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Hindustani classical music
Concepts
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Indian classical music
Concepts

Hindustani classical music (also known as North Indian classical music or Shastriya Sangeet) is the classical music of the Indian subcontinent's northern regions. It is played on instruments like the veena, sitar and sarod. It diverged in the 12th-century from Carnatic music, the classical tradition of southern India. While Carnatic music largely uses compositions written in Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Hindustani music largely uses compositions written in Sanskrit, Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu), Braj, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Bengali, Rajasthani and Punjabi.[1]

Knowledge of Hindustani classical music is taught through a network of classical music schools, called gharana. Hindustani classical music is an integral part of the culture of North India and is performed across the country and internationally. Exponents of Hindustani classical music, including Ustad Bismillah Khan, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi and Ravi Shankar have been awarded the Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award of India, for their contributions to the arts.[2]

History

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Around the 12th-century, Hindustani classical music diverged from what eventually came to be identified as Carnatic classical music. The central notion in both systems is that of a melodic musical mode or raga, sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala. It is melodic music, with no concept of harmony. These principles were refined in the musical treatises Natya Shastra, by Bharata (2nd–3rd century CE), and Dattilam (probably 3rd–4th century CE).[3]

In medieval times, the melodic systems were fused with ideas from Persian music, particularly through the influence of Sufi composers like Amir Khusro, and later in the Mughal courts, noted composers such as Tansen flourished, along with religious groups like the Vaishnavites. Artists such as Dalptaram, Mirabai, Brahmanand Swami and Premanand Swami revitalized classical Hindustani music in the 16-18th century.

After the 16th century, the singing styles diversified into different gharanas patronized in different princely courts. Around 1900, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande consolidated the musical structures of Hindustani classical music, called ragas, into a few thaats based on their notes. This is a very flawed system but is somewhat useful as a heuristic.

Distinguished musicians who are Hindu may be addressed as Pandit and those who are Muslim as Ustad. An aspect of Hindustani music going back to Sufi times is the tradition of religious neutrality: Muslim ustads may sing compositions in praise of Hindu deities, and Hindu pandits may sing similar Islamic compositions.

Vishnu Digambar Paluskar in 1901 founded the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, a school to impart formal training in Hindustani classical music with some historical Indian Music. This was a school open to all and one of the first in India to run on public support and donations, rather than royal patronage. Many students from the School's early batches became respected musicians and teachers in North India. This brought respect to musicians, who were treated with disdain earlier. This also helped spread of Hindustani classical music to masses from royal courts.

Sanskritic tradition

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Ravana and Narada from Hindu tradition are accomplished musicians; Saraswati with her veena is the goddess of music. Gandharvas are presented as spirits who are musical masters, and the gandharva style looks to music primarily for pleasure, accompanied by the soma rasa. In the Vishnudharmottara Purana, the Naga king Ashvatara asks to know the swaras from Saraswati.[citation needed]

While the term raga is articulated in the Natya Shastra (where its meaning is more literal, meaning "color" or "mood"), it finds a clearer expression in what is called Jati in the Dattilam, a text composed shortly after or around the same time as Natya Shastra. The Dattilam is focused on Gandharva music and discusses scales (swara), defining a tonal framework called grama in terms of 22 micro-tonal intervals (shruti)[4]comprising one octave. It also discusses various arrangements of the notes (Murchhana), the permutations and combinations of note-sequences (tanas), and alankara or elaboration. Dattilam categorizes melodic structure into 18 groups called Jati, which are the fundamental melodic structures similar to the raga. The names of the Jatis reflect regional origins, for example Andhri and Oudichya[citation needed].

Music also finds mention in a number of texts from the Gupta period; Kalidasa mentions several kinds of veena (parivadini, vipanchi), as well as percussion instruments (mridang), the flute (vamshi) and conch (shankha). Music also finds mention in Buddhist and Jain texts from the earliest periods of the common era.[citation needed]

Narada's Sangita Makarandha treatise, from about 1100 CE, is the earliest text where rules similar to those of current Hindustani classical music can be found. Narada actually names and classifies the system in its earlier form before the Persian influences introduced changes in the system. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda from the 12th century was perhaps the earliest musical composition sung in the classical tradition called Ashtapadi music.[citation needed]

In the 13th century, Sharangadeva composed the Sangita Ratnakara, which has names such as the Turushka Todi ("Turkish Todi"), revealing an influx of ideas from Islamic culture. This text is the last to be mentioned by both the Carnatic and the Hindustani traditions and is often thought to date the divergence between the two.

During the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal era

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Golkonda 1660–1670. Musician plays a form of rubab. Related instruments, the Indian sarod, sursingar and kamaica, the Nepali-Tibetan-Bhutanese tungana, the Pamiri rubab and the Uyghur rawap. The family of instruments blended Persian and Indian cultures, and has been played by Hindus, Buddhists and Muslims.

The advent of Islamic rule under the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire over northern India caused considerable cultural interchange. Increasingly, musicians received patronage in the courts of the new rulers, who, in turn, started taking an increasing interest in local musical forms. While the initial generations may have been rooted in cultural traditions outside India, they gradually adopted many aspects from the Hindu culture from their kingdoms. This helped spur the fusion of Hindu and Muslim ideas to bring forth new forms of musical synthesis like qawwali and khyal.

The most influential musician of the Delhi Sultanate period was Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), a composer in Persian, Turkish and Arabic, as well as Braj Bhasha. He is credited with systematizing some aspects of Hindustani music and also introducing several ragas such as Yaman Kalyan, Zeelaf and Sarpada. He created six genres of music: khyal, tarana, Naqsh, Gul, Qaul and Qalbana. A number of instruments (such as the sitar) also developed in this time.

Amir Khusrau is sometimes credited with the origins of the khyal form, but the record of his compositions does not appear to support this. The compositions by the court musician Sadarang in the court of Muhammad Shah bear a closer affinity to the modern khyal. They suggest that while khyal already existed in some form, Sadarang may have been the father of modern khyal.

Much of the musical forms innovated by these pioneers merged with the Hindu tradition, composed in the popular language of the people (as opposed to Sanskrit) in the work of composers like Kabir or Nanak. This can be seen as part of a larger Bhakti tradition (strongly related to the Vaishnavite movement) which remained influential across several centuries; notable figures include Jayadeva (12th century), Vidyapati (fl. 1375 CE), Chandidas (14th–15th century), and Meerabai (1555–1603 CE).

As the Mughal Empire came into closer contact with Hindus, especially under Jalal ud-Din Akbar, music and dance also flourished. In particular, the musician Tansen introduced a number of innovations, including ragas and particular compositions. Legend has it that upon his rendition of a nighttime raga in the morning, the entire city fell under a hush and clouds gathered in the sky so that he could light fires by singing the raga "Deepak".

At the royal house of Gwalior, Raja Mansingh Tomar (1486–1516 CE) also participated in the shift from Sanskrit to the local idiom (Hindi) as the language for classical songs. He himself penned several volumes of compositions on religious and secular themes and was also responsible for the major compilation, the Mankutuhal ("Book of Curiosity"), which outlined the major forms of music prevalent at the time. In particular, the musical form known as dhrupad saw considerable development in his court and remained a strong point of the Gwalior gharana for many centuries.

After the dissolution of the Mughal empire, the patronage of music continued in smaller princely kingdoms like Awadh, Patiala, and Banaras, giving rise to the diversity of styles that is today known as gharanas. Many musician families obtained large grants of land which made them self-sufficient, at least for a few generations (e.g. the Sham Chaurasia gharana). Meanwhile, the Bhakti and Sufi traditions continued to develop and interact with the different gharanas and groups.

Modern era

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Until the late 19th century, Hindustani classical music was imparted on a one-on-one basis through the guru-shishya ("mentor-protégé") tradition. This system had many benefits but also several drawbacks. In many cases, the shishya had to spend most of his time, serving his guru with the hope that the guru might teach him a "cheez" (piece or nuance) or two. In addition, the system forced the music to be limited to a small subsection of the Indian community. To a large extent, it was limited to the palaces and dance halls. It was shunned by the intellectuals, avoided by the educated middle class, and in general, looked down upon as a frivolous practice.[5]

First, as the power of the maharajahs and nawabs declined in the early 20th century, so did their patronage. With the expulsion of Wajid Ali Shah to Calcutta after 1857, the Lucknavi musical tradition came to influence the music of the renaissance in Bengal, giving rise to the tradition of Ragpradhan gan around the turn of the century. Raja Chakradhar Singh of Raigarh was the last of the modern-era Maharajas to patronize Hindustani classical musicians, singers and dancers.[6][7]

Also, at the turn of the century, Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande spread Hindustani classical music to the masses in general by organizing music conferences, starting schools, teaching music in classrooms, devising a standardized grading and testing system, and standardizing the notation system.[8]

Vishnu Digambar Paluskar emerged as a talented musician and organizer despite being blind from age of 12. His books on music, as well as the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya music school that he opened in Lahore in 1901, helped foster a movement away from the closed gharana system.

Paluskar's contemporary (and occasional rival) Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande recognized the many rifts that had appeared in the structure of Indian classical music. He undertook extensive research visits to a large number of gharanas, Hindustani as well as Carnatic, collecting and comparing compositions. Between 1909 and 1932, he produced the monumental four-volume work Hindustani Sangeeta Paddhati,[9] which suggested a transcription of Indian music, and described the many traditions in this notation. Finally, it suggested a possible categorization of ragas based on their notes into a number of thaats (modes), subsequent to the Melakarta system that reorganized Carnatic tradition in the 17th century. The ragas that exist today were categorized according to this scheme, although there are some inconsistencies and ambiguities in Bhatkande's system.

In modern times, the government-run All India Radio, Bangladesh Betar and Radio Pakistan helped bring the artists to public attention, countering the loss of the patronage system. The first star was Gauhar Jan, whose career was born out of Fred Gaisberg's first recordings of Indian music in 1902. With the advance of films and other public media, musicians started to make their living through public performances. A number of Gurukuls, such as that of Alauddin Khan at Maihar, flourished. In more modern times, corporate support has also been forthcoming, as at the ITC Sangeet Research Academy. Meanwhile, Hindustani classical music has become popular across the world through the influence of artists such as Ravi Shankar, Ali Akbar Khan and Vikash Maharaj.

Characteristics

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Indian classical music has seven basic notes with five interspersed half-notes, resulting in a 12-note scale. Unlike the 12-note scale in Western music, the base frequency of the scale is not fixed, and intertonal gaps (temperament) may also vary. The performance is set to a melodic pattern called a raga characterized in part by specific ascent (aroha) and descent (avaroha) sequences, "king" (vadi) and "queen" (samavadi) notes and characteristic phrases (pakad).[citation needed]

Ragas may originate from any source, including religious hymns, folk tunes, and music from outside the Indian subcontinent[citation needed]. For example, raga Khamaj and its variants have been classicized from folk music, while ragas such as Hijaz (also called Basant Mukhari) originated in Persian maqams.

Principles of Hindustani music

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The Gandharva Veda is a Sanskrit scripture describing the theory of music and its applications in not just musical form and systems but also in physics, medicine and magic.[10] It is said that there are two types of sound: āhata (struck/audible) and anāhata (unstruck/inaudible).[10] The inaudible sound is said to be the principle of all manifestation, the basis of all existence.[10]

There are three main 'Saptak' which resemble to the 'Octaves' in Western Music except they characterize total seven natural (shuddha) notes or 'swaras' instead of eight. These are -- low (mandra), medium (madhya) and high (tāra).[10] Each octave resonates with a certain part of the body, low octave in the heart, medium octave in the throat and high octave in the head. Each octave in total contains 12 different notes, containing 7 natural or 'shuddha' notes (S R G M P D N), 4 flat or 'komal' notes (R G D N), and 1 sharp or 'teevra' note (M).[10]

The rhythmic organization is based on rhythmic patterns called tala. The melodic foundations are called ragas. One possible classification of ragas is into "melodic modes" or "parent scales," known as thaats, under which most ragas can be classified based on the notes they use.

Thaats may consist of up to seven scale degrees, or swara. Hindustani musicians name these pitches using a system called Sargam, the equivalent of the Western movable do solfege:

Both systems repeat at the octave. The difference between sargam and solfege is that re, ga, ma, dha, and ni can refer to either "Natural" (shuddha) or altered "Flat" (komal) or "Sharp" (teevra) versions of their respective scale degrees. As with movable do solfege, the notes are heard relative to an arbitrary tonic that varies from performance to performance, rather than to fixed frequencies, as on a xylophone. The fine intonational differences between different instances of the same swara are called srutis. The three primary registers of Indian classical music are mandra (lower), madhya (middle) and taar (upper). Since the octave location is not fixed, it is also possible to use provenances in mid-register (such as mandra-madhya or madhya-taar) for certain ragas. A typical rendition of Hindustani raga involves two stages:

  • Alap: a rhythmically free improvisation on the rules for the raga in order to give life to the raga and flesh out its characteristics. The alap is followed by a long slow-tempo improvisation in vocal music, or by the jod and jhala in instrumental music.

Tans are of several types like Shuddha, Koot, Mishra, Vakra, Sapaat, Saral, Chhoot, Halaq, Jabda, Murki.

  • Bandish or Gat: a fixed, melodic composition set in a specific raga, performed with rhythmic accompaniment by a tabla or pakhavaj. There are different ways of systematizing the parts of a composition. For example:
    • Sthaayi: The initial, rondo phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition
    • Antara: The first body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition. Explores the upper octave of a Raag. In Khayal compositions, this is sometimes where the poet's name can be found.
    • Sanchaari: The third body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition, seen more typically in dhrupad bandishes. Usually explores the lower section of a given Raag.
    • Aabhog: The fourth and concluding body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition, seen more typically in Dhrupad bandishes. Continues to explore the upper octave of a Raag just like an Antara, but with more expansive phrases. This is often where the poet's name resides as a signature for Dhrupad compositions.
  • There are three variations of bandish, regarding tempo:
    • Vilambit bandish: A slow and steady melodic composition, usually in largo to adagio speeds
    • Madhyalaya bandish: A medium tempo melodic composition, usually set in andante to allegretto speeds
    • Drut bandish: A fast tempo melodic composition, usually set to allegretto speed or faster

Hindustani classical music is primarily vocal-centric, insofar as the musical forms were designed primarily for a vocal performance, and many instruments were designed and evaluated as to how well they emulate the human voice.

Types of compositions

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The major vocal forms or styles associated with Hindustani classical music are dhrupad, khyal, and tarana. Light classical forms include dhamar, trivat, chaiti, kajari, tappa, tap-khyal, thumri, dadra, ghazal and bhajan; these do not adhere to the rigorous rules of classical music.[clarification needed]

Dhrupad

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Main article: Dhrupad

Dhrupad is an old style of singing, traditionally performed by male singers. It is performed with a tambura and a pakhawaj as instrumental accompaniments. The lyrics, some of which were written in Sanskrit centuries ago, are presently often sung in brajbhasha, a medieval form of North and East Indian languages that were spoken in Eastern India. The rudra veena, an ancient string instrument, is used in instrumental music in dhrupad.

Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in theme and content. It contains recitals in praise of particular deities. Dhrupad compositions begin with a relatively long and acyclic alap, where the syllables of the following mantra is recited:

"Om Anant tam Taran Tarini Twam Hari Om Narayan, Anant Hari Om Narayan".

The alap gradually unfolds into more rhythmic jod and jhala sections. These sections are followed by a rendition of bandish, with the pakhawaj as an accompaniment. The great Indian musician Tansen sang in the dhrupad style. A lighter form of dhrupad called dhamar, is sung primarily during the spring festival of Holi.

Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music until two centuries ago when it gave way to the somewhat less austere khyal, a more free-form style of singing. Since losing its main patrons among the royalty in Indian princely states, dhrupad risked becoming extinct in the first half of the twentieth century. However, the efforts by a few proponents, especially from the Dagar family, have led to its revival.

Some of the best known vocalists who sing in the Dhrupad style are the members of the Dagar lineage, including the senior Dagar brothers, Nasir Moinuddin and Nasir Aminuddin Dagar; the junior Dagar brothers, Nasir Zahiruddin and Nasir Faiyazuddin Dagar; and Wasifuddin, Fariduddin, and Sayeeduddin Dagar. Other leading exponents include the Gundecha Brothers and Uday Bhawalkar, who have received training from some of the Dagars. Leading vocalists outside the Dagar lineage include the Mallik family of Darbhanga tradition of musicians; some of the leading exponents of this tradition were Ram Chatur Mallick, Siyaram Tiwari, and Vidur Mallick. At present Prem Kumar Mallick, Prashant and Nishant Mallick are the Dhrupad vocalists of this tradition. A Very ancient 500 years old Dhrupad Gharana from Bihar is Dumraon Gharana, Pt. Tilak Chand Dubey, Pt. Ghanarang Baba was founder of this prestigious Gharana. Dumraon Gharana Dist-Buxar is an ancient tradition of Dhrupad music nearly 500 years old. This Gharana flourished under the patronage of the king of Dumraon Raj. The dhrupad style (vanis) of the gharana is Gauhar, Khandar and Nauharvani. The living legends of this gharana is Pt. Ramjee Mishra.

A section of dhrupad singers of Delhi Gharana from Mughal emperor Shah Jahan's court migrated to Bettiah under the patronage of the Bettiah Raj, giving rise to the Bettiah Gharana.[11]

Khyal

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Main article: Khyal

Khyal is the modern Hindustani form of vocal music. Khyal, literally meaning "thought" or "imagination" in Hindustani and derived from the Persian/Arabic term, is a two- to eight-line lyric set to a melody. Khyal contains a greater variety of embellishments and ornamentations compared to dhrupad. Khyal's features such as sargam and taan as well as movements to incorporate dhrupad-style alap have led to it becoming popular.

The importance of the khyal's content is for the singer to depict, through music in the set raga, the emotional significance of the khyal. The singer improvises and finds inspiration within the raga to depict the khyal.

The origin of Khyal is controversial, although it is accepted that this style was based on dhrupad and influenced by other musical traditions. Many argue that Amir Khusrau created the style in the late 14th-century. This form was popularized by Mughal emperor Mohammad Shah through his court musicians; some well-known composers of this period were Sadarang, Adarang and Manrang.

Tarana

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Main article: Tarana

Another vocal form, taranas are medium- to fast-paced songs that are used to convey a mood of elation and are usually performed towards the end of a concert. They consist of a few lines of bols either from the rhythmic language of Tabla, Pakhawaj or Kathak dance set to a tune. The singer uses these few lines as a basis for fast improvisation. The tillana of Carnatic music is based on the tarana, although the former is primarily associated with dance.

Tappa

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Main article: Tappa

Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music whose specialty is its rolling pace based on fast, subtle, knotty construction. It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was developed as a form of classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori or Shori Mian, a court singer for Asaf-Ud-Dowlah, the Nawab of Awadh. "Nidhubabur Tappa," or tappas sung by Nidhu Babu were very popular in 18th and 19th-century Bengal.

Thumri

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Main article: Thumri

Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form said to have begun in Uttar Pradesh with the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, (r. 1847–1856). The lyrics are primarily in older, more rural Hindi dialects such as Brij Bhasha, Awadhi, and Bhojpuri. The themes covered are usually romantic in nature, hence giving more importance to lyrics rather than Raag, and bringing out the storytelling qualities of music. The need to express these strong emotional aesthetics makes Thumri and Kathak a perfect match, which, before Thumri became a solo form, were performed together.

Abdul Karim Khan performing a Thumri in Raag Bhairavi

Some recent performers of this genre are Abdul Karim Khan, the brothers Barkat Ali Khan and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Begum Akhtar, Nirmala Devi, Girija Devi, Prabha Atre, Siddheshwari Devi, Shobha Gurtu and Chhannulal Mishra.

Ghazal

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Main article: Ghazal

In the Indian sub-continent during Mughal rule, the Persian Ghazal became the most common poetic form in the Urdu language and was popularized by classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib, Daagh, Zauq and Sauda amongst the North Indian literary elite. The Ghazal genre is characterized by its romance, and its discourses on the various shades of love. Vocal music set to this mode of poetry is popular with multiple variations across Central Asia, the Middle East, as well as other countries and regions of the world.

Instruments

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Although Hindustani music clearly is focused on vocal performance, instrumental forms have existed since ancient times. In fact, in recent decades, especially outside South Asia, instrumental Hindustani music is more popular than vocal music, partly due to a somewhat different style and faster tempo, and partly because of a language barrier for the lyrics in vocal music.

Many musical instruments are associated with Hindustani classical music. The veena, a string instrument, was traditionally regarded as the most important, but few play it today and it has largely been superseded by its cousins the sitar and the sarod, both of which owe their origin to Persian influences. The tambura is also regarded as one of the most important instruments, due to its functioning as a fundamental layer that the rest of the instruments adhere to throughout a performance. Among bowed instruments, the sarangi and violin are popular. The bansuri, shehnai and harmonium are important wind instruments. In the percussion ensemble, the tabla and the pakhavaj are the most popular. Rarely used plucked or struck string instruments include the surbahar, sursringar, santoor, and various versions of the slide guitar. Various other instruments have also been used in varying degrees.

Festivals

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One of the earliest modern music festivals focusing on Hindustani classical music was the Harballabh Sangeet Sammelan, founded in 1875 in Jallandhar. Others include Sankatmochan Sangeet Samarth in Varanasi, Dover Lane Music Conference which notably debuted in 1952 in Kolkata, Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Festival in 1953 in Pune, ITC SRA Sangeet Sammelan since the early 1970s, the Society for the Promotion of Indian Classical Music And Culture Amongst Youth or SPIC MACAY since 1977, Pandit Nanhku Maharaj since 1995.

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Hindustani classical music

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Hindustani classical music is one of the two principal classical music traditions of the , alongside , and is primarily practiced in northern , , and . It emphasizes melodic within structured frameworks known as ragas (melodic modes that evoke specific moods or times of day) and talas (cyclic rhythmic patterns), with performances typically featuring a soloist accompanied by percussion and drone instruments. Rooted in an passed down through the guru-shishya (teacher-disciple) system, it integrates elements of devotion, , and emotional expression, often performed vocally or instrumentally without or fixed notation. The origins of Hindustani music trace back over 2,000 years to the , drawing from ancient chants in the and evolving through medieval cultural syntheses of indigenous Indian practices with Persian and Islamic influences under Mughal patronage. By the , it had diverged from the southern Carnatic due to regional, linguistic, and cultural differences, with Hindustani incorporating more flexible and semi-classical forms influenced by folk and devotional music. This evolution solidified its distinct identity, emphasizing emotional depth (rasa) and spiritual connection over strict adherence to ancient texts. Central to Hindustani music are the and tala, where a defines the scale, ascending and descending note patterns ( and avarohana), and characteristic phrases (pakad), while a tala provides a repeating meter divided into beats (matras) and subdivisions, often counted on the . Performances typically begin with an unaccompanied to explore the raga's essence, followed by improvised compositions in genres such as (an ancient, austere devotional style) or khayal (a more lyrical and expressive form popular since the ), and conclude with faster rhythmic sections (gat or jhala). Common instruments include the or for melody, for rhythm, and for sustained drone, with vocal traditions dominating due to the music's phonetic and emotive qualities.

Origins and History

Ancient Roots in Sanskritic Tradition

The origins of Hindustani classical music trace back to the ancient Sanskritic traditions of Vedic , where music was intrinsically linked to ritual and spiritual practices. The , one of the four composed around 1500–1200 BCE, represents the earliest documented musical tradition in , consisting of melodies (saman) set to selected hymns from the for use in sacrificial rituals. These chants emphasized intonation and melodic recitation, laying the groundwork for structured by prioritizing the sonic qualities of syllables to invoke divine presence. A pivotal development occurred with the , an encyclopedic treatise attributed to Bharata Muni and dated between approximately 200 BCE and 200 CE, which systematized music as part of a broader framework encompassing drama, dance, and song. In its chapters on music (Chapters 28–33), the text delineates fundamental concepts such as swaras (notes), shrutis (microtonal intervals), and rhythmic structures (tala), establishing music's role in evoking (rasa) during performances. This work drew directly from Vedic chanting practices, adapting principles into a theoretical foundation for instrumental and vocal composition, thereby influencing subsequent Indian musical traditions. By the medieval period, ancient musical theory evolved through texts like the Brihaddeshi, composed by Matanga Muni around the 9th century CE, which introduced the concepts of grama (parent scales, such as Shadja and Madhyama) and murchanas (derived melodic sequences ascending and descending within those scales). This marked a shift toward deshi (regional or folk-influenced) music alongside margi (Vedic or classical) forms, classifying early ragas and emphasizing the emotional and structural diversity of melodies while building on Natya Shastra's foundations. Temples served as key centers for preserving these ideas through oral transmission by priestly lineages and devadasis (temple dancers), ensuring the continuity of melodic patterns and rhythmic cycles amid evolving regional practices. Key figures like , traditionally regarded as a divine sage, contributed significantly through the Sangita Makarandha, a 11th-century text that further refined by detailing classifications, the 22 shrutis with their names, and guidelines for composition and performance. Narada's work synthesized earlier Vedic and post-Vedic ideas, providing practical instructions for vocal and instrumental music that emphasized within defined melodic frameworks, thus bridging ancient chants to more elaborate artistic expressions. Oral guru-shishya (teacher-disciple) traditions in temple and scholarly settings perpetuated these theoretical advancements, safeguarding them from textual loss until later compilations.

Medieval Developments under Islamic Rule

The arrival of Islamic rule in northern , beginning with the in the , marked a pivotal phase in the evolution of Hindustani music through the synthesis of indigenous Sanskritic traditions with Persian and Central Asian elements. This period saw the introduction of Persian musical concepts and instruments via Sufi saints, who facilitated cultural exchange in devotional and courtly settings. Under rulers like Alauddin Khilji (r. 1296–1316), patronage extended to musicians such as , a Sufi and who blended Persian modes (maqams) with Indian ragas, creating hybrid forms like that emphasized ecstatic spiritual expression. Khusrau's innovations, including rhythmic patterns inspired by Persian , laid the groundwork for a fused aesthetic that integrated Hindu devotional elements with Islamic sama (spiritual listening) practices. A key textual bridge between ancient and medieval practices was provided by Sarngadeva's Sangeet Ratnakara (c. 1230–1250), which systematized earlier Natyashastra principles while incorporating evolving regional styles under Sultanate influence. This comprehensive treatise on music, dance, and drama detailed swara (notes), structures, and tala (rhythms), serving as a foundational reference that influenced both courtly and temple music during the transition to Islamic patronage. By preserving and adapting ancient Sanskritic foundations, it enabled the absorption of foreign elements without disrupting core theoretical frameworks. The 15th century witnessed the emergence of as a prominent courtly vocal form, attributed to the patronage of Raja Mansingh Tomar (r. 1486–1516) of , who refined earlier prabandha compositions into a structured style emphasizing textual clarity and rhythmic precision. Tomar's court, a hub of musical innovation, transformed from devotional temple songs into a sophisticated genre suitable for royal assemblies, incorporating lyrics over to broaden accessibility. This development reflected early fusions of Hindu and Muslim elements, as 's milieu drew musicians from diverse backgrounds, fostering a shared . Under the , particularly during Akbar's reign (r. 1556–1605), these syntheses reached new heights through the legendary musician , who refined into a pinnacle of expressive depth and technical mastery. As one of Akbar's (nine jewels), Tansen elevated the form by emphasizing (unmetered improvisation) and bol banao (syllabic elaboration), drawing on Persian rhythmic influences while rooted in Indian elaboration. His compositions and teachings standardized dhrupad for imperial courts, promoting a cosmopolitan style that harmonized Hindu and Islamic sensibilities. Instruments like the been, or —a fretted string instrument with gourd resonators—gained prominence in this era, symbolizing the era's cultural fusion as it adapted ancient veena designs for accompaniment in Mughal ensembles. Played by virtuosos such as , the been's resonant tones facilitated intricate glides (meends) and drone harmonies, blending indigenous construction with courtly performance aesthetics influenced by Persian lutes. This integration exemplified how Islamic rule catalyzed the maturation of Hindustani music into a distinct northern tradition by the .

Modern Evolution and Revival

The advent of British colonial rule in the profoundly disrupted the patronage system that had sustained Hindustani classical music for centuries. As the British East India Company and later annexed princely states, royal courts—traditional benefactors of musicians—faced financial strain and cultural marginalization, leading to a sharp decline in aristocratic support for the art form. British administrators often favored Western musical traditions, viewing Indian classical music as inferior or overly complex, which further eroded its institutional backing. This crisis prompted musicians to adapt by relocating to burgeoning urban centers such as Calcutta, Bombay, and , where they performed in emerging public concert formats organized by music societies and conferences. These urban mehfils and sabhas marked a transition from exclusive courtly settings to more democratic, ticketed performances, broadening access but also commercializing the tradition amid economic pressures. Pioneers like Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, who promoted public performances and , and , who initiated all-India music conferences in the early , worked to standardize and revive the practice, laying groundwork for modern dissemination. A key figure in this revival was (1860–1936), whose scholarly efforts aimed to preserve and systematize Hindustani music against colonial erosion. Through extensive fieldwork documenting oral traditions from gharanas across , Bhatkhande classified ragas into 10 principal thaats—Bilaval, , , Bhairav, Poorvi, Marwa, , , , and —to create a pedagogical framework accessible for notation and teaching, diverging from the fluid, guru-shishya oral methods. He founded institutions like the Marris College of Hindustani Music in (1926), now the Bhatkhande Music Institute Deemed University, to train musicians professionally and promote research, influencing the institutionalization of the art form nationwide. Post-independence in 1947, state initiatives revitalized Hindustani music by integrating it into national cultural policy. (AIR), nationalized and expanded after 1947, became instrumental in broadcasting classical performances daily through programs like Sangeet Sammelan, reaching rural and urban listeners alike and sustaining artists in the absence of royal patrons. , established in 1953 as India's apex body for performing arts, further institutionalized support by awarding fellowships and honors to Hindustani exponents, organizing national festivals, and funding archives to document and promote the tradition. Twentieth-century innovations propelled Hindustani music toward global horizons, particularly through fusions with Western idioms led by (1920–2012). Shankar's collaborations, such as his 1960s recordings with violinist and influences on —exemplified by George Harrison's adoption of the in "Norwegian Wood"—blended ragas with Western harmony and rhythm, introducing Hindustani concepts to international audiences via concerts at venues like the Monterey Pop Festival (1967). These efforts not only disseminated the music worldwide but also inspired cross-genre experiments, embedding and in global pop and classical repertoires while affirming Hindustani music's adaptability in modern contexts.

Core Theoretical Principles

Swaras, Shrutis, and Scales

Hindustani classical music employs seven primary notes, known as swaras, which form the foundational pitches of its melodic system: Shadja (Sa), Rishabh (Re), Gandhar (Ga), Madhyam (Ma), Pancham (Pa), Dhaivat (Dha), and Nishad (Ni). These swaras are organized within an octave, or , spanning from the lower Sa to the upper Sa, with Sa and Pa designated as fixed (achal) tones that do not vary. The remaining swaras—Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni—can appear in natural (shuddha) form, while Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni may also be flattened by a to produce the komal variant, and Ma can be sharpened by a to become tivra; these alterations allow for the chromatic flexibility essential to construction. Underlying this system is the ancient concept of shrutis, which represent 22 microtonal intervals that divide the into finer gradations than the Western 12 semitones. As formalized in Bharata Muni's (circa 200 BCE–200 CE), shrutis provide the subtle pitch variations—known as andolan or gamak—that enable expressive nuances in , with the seven swaras emerging as groupings of these microtones. The is thus partitioned such that the total span equals 22 shrutis, allowing for precise intonation adjustments that distinguish Hindustani music's fluid tonality from systems. This microtonal framework, while theoretical, informs practical tuning on instruments like the or , where performers approximate shrutis through string bends and finger placements. For systematic classification of melodic structures, the system organizes scales into 10 parent frameworks, each a (using seven ) proposed by musicologist in his early 20th-century treatise Hindustani Sangeet Paddhati. These serve as melodic templates from which ragas are derived by selective omission or alteration of notes, facilitating pedagogical analysis without prescribing rigid performance rules. The 10 are:
ThaatKey Swara Alterations (from base)
All shuddha (natural equivalent)
Tivra Ma
Komal Ni
Komal Ga, Ni
Komal Ga, Dha, Ni; shuddha Re
BhairavKomal Re, Dha
Komal Re, Ga, Dha; tivra Ma
PurviTivra Ma; komal Re, Dha
MarwaTivra Ma; komal Re
Komal Re, Ga, Dha, Ni
Within these scales, two notes hold particular prominence in shaping melodic emphasis: the vadi, or dominant note, which is the most frequently used and structurally central , often determining the raga's character and appearing prominently in key phrases; and the samvadi, the note, which supports the vadi as the second most important tone, typically positioned a or fifth away to create consonance. These emphatic tones guide , reinforcing the scale's identity while allowing performers to highlight emotional depth through repeated invocation.

Ragas: Structure and Classification

In Hindustani classical music, a raga serves as a melodic framework defined by a specific sequence of swaras, or notes, arranged according to prescribed rules for ascent (aroha) and descent (avaroha). The aroha outlines the ascending scale, while the avaroha specifies the descending one, often incorporating variations that highlight the raga's unique identity. Additionally, each raga features a pakad, a distinctive short phrase or motif that encapsulates its characteristic movement and essence, guiding performers in improvisation while maintaining structural integrity. Central to the raga's aesthetic is its association with rasa, the theory of emotional essence derived from the ancient treatise by Bharata Muni, which posits that artistic expressions like music evoke specific sentiments through the interplay of stimuli, physical responses, and transient emotions. In this framework, ragas are linked to particular rasas, such as devotion (bhakti rasa) evoked by , which instills a sense of serenity and spiritual introspection. This emotional mapping ensures that ragas not only provide melodic structure but also cultivate a profound affective response in listeners and performers. Ragas in Hindustani music are classified primarily through the system, a framework of ten parent scales proposed by musicologist in the early to organize the vast repertoire based on shared note combinations. Each uses seven swaras and serves as a reference for deriving multiple ragas, differing from the Carnatic system, which employs 72 systematically generated parent ragas derived from 12-note permutations. For instance, Raga Yaman belongs to the Kalyan , featuring a sharpened fourth note (shuddha madhyam), and is traditionally performed in the evening to align with its evocative mood of calm reverence. Further refinement in structure comes from jati, which categorizes ragas by the number of notes employed in the aroha and avaroha. Common jatis include (seven notes in both ascent and descent), shadav (six notes), and audav (five notes); a hybrid like audav-sampoorna uses five notes in the ascent and seven in the descent, as seen in Raga Des, allowing for varied melodic density and expressiveness. This classification emphasizes conceptual hierarchy over exhaustive enumeration, prioritizing the raga's evocative potential.

Talas: Rhythmic Cycles

In Hindustani classical music, tala refers to a repeating cycle of beats, known as matras, that provides the rhythmic foundation for performances. Each tala is structured into sections called vibhags, which are delineated by hand gestures: claps (tali) on emphasized beats and waves (khali) on unemphasized ones, creating a sense of emphasis and release within the cycle. The first beat of the tala, called sam, serves as the point of resolution and synchronization for musicians, marking the commencement of each repetition or avartan. This cyclic structure ensures rhythmic coherence, allowing performers to improvise while adhering to a predefined temporal framework. Common talas vary in length and division, with some of the most frequently used in Hindustani music including (also known as ), rupak, and . consists of 16 divided evenly into four vibhags of 4 beats each (), featuring tali on the 1st, 5th, and 13th and khali on the 9th, providing a balanced and versatile rhythm suitable for extended improvisations. Rupak has 7 structured as 3+2+2, with tali on the 1st and khali on the 4th, offering a more asymmetrical feel often employed in lighter compositions. comprises 12 in the pattern 2+2+2+2+2+2, with tali on the 1st, 5th, and 9th and khali on the 3rd, 7th, and 11th, making it ideal for expressive vocal forms. These talas, along with their vibhags and sam, form the core rhythmic vocabulary, enabling precise coordination between soloists and accompanists. The theka represents the fundamental percussive pattern of bols (syllabic strokes) that outlines the tala, typically played on the or pakhawaj to maintain the and guide the . It establishes the basic groove, with variations allowing for elaboration while preserving the tala's integrity. , or laya, further defines the execution of the tala, categorized as vilambit (slow, emphasizing elaboration), madhya (medium, for balanced development), and drut (fast, for energetic culmination), influencing the overall pace and intensity of a performance. The theka's role in sustaining laya ensures that improvisations remain anchored to the cyclic structure. Historically, the concept of tala evolved from ancient rhythmic frameworks known as jatis, described in Bharata's Natyashastra (circa 200 BCE–200 CE) as metrical units derived from poetic meters, which provided early guidelines for percussion and . During the medieval period, under Islamic influences, these developed into more complex prabandhas—structured song forms that integrated tala with textual and melodic elements—leading to the formalized talas of the modern Hindustani tradition by the , as systematized by scholars like . This progression from Vedic-era chanting rhythms to sophisticated cycles reflects the adaptation of tala as a dynamic tool for .

Musical Forms and Compositions

Dhrupad: Ancient Vocal Form

, the oldest extant form of Hindustani classical , originated in the amid the devotional practices of temple traditions and the patronage of regional courts in northern . It evolved from ancient Vedic chanting and early medieval forms, with significant systematization attributed to the patronage of Raja Mansingh Tomar of around the late , who commissioned texts like the Manakutuhala to codify . Initially performed in Hindu temples by singers facing the or by wandering Vaishnava mendicants, dhrupad transitioned to royal courts under Hindu rulers, emphasizing its austere, spiritual essence through texts in Brajbhasha praising deities such as Krishna or . The structure of a dhrupad performance is rigidly formalized, beginning with the alap, an unmetered improvisation that methodically explores the raga's swaras and shrutis to evoke its emotional core, often lasting extended durations to build meditative depth. This leads into the composed section, or bandish, typically in praise of a deity, structured in four parts: the sthayi (refrain in the middle octave's lower tetrachord and lower octave notes for stability), antara (upper section using the middle octave's upper tetrachord for ascent), sanchari (transitional elaboration), and abhog (concluding reinforcement). The performance then accelerates rhythmically through the jor (pulsed but unmetered development) and jhala (fast, repetitive strumming-like vocal patterns), culminating in the metered dhrupad proper set to a tala like Chautal or Dhamar. Dhrupad is preserved through distinct gharanas, or stylistic lineages, with the two primary ones being Dagarbani (also known as Dagar vani) and Khandarbani (Khandar vani), each emphasizing unique interpretive approaches to elaboration and vocal . Dagarbani, associated with the Dagar family, prioritizes profound, introspective and subtle nom-tom syllables for rhythmic sections, as exemplified in performances of in Bhairav, where the raga's grave, devotional mood is unfolded through slow, resonant explorations of komal re and dha. Khandarbani, linked to the tradition, incorporates more ornate melodic phrasing while maintaining austerity, often drawing from 16th-century compositions. Following the decline of Mughal patronage in the , waned in popularity due to its inflexible format and the rise of more accessible styles like , which offered greater improvisational freedom as a successor form. By the , it had become marginalized, surviving mainly in isolated temple and court settings with dwindling audiences. The 20th-century revival was spearheaded by the Dagar Brothers—Ustad Nasir Moinuddin Dagar and Ustad Nasir Aminuddin Dagar—from the Dagarbani lineage, who, supported by and musicologist , performed extensively in Europe starting in the mid-1960s, reintroducing dhrupad's depth to global audiences and inspiring subsequent generations of practitioners.

Khyal: Expressive Improvisational Style

Khyal emerged in the as a lighter and more versatile vocal form in Hindustani classical music, offering greater scope for personal expression compared to the rigid and devotional . This development occurred during the later Mughal period, when musicians sought a style that incorporated romantic poetic themes and intricate ornamentation while retaining core elements of and tala. Attributed to innovators like (Niyamat Khan) in the of , khyal quickly gained prominence for its emphasis on the singer's creativity and emotional depth. At the heart of a performance is the , a short poetic composition in a chosen , structured into two main parts: the sthayi, which explores the lower and middle registers of the raga, and the antara, which ascends to the upper for contrast and climax. The serves as the anchor for , allowing performers to elaborate on its and while adhering to the raga's rules. Unlike dhrupad's extended , khyal's bandish is concise, typically set in languages like or , evoking themes of love, longing, or nature. A typical khyal rendition unfolds in three tempo-based sections to build intensity and showcase virtuosity. It begins with the vilambit khyal, rendered in a slow (often in or at around 5-10 beats per minute), where the performer delves deeply into the raga's mood through expansive melodic explorations, subtle microtonal variations (gamakas), and emotional phrasing. This is followed by the madhya laya (medium ) section, transitioning to faster elaborations that introduce rhythmic play within the tala cycle. The performance culminates in the drut khyal (fast , commonly in ), featuring rapid improvisations to demonstrate technical prowess. Improvisation is central to khyal, enabling raga-specific interpretations that highlight the performer's individuality. Sargam singing involves vocalizing the solfege notes (sa re ga ma) in intricate patterns to outline the raga's scale and phrases, often bridging the vilambit and madhya sections. Taans are swift, flowing melodic runs that cascade through the raga's notes, varying in speed and complexity to evoke exhilaration; bol-taans incorporate rhythmic syllables (bols) from the bandish, weaving them into fast-paced sequences for added lyrical texture. In raga Yaman, a bright and versatile evening raga, khyal performers often employ sparkling taans to accentuate its ascending phrases, creating a sense of upliftment. Conversely, in raga Darbari Kanada, a profound night raga, the style emphasizes weighted, emotive bol-taans and slow sargams to convey melancholy and introspection. Khyal's expressive potential has been shaped by various gharanas, or stylistic schools, which preserve distinct approaches to and ornamentation. The , founded in the by Haddu and Hassu Khan, prioritizes bold taans and bol-baant (syllable-based elaborations) for dynamic energy, making it ideal for fast-paced drut sections. In contrast, the , established by in the early 20th century, favors a contemplative style with prolonged vilambit explorations, intricate sargams, and subtle taans that underscore emotional nuance over speed. These lineages have ensured khyal's evolution as the dominant form of Hindustani , influencing generations of performers.

Semi-Classical Forms: Thumri, Tappa, Tarana, and Ghazal

Semi-classical forms in Hindustani music bridge the gap between rigorous classical structures and more accessible, emotive expressions, incorporating folk rhythms, poetic lyrics, and lighter improvisational techniques while adhering to ragas and talas. Unlike the profound elaboration in , these genres prioritize lyrical charm, rhythmic playfulness, and thematic intimacy, often drawing from regional traditions to evoke romance, devotion, or longing. Thumri, a quintessential semi-classical vocal style, originated in the 19th century within the courts of , particularly under the patronage of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, and is closely tied to the . It centers on bol-banaav, a technique where performers weave intricate melodic variations around the words of the composition to heighten emotional expression, typically exploring themes of shringara (romantic love) or (devotion) in flexible ragas such as or . Thumri manifests in distinct regional variants: the purab ang of the Banaras gharana, which adopts a slower, more introspective pace with devotional undertones; and the style, characterized by its lighter, dance-like fluidity influenced by , allowing for greater rhythmic elaboration and audience appeal. Tappa emerged in the late as a refined of folk songs sung by drivers in and , credited to the composer Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori (1742–1792), a prominent in the court of . This form is defined by its rapid, intricate delivery of short, knotty melodic phrases and rhythmic syllables, emulating the improvisational and imitative quality of those pastoral tunes, often set to lively talas like tintal or ektaal. Commonly performed in ragas such as or , tappa showcases vocal agility through swift taans and bol-taans, blending classical precision with folk vitality to create a sense of playful momentum. Tarana stands out for its emphasis on pure rhythmic and melodic virtuosity, employing non-lexical syllables like "ta na na," "dir dir tom," and "re ni tom" to construct fast-paced compositions that highlight the performer's technical prowess without relying on semantic content. Evolving within the Hindustani tradition as a more dynamic offshoot, possibly influenced by medieval Persian elements, tarana allows for elaborate taan patterns and layakari (rhythmic variations), often in medium to fast tempos, providing a percussive showcase akin to instrumental jagata. It typically unfolds in ragas like Yaman or , with the syllable-based structure enabling seamless transitions between elaboration and climax, making it a favored form for demonstrating speed and precision. Ghazal, adapted from its Urdu poetic origins into a semi-classical musical genre, structures performances around a series of rhyming couplets (sher), beginning with the matla (opening couplet where both lines rhyme) and unified by the recurring radif (refrain) and qafiya (rhyme scheme preceding it). In Hindustani renditions, it prioritizes the melodic interpretation of themes like unrequited love, mysticism, or melancholy, set to simple ragas such as Yaman or Darbari Kanada, with subtle improvisations enhancing the poetic mood. The form gained widespread prominence through vocalists like Begum Akhtar (1914–1974), whose expressive style integrated classical finesse with emotional depth, elevating ghazal from literary recitations to a cherished concert staple.

Performance Practices

Role of Improvisation and Alap

Improvisation forms the creative core of Hindustani classical music performances, allowing musicians to explore and expand the chosen in real time while adhering to its structural and emotional guidelines. Unlike fixed compositions in Western classical traditions, Hindustani improvisation emphasizes spontaneity within established rules, enabling performers to convey the raga's inherent mood (rasa) through nuanced variations. This process engages listeners by introducing elements of surprise, such as unexpected resolutions or rhythmic displacements, fostering a dynamic interplay between and . The alap serves as the foundational improvisational segment, typically performed without percussion accompaniment and in an unmetered (alapa) style to introduce the raga's essence. It begins with slow, deliberate explorations of the lowest swaras in the (lower ), gradually ascending through the (middle ) to the taar saptak (upper ), thereby unfolding the raga's scalar structure and characteristic phrases. This methodical progression evokes the raga's prescribed mood—whether contemplative, romantic, or devotional—through expansive melodic lines and subtle pauses, creating an intimate, meditative atmosphere before rhythmic elements enter. In metered sections following the , such as those in performances, manifests through various taan types that add virtuosity and expressiveness. Aakaar taans are vocalized on the "a" (aah), emphasizing pure melodic flow; bol taans incorporate rhythmic syllables (bols) from the composition for a lyrical, quality; and sapaat taans deliver straight, linear sequences of notes for clarity and speed. These taans transition the performance from the free-flowing to structured rhythmic cycles, often cued by the percussionist's theka—a repeating pattern on the that establishes the tala—allowing the soloist to build tension and release through accelerating patterns. Expressiveness in both alap and taans relies on ornamental principles like gamak and meend, which enhance the music's emotional depth. Gamak involves rapid oscillations around a swara, adding vibrancy and intensity, while meend refers to smooth glides connecting notes, simulating natural vocal inflections and evoking pathos or serenity. These techniques, integral to raga interpretation, ensure that improvisation remains rooted in aesthetic discipline rather than mere display.

Gharanas: Schools and Lineages

Gharanas represent familial or regional schools within Hindustani classical music, evolving primarily in the from the ustad-shishya parampara, where knowledge was transmitted through close guru-disciple relationships amid the decline of Mughal court patronage. These lineages formalized distinct interpretive styles, emphasizing specific techniques in rendition, rhythmic elaboration, and vocal aesthetics, allowing musicians to preserve and innovate within structured traditions. Among the prominent vocal gharanas, the Gwalior gharana stands as the oldest in khayal singing, characterized by its straightforward, lucid approach with clear enunciation of swaras and a focus on bol-baant (syllabic improvisation) for accessibility and purity. The Agra gharana is renowned for its powerful, robust vocal delivery, incorporating nom-tom alaps and intricate meends (glides) to convey emotional intensity and depth. In contrast, the Kirana gharana prioritizes slow, deliberate elaboration through aakaar (vowel-based) alap, emphasizing swara purity, emotional subtlety, and intricate melodic explorations without excessive ornamentation. The Patiala gharana distinguishes itself with complex taans—rapid, virtuosic melodic runs—and layakari (rhythmic variations), often favoring pentatonic ragas for dynamic, expressive performances that blend khayal with semi-classical elements. Finally, the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana is noted for its scholarly depth, employing vakra (circuitous) patterns, complex rhythmic structures, and a repertoire of rare or compound ragas such as Nat Kamod and Kaushi Kanada, which demand precise technical mastery. Key lineages trace back to foundational figures like the 16th-century maestro , whose disciples influenced early khayal developments, particularly in the tradition, evolving through generations of ustads who adapted styles under regional patronage. This heritage continued into the modern era with innovators such as Ustad , who formalized the in the early 20th century by synthesizing influences from and his family's traditions, emphasizing lyrical finesse and emotional restraint. Similarly, Ustad Alladiya Khan established the Jaipur-Atrauli lineage in the late , passing down a rigorous, intellect-driven approach that prioritized obscure ragas and geometric taan constructions. Over time, gharanas have evolved amid debates on maintaining stylistic purity versus embracing innovation, with 20th-century musicians increasingly blending elements across schools—such as incorporating Patiala's rhythmic flair into Kirana's melodic focus—to adapt to global audiences and recording technologies, while purists advocate for unadulterated transmission to preserve core identities. This tension has spurred hybrid forms, yet the gharana system endures as a framework for , ensuring stylistic diversity in performances.

Vocal and Instrumental Techniques

In Hindustani classical music, vocal techniques are foundational to conveying the raga's emotional depth through precise control and ornamentation. Breath control, often practiced via exercises, enables singers to sustain long phrases and maintain steady airflow during extended alaps, enhancing vocal stamina and tonal purity. Throat articulation plays a crucial role in executing meends, which are smooth glissandos gliding between notes to evoke subtle emotional nuances within the structure. Additionally, nom-tom techniques involve percussive syllables such as "nom," "tom," and "tanom" in non-rhythmic alaps, particularly in dhrupad-style presentations, to explore tonal colors without metrical constraints. Instrumental techniques mirror vocal expressiveness while adapting to the instrument's mechanics. On the , jawari refers to the characteristic buzzing produced by the shaped bridge, which amplifies string vibrations to create a resonant, shimmering quality essential for elaboration. For the , plucking employs wire plectra worn on the tara (index) and koti (middle) fingers of the right hand to produce strokes on the melodic strings, allowing for intricate gamakas and note transitions that mimic vocal inflections. Sargam solos, where instrumentalists play solfege syllables (sa, re, ga, etc.) in sequence, serve as a bridge between vocal and instrumental rendition, facilitating exposition and technical precision. Accompaniment techniques integrate rhythmically to support the soloist without overpowering the improvisation. The pakhawaj provides robust, bass-heavy strokes in performances, emphasizing the form's ancient, meditative pulse through techniques like dugun and layakari variations. In , the offers synergistic rhythmic interplay, often cued by a lehara—a repeating melodic drone on or harmonium—to maintain tala orientation during fast-paced improvisations. Training in these techniques, known as sadhana, involves rigorous repetitive practice to internalize patterns and structures, building and . recitation, chanting sequences of ragas or their swaras, aids in and conceptual grasp during early stages. Gharana-specific variations, such as the gharana's emphasis on intricate nom-tom alaps, refine these skills through lineage traditions.

Instruments

String Instruments

String instruments form the melodic core of Hindustani classical music, with their designs emphasizing , microtonal precision, and improvisational expressiveness through plucked strings. These instruments evolved from ancient Indian veenas and incorporated Persian influences during the Mughal era, particularly from the , a three-stringed that contributed to the development of long-necked, sympathetic-stringed lutes in . The , for instance, emerged in the as a hybrid, initially resembling a small Persian before expanding in size and string count to suit elaboration. The , a fretted plucked , gained prominence in the through the efforts of , who popularized it globally via concerts and collaborations that introduced Hindustani music to Western audiences. Its body features a resonating at the base, often carved from wood for the neck and tumba (gourd resonator), enhancing sustain and harmonic richness. Typically equipped with 6–7 main playing strings (including melody and drone), plus 11–13 beneath the frets that vibrate in response to the raga's scale, the sitar allows for intricate meend (glides) and gamak (oscillations). Closely related is the surbahar, a bass variant of the sitar developed in the 19th century, featuring a larger body and longer scale length for deeper tones suitable for slow explorations in ragas. The , a fretless prized for its fluid , underwent significant refinement in the 20th century by , who standardized its construction for enhanced tonal clarity and responsiveness in Hindustani performances. It comprises a wooden body covered with goat skin for warmth, a metal to facilitate smooth slides, and a total of about 25 strings—typically 4–5 main melody strings, 1–2 drones, 9–11 , and chikari strings for rhythmic punctuation—all made of steel or for a bright, resonant . The , an ancient fretted instrument also known as the been, holds a revered place in traditions, its robust build supporting profound bass registers and meditative renditions. Constructed from a long tubular body of wood or , it features two large resonators—one at each end—for amplified depth, along with 4–5 main strings over movable frets and additional tuned to the . The , a short-necked bowed , is a vital instrument in Hindustani classical music, particularly renowned for its ability to emulate in vocal accompaniments and solo performances. Measuring approximately 76 cm (30 inches) long, it features a broad carved from a single block of tun wood, with three to four main gut or strings played with a bow made from , and up to 35–40 sympathetic metal strings that resonate to produce a rich, emotive timbre. Its playing technique involves pressing the strings with the fingernails rather than fingertips, allowing for intricate microtonal slides (meend) and oscillations that closely mimic vocal nuances, making it indispensable in and genres. The evolved from ancient bowed instruments and gained prominence in the 16th–17th centuries under Mughal patronage, though its complexity has led to fewer practitioners in modern times.

Wind and Percussion Instruments

The is a transverse flute central to Hindustani classical music, constructed from a single piece of with seven finger holes and no keys, allowing for subtle pitch variations through finger positioning and breath control. Its simple design produces a soft, breathy tone suited to melodic in ragas, particularly ones evoking nature such as Megh, where its flowing phrases mimic rain and clouds. Originally a associated with Krishna's mythology, the bansuri gained prominence in classical music during the 20th century through masters like , who elevated it to solo status with his Maihar training and global performances. The , a double-reed conical , serves as a prominent in Hindustani traditions, crafted from with a widening metal bell and nine finger holes for producing piercing, nasal tones. Its continuous, unbroken sound—achieved via , where performers inhale nasally while expelling stored air from the cheeks—makes it ideal for auspicious occasions like weddings and temple rituals, symbolizing and . Elevated to classical status by Ustad Bismillah Khan in the mid-20th century, the now features in raga-based solos, blending folk ceremonial roots with intricate improvisations. Among percussion instruments, the consists of a pair of hand-played : the wooden dayan (right drum) for treble notes and the or bayan (left drum) for bass , both topped with syahi (black tuning paste) to alter . Emerging in the as an evolution from earlier barrel , it became the primary rhythmic accompaniment in Hindustani music, supporting talas through bols—mnemonic syllables like "dha" (bass stroke on bayan) and "tin" (sharp ring on dayan). These bols facilitate and composition, enabling complex rhythms in and instrumental performances. The pakhawaj, a large barrel-shaped with two tuned heads stretched over a wooden or clay body, provides deep, resonant percussion primarily for compositions in Hindustani music. Its bass head (left, akin to a bayan) yields profound low tones via open palm slaps, while the treble head (right) uses finger strikes for higher pitches, creating a fuller, more grounded sound than the . This instrument's techniques, including layered slaps on the left head for depth, align with dhrupad's stately and unadorned style, often accompanying vocalists or string players in cyclic talas.

Vocal Traditions and Accompaniment

Hindustani classical music places at its core, viewing it as the paramount medium for realizing the subtleties of ragas and , with instrumental forms often emulating vocal phrasing in a style termed gayaki ang. This vocal-centric conception underscores the tradition's emphasis on melodic fluidity and intonation, where instruments like the or seek to replicate the voice's natural inflections rather than assert independence. Vocal training in Hindustani music has evolved significantly, transitioning from the 19th-century of baijis—skilled singers in courtly and urban settings who imparted khayal and techniques—to structured programs in contemporary academies such as the ITC Sangeet Research Academy. Practitioners master the voice's registers, including the mandra (lower , produced from the chest), madhya (middle , from the throat), and taar (upper , from the head), to achieve seamless transitions and expressive range across octaves. These registers enable singers to navigate the raga's full spectrum, enhancing depth in performances. Accompaniment in Hindustani vocal recitals relies on the , which sustains a drone on the tonic Sa and fifth Pa to anchor the modal framework and provide without interfering with . The harmonium emerged as a melodic support instrument in the mid-19th century, introduced via colonial influences, but its equal-tempered fixed pitches have sparked ongoing debates among purists for clashing with the tradition's microtonal subtleties. Typical ensembles center on a solo vocalist supported by the for rhythmic cycles (tala) and occasionally a like the or a plucked one like the for , maintaining focus on the voice. , collaborative duets between contrasting instruments or voice and instrument—such as and —remain exceptional, highlighting interplay while preserving vocal dominance. Vocal techniques like taans, rapid note sequences, exemplify the singer's virtuosity within this supportive framework.

Cultural Impact and Contemporary Scene

Major Festivals and Events

Hindustani classical music thrives through a vibrant array of annual festivals across India, serving as vital platforms for performances, guru-shishya interactions, and the preservation of traditional forms. These events attract musicians from various gharanas and draw large audiences, fostering cultural continuity and appreciation. The Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Mahotsav, held annually in Pune since 1953, stands as one of the most prestigious gatherings dedicated to Hindustani classical music. Initiated by Pandit Bhimsen Joshi to commemorate the first death anniversary of his guru, the Kirana gharana maestro Sawai Gandharva, the festival spans five days in December and features vocal and instrumental recitals by leading artists from multiple gharanas. Organized by the Arya Sangeet Prasarak Mandal, it has evolved into a multi-venue event at the Maharashtra Mandal Kreeda Sankul, showcasing khyal, dhrupad, and other forms while emphasizing improvisation and lineage traditions. In 2019, it marked its 67th edition under the executive direction of Shrinivas Joshi, son of Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, drawing thousands of attendees and honoring the guru's legacy through competitive and non-competitive performances. In Kolkata, the Dover Lane Music Conference, established in 1952 by a group of local music enthusiasts from the Dover Lane neighborhood, has become a cornerstone for Hindustani classical presentations. Originally a modest neighborhood gathering, it shifted focus to classical music in the late 1950s and now unfolds over three nights in late January at the Nazrul Mancha auditorium, prioritizing khyal and dhrupad genres alongside rare compositions. The conference invites both established and emerging artists, including international performers, and includes lecture-demonstrations to educate audiences on rhythmic and melodic intricacies. By 2022, it celebrated its 70th year, underscoring its role in sustaining Kolkata's rich classical heritage amid evolving cultural landscapes. The Sangeet Samaroh in honors the 16th-century musician , a pivotal figure in Hindustani music, through an annual four-day festival in December at his tomb in Behat village. Organized by the government, it revives rare forms such as and features recitals by exponents of these styles, often accompanied by demonstrations of techniques. The event, which began as a tribute to Tansen's contributions to development, integrates cultural elements like craft exhibitions and has grown to include performances across multiple venues in the city. In 2023, it spanned December 24 to 28, attracting artists who perform under the historic tomb's arches, emphasizing the festival's connection to music's Mughal-era roots. The 2024 edition marked the 100th year of the shatabdi celebrations, highlighting its enduring significance in promoting classical authenticity. Regional festivals further enrich this landscape, with the in representing the oldest continuous Hindustani music gathering, dating back to 1875. Founded by Baba Harivallabh at the Sidh Peeth-Shri Devi Talab to memorialize his guru, Dhrupad exponent Baba Tuljagiri, the annual December event begins with a traditional and unfolds over four days, featuring , , and instrumental solos by artists from Punjab's musical lineages. Officially formalized in by local elites, it remains a sacred venue where performers from various gharanas converge, preserving the devotional ethos of early North Indian classical traditions. Complementing such events, the Society for the Promotion of Indian Classical Music and Culture Amongst Youth (), active since 1977, plays a crucial role in campuses by organizing concerts, workshops, and lecture-demonstrations of Hindustani music in schools and colleges nationwide, introducing younger generations to gharana-based performances and techniques.

Notable Artists and Global Influence

Hindustani classical music has been profoundly shaped by pioneering vocalists such as Pandit Bhimsen Joshi (1922–2011), a leading exponent of the renowned for his powerful voice, emotive depth, and mastery of khayal singing. Joshi's performances were characterized by intricate taans, precise laya, and a meditative quality that blended tradition with spontaneity, earning him the in 2008. Similarly, Pandit (1924–1992) revolutionized the tradition through his innovative approach, drawing from folk influences in to create new ragas known as Dhun Ugam ragas, which fused classical structures with regional melodies. His concise, evocative style emphasized and emotional intensity, influencing subsequent generations in Hindustani vocal music. Instrumentalists have also elevated Hindustani music's profile, with (1920–2012) globalizing the through extensive tours in the and collaborations with Western artists, introducing ragas and improvisational techniques to international audiences. Shankar's appearances at events like the Monterey Pop Festival and his teachings popularized the instrument, bridging Eastern and Western musical worlds. Complementing this, Ustad Zakir Hussain (1951–2024), a virtuoso from the , expanded percussion's role with his dynamic solos, rhythmic innovations, and fusions across genres, earning multiple for his contributions to classical and . Hussain's global performances and collaborations underscored the tabla's versatility in Hindustani ensembles. Women artists like (1913–2009), a stalwart, broke significant barriers in a male-dominated field, overcoming caste and gender prejudices to become a revered khayal singer known for her deep, resonant voice and bold interpretations of ragas. Hangal's perseverance challenged societal norms, inspiring female participation in classical music and earning her the . The global influence of Hindustani classical music has grown through diaspora communities in the UK and , where artists maintain traditions via academies and concerts, fostering appreciation. In Bollywood, ragas and talas from Hindustani forms are integrated into film scores, blending classical elements with popular genres to reach worldwide audiences. This fusion, alongside tours by figures like Shankar and Hussain, has embedded Hindustani motifs in global music, from rock to contemporary world beats.

Preservation and Modern Adaptations

Institutions such as the ITC Sangeet Research Academy in play a pivotal role in preserving Hindustani classical music through rigorous training and documentation. Established in 1977 as a public , the academy upholds the guru-shishya parampara by providing advanced education to scholars in vocal and instrumental forms, ensuring the transmission of traditional techniques and compositions. Similarly, the Faculty of Performing Arts at includes dedicated departments for vocal and instrumental music, offering to research-level programs that integrate Hindustani classical training with scholarly research, fostering a new generation of performers and academics. Digital preservation efforts have expanded access to Hindustani music archives since the , with the ITC Sangeet Research Academy maintaining a vast repository of audio recordings that document performances and teaching sessions for educational and research purposes. Mobile applications like "Indian Classical Ragas" enable users to learn structures, including aaroh, avaroh, and vadi-samvadi notes, through interactive lessons tailored for beginners and enthusiasts. Platforms such as Ragya further support this by curating time-specific playlists, aligning with traditional prahar associations to promote daily engagement with the music. Modern adaptations of Hindustani classical music include fusion genres that blend traditional elements with contemporary styles, exemplified by the band , which integrates ragas and folk melodies with rock and to create accessible yet innovative compositions. In film scores, artists like have contributed by composing and performing pieces such as "" for , infusing rhythms and Hindustani vocal techniques into cinematic narratives. However, these adaptations face challenges from , where market-driven productions often prioritize popularity over authenticity, leading to diluted interpretations of core principles. Declining patronage exacerbates these issues, as reduced funding from traditional sources like royal courts—now largely replaced by sporadic corporate sponsorships—forces musicians to seek alternative livelihoods, threatening the depth of training and performance quality. Youth engagement has surged through platforms like , where short-form videos and tutorials on ragas attract younger audiences, adapting complex concepts into digestible content to counter the genre's perceived elitism. The from 2020 to 2022 accelerated a shift to virtual concerts, with initiatives like HCL Concerts' "Baithak" series enabling live-streamed performances of Hindustani music and , sustaining artist visibility and audience connection amid lockdowns. This digital pivot, while innovative, highlighted ongoing vulnerabilities in live performance ecosystems.

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