illustrates themes of cooperation and resourcefulness, where a traveler or beggar places a stone in a pot of water, claiming it forms the base of soup, and persuades skeptical villagers to add vegetables, meat, and grains, resulting in a shared feast. Classified as Aarne-Thompson folktale type 1548, the story's variants trace to at least the 16th century, often depicting wandering mendicants using the ruse to elicit hospitality without direct begging. This narrative underscores causal incentives for collective contribution, as initial skepticism yields to tangible abundance, promoting social trust in resource-scarce settings. Literature frequently employs soup as a symbol of comfort, loss, or absurdity. In Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865), the Mock Turtle, a melancholic creature parodying the Victorian dish mock turtle soup—made from calf parts to imitate scarce green turtle soup—sings the satirical "Beautiful Soup" ode, lamenting his transformation into soup ingredients amid Wonderland's nonsensical trials. Similarly, in J.D. Salinger's Franny and Zooey (1961), chicken soup evokes unpretentious familial bonds, with Zooey feeding his distressed sister as a grounding ritual against existential malaise. Kate DiCamillo's The Tale of Despereaux (2003) centers soup as a nexus of love and tragedy, where Queen Rosemary's death from a pea in her beloved soup prompts King Tredecim's kingdom-wide ban, symbolizing disrupted communal harmony restored through narrative redemption. Media portrayals often highlight soup's cultural intensity and economic quirks. The episode "The Soup Nazi" (season 7, episode 6, aired November 2, 1995) features a demanding soup stand owner whose meticulous recipes and rigid ordering protocol—enforced with the catchphrase "No soup for you!"—attract devotees despite authoritarian demeanor, drawing from real New York vendor Al Yeganeh's Soup Kitchen International, where quality justified behavioral compliance. In cinema, Juzo Itami's (1985) follows a trucker's aid to widow Tampopo in refining her noodle soup to rival elite competitors, weaving episodic vignettes on culinary obsession, from erotic egg-eating to deathbed broth rituals, elevating soup-making to artisanal pursuit amid Japan's post-war food evolution.

Role in Society and Economy

Soup has served as a cornerstone of charitable efforts to combat hunger and poverty throughout history, particularly through soup kitchens that provide affordable, scalable nourishment to the destitute. Originating as early as the , these facilities distributed simple broths and stews, leveraging soup's low cost and ease of preparation in bulk to feed large numbers efficiently. During the in the 1930s, soup kitchens proliferated in the United States, with private charities and later government programs serving millions; for instance, operated a facility in 1930 that provided up to 2,200 meals daily to the unemployed. In the 19th century, innovator designed efficient soup kitchens during the Irish Potato Famine of 1847, distributing nutrient-dense meals to alleviate among over a million affected. Today, soup kitchens remain vital in addressing food insecurity, often operated by religious organizations and nonprofits, emphasizing soup's role in immediate relief without requiring extensive resources. Beyond charity, soup fosters communal bonds and features prominently in cultural rituals worldwide, symbolizing and sustenance. In many traditions, soups mark life events such as weddings or festivals; for example, Bulgarian "kurban ," a lamb-based sacrificial soup, is prepared pre-wedding to signify communal participation and blessing. Similarly, festive soups in various cultures—ranging from Vietnamese reflecting resilience to Italian evoking family gatherings—reinforce social ties and transmit heritage through shared preparation and consumption. This ritualistic function underscores soup's capacity to convene communities, providing not just but emotional and symbolic nourishment that strengthens social fabrics. Economically, the soup industry contributes significantly to global food production and , with the market valued at approximately USD 19.48 billion in 2024 and projected to reach USD 25.96 billion by 2033, growing at a compound annual rate of 3.24%. This expansion reflects demand for convenient, ready-to-eat options, driven by and busy lifestyles, alongside innovations in packaging that extend . Major producers, including canned and instant varieties, support jobs in , , and distribution within the broader food sector, which accounts for about 5.5% of U.S. GDP and 10.4% of as of 2023. While specific employment figures for soup are limited, its integration into processed foods bolsters supply chains, particularly in regions with strong and production, enhancing economic resilience through and domestic sales.

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