Pigeon pea

The scientific name for the genus Cajanus and the species cajan derive from the Malay word katjang (modern spelling: kacang) meaning legume in reference to the bean of the plant.^[5]

In English they are commonly referred to as pigeon pea which originates from the historical utilization of the pulse as pigeon fodder in Barbados.^[6][7] The term Congo pea and Angola pea developed due to the presence of its cultivation in Africa and the association of its utilization with those of African descent.^[8][9] The names no-eye pea and red gram both refer to the characteristics of the seed, with no-eye pea in reference to the lack of a hilum blotch on most varieties, unlike the black-eyed pea, and red gram in reference to the red color of most Indian varieties and gram simply referring to the plant being a legume.^[10]

In Benin the pigeon pea is locally known as klouékoun in Fon, otinin in Ede and eklui in Adja.^[11] In Cape Verde they are called Fixon Kongu in Cape Verdean creole.^[12] In Comoros and Mauritius they are known as embrevade or ambrebdade in Comorian^[13] and Morisyen, respectively, in return originating from the Malagasy term for the plant amberivatry.^[14] In Ghana they are known as aduwa or adowa in Dagbani.^[15][16] In Kenya and Tanzania they are known as mbaazi in Swahili.^[17] In Malawi they are called nandolo in Chichewa.^[18] In Nigeria pigeon peas are called fiofio or mgbụmgbụ in Igbo,^[19][20] waken-masar, 'Egyptian bean'^[21] or waken-turawa, 'foreigner bean'^[22] in Hausa,^[23] and òtílí in Yoruba.^[24] In Sudan they are known as adaseya, adasy or adasia (Arabic: عدسيه).^[25][26][27]

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In India the plant is known by various different names such as

• Assamese: ৰহৰ মাহ rohor mah, মিৰি মাহ miri-mah
• Bengali: অড়হর arahar
• Gujarati: તુવેર tuver
• Hindi: अरहर arhar, तुवर tuvar
• Kannada: ತೊಗರಿ ಬೇಳೆ togari bele, ತೊವರಿ, ತೊಗರಿ ಕಾಳು togari kalu
• Konkani: तोरी tori
• Malayalam: ആഢകി adhaki or തുവര tuvara
• Meitei: মাইৰোংবী mairongbi
• Marathi: तूर tur
• Nepali: रहर rahar
• Odia: ହରଡ଼ harada, କାକ୍ଷୀ kakhyi, ତୁବର tubara
• Punjabi: ਦਿੰਗੇਰ dinger
• Tamil: ஆடகி adhaki, இருப்புலி iruppuli, காய்ச்சி kaycci and துவரை tuvarai
• Telugu: కంది kandi, ఆఢకి adhaki, తొగరి togari, తువరము tuvaramu^{[citation needed]}
• Tibetan: tu ba ri
• Urdu: ارهر arhar, توأر tuar
• Sanskrit: तुवरी tuvaree, आढकी Aadhakee

^[28][29]

In Persian, it is known as شاخول shakhul and is popular in dishes. In the Philippines they are known as Kadios in Filipino and Kadyos in Tagalog.^[30][31]

In Latin America,^[32] they are known as guandul or gandul in Spanish, and feijão andu or gandu in Portuguese all of which derive from Kikongo wandu or from Kimbundu oanda; both names referring to the same plant.^{[33][34][35][36]}

In the Anglophone regions of the Caribbean, like Jamaica,^[37] they are known as Gungo peas, coming from the more archaic English name for the plant congo pea, given to the plant because of its popularity and relation to Sub-Saharan Africa.^[38][39]

In Francophone regions of the Caribbean they are known as pois d' angole,^[40] pwa di bwa in Antillean creole^[41] and pwa kongo in Haitian creole.^[42]

In Suriname they are known as wandoe^[43] or gele pesi,^[44] the former of which is derived from the same source as its Spanish and Portuguese counterparts, the latter of which literally translates to 'yellow pea' from Dutch and Sranan Tongo.

In Hawaii they are known as pi pokoliko, 'Puerto Rican pea' or pi nunu, 'pigeon pea' in the Hawaiian language.^[45]

The closest relatives to the cultivated pigeon pea are Cajanus cajanifolia, Cajanus scarabaeoides, and Cajanus kerstingii, native to India and the latter West Africa respectively.^[46][47][48] Much debate exist over the geographical origin of the species, with some groups claiming origin from the Nile river and Western Africa, and the other Indian origin.^[49] The two epicenters of genetic diversity exist in both Africa and India, but India is considered to be its primary center of origin with West Africa being considered a second major center of origin.^[50]

By at least 2,800 BCE in peninsular India,^[51] where its presumptive closest wild relatives Cajanus cajanifolia occurs in tropical deciduous woodlands, its cultivation has been documented.^[52] Archaeological finds of pigeon pea cultivation dating to about 14th century BC have also been found at the Neolithic site of Sanganakallu in Bellary and its border area Tuljapur (where the cultivation of African domesticated plants like pearl millet, finger millet, and Lablab have also been uncovered),^[53] as well as in Gopalpur and other South Indian states.^[54]

From India it may have made its way to North-East Africa via Trans-Oceanic Bronze Age trade that allowed cross-cultural exchange of resources and agricultural products.^[55] The earliest evidence of pigeon peas in Africa was found in Ancient Egypt with the presence of seeds in Egyptian tombs dating back to around 2,200 BCE.^[56] From eastern Africa, cultivation spread further west and south through the continent, where by means of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, it reached the Americas around the 17th century.^[39]

Pigeon peas were introduced to Hawaii in 1824 by James Macrae with a few specimens becoming naturalized on the islands, but they wouldn't gain much popularity until later.^[57] By the early 20th century Filipinos and Puerto Ricans began to emigrate from the American Philippines and Puerto Rico to Hawaii to work in sugarcane plantations in 1906 and 1901, respectively.^[58][59][60] Pigeon peas are said to have been popularized on the island by the Puerto Rican community where by the First World War their cultivation began, to expand on the island where they are still cultivated and consumed by locals.^[61]

Pigeon peas, immature, raw

Pigeon peas in Trinidad and Tobago
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	569 kJ (136 kcal)
Carbohydrates	23.88 g
Sugars	3 g
Dietary fiber	5.1 g
Fat	1.64 g
Protein	7.2 g
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Thiamine (B1) 33% 0.4 mg Riboflavin (B2) 13% 0.17 mg Niacin (B3) 14% 2.2 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 14% 0.68 mg Vitamin B6 4% 0.068 mg Folate (B9) 43% 173 μg Choline 8% 45.8 mg Vitamin C 43% 39 mg Vitamin E 3% 0.39 mg Vitamin K 20% 24 μg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 3% 42 mg Iron 9% 1.6 mg Magnesium 16% 68 mg Manganese 25% 0.574 mg Phosphorus 10% 127 mg Potassium 18% 552 mg Sodium 0% 5 mg Zinc 9% 1.04 mg
Link to USDA Database entry Values for Choline, Vit. E/K available
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[62] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[63]

Pigeon peas, mature, raw

Seeds of the pigeon pea
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,435 kJ (343 kcal)
Carbohydrates	62.78 g
Sugars	n/a
Dietary fiber	15 g
Fat	1.49 g
Protein	21.7 g
Amino acids Tryptophan 212 mg Threonine 767 mg Isoleucine 785 mg Leucine 1549 mg Lysine 1521 mg Methionine 243 mg Cystine 250 mg Phenylalanine 1858 mg Tyrosine 538 mg Valine 937 mg Arginine 1299 mg Histidine 774 mg Alanine 972 mg Aspartic acid 2146 mg Glutamic acid 5031 mg Glycine 802 mg Proline 955 mg Serine 1028 mg Hydroxyproline 0 mg
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Thiamine (B1) 54% 0.643 mg Riboflavin (B2) 14% 0.187 mg Niacin (B3) 19% 2.965 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 25% 1.266 mg Vitamin B6 17% 0.283 mg Folate (B9) 114% 456 μg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 10% 130 mg Iron 29% 5.23 mg Magnesium 44% 183 mg Manganese 78% 1.791 mg Phosphorus 29% 367 mg Potassium 46% 1392 mg Sodium 1% 17 mg Zinc 25% 2.76 mg
Link to USDA Database entry Values for Choline, Vit. E/K unavailable
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[62] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[63]

Pigeon peas contain high levels of protein and the important amino acids methionine, lysine, and tryptophan.^[64]

The following table indicates completeness of nutritional profile of various amino acids within mature seeds of pigeon pea.

Methionine + Cystine combination is the only limiting amino acid combination in pigeon pea. In contrast to the mature seeds, the immature seeds are generally lower in all nutritional values, however they contain a significant amount of vitamin C (39 mg per 100 g serving) and have a slightly higher fat content. Research has shown that the protein content of the immature seeds is of a higher quality.^[65]

Pigeon peas can be of a perennial variety, in which the crop can last three to five years (although the seed yield drops considerably after the first two years), or an annual variety more suitable for seed production.^[70]

World production of pigeon peas is estimated at 4.49 million tons.^[71] About 63% of this production comes from India.^{[citation needed]} The total number of hectares grown to pigeon pea is estimated at 5.4 million.^[71] India accounts for 72% of the area grown to pigeon pea or 3.9 million hectares. Africa is the secondary centre of diversity and at present it contributes about 21% of global production with 1.05 million tons. Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique and Uganda are the major producers in Africa.^[72] Malawi's Nandolo Farmers' Association is supported by international aid via the charity Christian Aid.^[73]

The pigeon pea is an important legume crop of rainfed agriculture in the semiarid tropics. The Indian subcontinent, Africa and Central America, in that order, are the world's three main pigeon pea-producing regions. Pigeon peas are cultivated in more than 25 tropical and subtropical countries, either as a sole crop or intermixed with cereals, such as sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), or maize (Zea mays), or with other legumes, such as peanuts (Arachis hypogea). Being a legume capable of symbiosis with Rhizobia, the bacteria associated with the pigeon pea enrich soils through symbiotic nitrogen fixation.^[74]

The crop is cultivated on marginal land by resource-poor farmers, who commonly grow traditional medium- and long-duration (5–11 months) landraces. Short-duration pigeon peas (3–4 months) suitable for multiple cropping have recently been developed. Traditionally, the use of such input as fertilizers, weeding, irrigation, and pesticides is minimal, so present yield levels are low (average = 700 kg/ha or 620 lb/acre). Greater attention is now being given to managing the crop because it is in high demand at remunerative prices.

Pigeon peas are very drought-resistant and can be grown in areas with less than 650 mm annual rainfall. With the maize crop failing three out of five years in drought-prone areas of Kenya, a consortium led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to promote the pigeon pea as a drought-resistant, nutritious alternative crop.^[75]

Legumes, which provide highly nutritious products and contribute to soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, are one of the most important crops in mixed crop-livestock systems.^[76] Cajanus cajan is an important legume crop with a high N-fixation ability (79 % N derived from the atmosphere).^[71] Plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), together with strains of Rhizobium, can enhance growth and nitrogen fixation in pigeon pea by colonizing thenselves in the plant nodules.^[77] These bioinoculants can be added as a single species but also as combined communities. Using a single bioinoculant shows benefits, but mixed communitites of different bioinoculatns have a greater positive impact on nodulation, plant dry mass, as well as shoot and root length.^[71][78] These different community species have different functions for the pigeon pea:

Pigeon pea is affected by a variety of pests and insects that can significantly impact crop yield and quality. They can infest the plant from seedling stage till harvest, therefore pests and diseases are the primary cause for low yields.^[80] The major pests are moths include the gram pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera), which causes defoliation and pod damage; the blue butterfly (Lampides boeticus), which infests buds, flowers, and young pods; and the spotted pod borer (Maruca vitrata), known for webbing together infested pods and flowers.^[81][82][83] The tur pod bug (Clavigralla gibbosa) is another significant pest of pigeon pea, causing substantial damage to pods and seeds.^{[citation needed]} Current resistance efforts focus on breeding pigeon pea varieties with enhanced resistance to these pests. However, the presence of multiple pest species and the variability in pest pressure across regions pose challenges to achieving consistent resistance.^[84] Effective management techniques include integrated pest management (IPM) strategies such as crop rotation, intercropping with non-host plants, timely sowing, and the use of biological control agents like parasitoids and predators.^[85] Chemical control measures, including the application of insecticides like neem-based products and synthetic pyrethroids, are also employed when necessary.^[84]

Common diseases of pigeon pea:^[84]

1. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum)^{[citation needed]}
2. Dry root rot (Macrophomina phaseolina)^[86]
3. Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora drechsleri)^[80]
4. Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria alternata)^[87]
5. Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica)^[88]
6. Sterility mosaic disease (Pigeon pea sterility mosaic virus) ^[89]
7. Yellow mosaic virus (Mungbean yellow mosaic virus)^[84]

Pigeonpea is unique among legumes in that its flowers support both cross-pollination and self-pollination. The bright, nectar-rich flowers attract pollinating insects, allowing natural outcrossing, which averages about 20% but varies with location due to pollinator populations. This level of outcrossing can lead to genetic contamination of parental lines and complicate the selection of lines by reducing the homozygosity of progeny. To mitigate these effects, breeders use techniques such as enclosing flowers in muslin bags or nets to prevent insect pollination. However, natural outcrossing also results in genetically diverse landraces and requires two to three generations of selfing before parental lines can be used in hybridisation programmes.^[90]

Over 50 years of pigeonpea breeding has resulted in genetic improvements, disease-resistant varieties, a reduction in crop maturity from 300 to less than 90 days, and the introduction of the first legume hybrid technology, which has increased yields by 30-50%. Despite these advances, yield per unit area has remained stable, with improved stability and diversification for farmers.^[91]

John Spence, a botanist and politician from Trinidad and Tobago, developed several varieties of dwarf pigeon peas which can be harvested by machine, instead of by hand.^[92]

The pigeon pea is the first seed legume plant to have its complete genome sequenced. The sequencing was first accomplished by a group of 31 Indian scientists from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. It was then followed by a global research partnership, the International Initiative for Pigeon pea Genomics (IIPG), led by ICRISAT with partners such as BGI–Shenzhen (China), US research laboratories like University of Georgia, University of California-Davis, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, and National Centre for Genome Resources, European research institutes like the National University of Ireland Galway. It also received support from the CGIAR Generation Challenge Program, US National Science Foundation and in-kind contribution from the collaborating research institutes.^[93][94] It is the first time that a CGIAR-supported research center such as ICRISAT led the genome sequencing of a food crop. There was a controversy over this as CGIAR did not partner with a national team of scientists and broke away from the Indo American Knowledge Initiative to start their own sequencing in parallel.^[95]

The 616 mature microRNAs and 3919 long non-codingRNAs sequences were identified in the genome of pigeon pea.^[96]

There are various methods of removing the pulse from its shell. In earlier days hand pounding was common. Several traditional methods are used that can be broadly classified under two categories: the wet method and the dry method. The Wet method Involves water soaking, sun drying and dehulling. The Dry method Involves oil/water application, drying in the sun, and dehulling. Depending on the magnitude of operation, large-scale commercial dehulling of large quantities of pigeon pea into its deskinned, split version, known as toor dal in Hindi, is done in mechanically operated mills.^[97][98]

Pigeon peas are both a food crop (dried peas, flour, or green vegetable peas) and a forage/cover crop. In combination with cereals, pigeon peas make a well-balanced meal and hence are favored by nutritionists as an essential ingredient for balanced diets. The dried peas may be sprouted briefly, then cooked, for a flavor different from the green or dried peas.

In Cape Verde they make a soup with the dried pigeon peas called feijão Congo, after its own name, made with dried pigeon peas in a similar manner to Brazilian feijoada.^[99]

In Kenya and throughout the Swahili-speaking region of East Africa, pigeon peas are utilized in dishes such as mbaazi na mahamri, that is usually served for breakfast.^[100][101]

In the Enugu state of Nigeria, an Igbo dish called Ẹchịcha or Achịcha is made with palm oil, cocoyam, and seasoning.^[102] It is also similar to other dishes from the state such as ayarya ji and fio-fio.^{[103][104][105]}

In Ethiopia, the pods, the young shoots and leaves, are cooked and eaten.^[106]

In India, it is one of the most popular pulses, being an important source of protein in a mostly vegetarian diet. It is the primary accompaniment to rice or roti and has the status of staple food throughout the length and breadth of India. In regions where it grows, fresh young pods are eaten as a vegetable in dishes such as sambar.

In the Western Visayas region of the Philippines, pigeon peas are the main ingredient of a very popular dish called "KBL" - an acronym for "Kadyos" (pigeon pea), "Baboy" (pork), and "Langka" (jackfruit). It is a savory soup with rich flavors coming from the pigeon peas, smoked pork preferably the legs or tail, and souring agent called batuan. Raw jackfruit meat is chopped and boiled to soft consistency, and serves as an extender. The violet color of the soup comes from the pigment of the variety commonly grown in the region.^[107]

In the Caribbean coast of Colombia, such as the Atlántico department of Colombia, the sopa de guandú con carne salada (or simply "gandules") is made with pigeon peas, yam, plantain, yuca, and spices.^[108] During the week of Semana santa a sweet is made out of pigeon peas called dulce de guandules which is made by mashed and sweetened pigeon peas with origins in the maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque.^{[109][110][111]}

In the Dominican Republic, a dish made of rice and green pigeon peas called moro de guandules is a traditional holiday food. It is also consumed as guandules guisados, which is a savoury stew with coconut and squash served with white rice. A variety of sancocho is also made based on green pigeon peas that includes poultry, pork, beef, yams, yucca, squash, plantain and others. Dominicans have a high regard for this legume and it is consumed widely.^[112]

In Panama, pigeon peas are used in a dish called Arroz con guandú y coco or "rice with pigeon peas and coconut" traditionally prepared and consumed during the end of year holidays.^[113]

In Puerto Rico, arroz con gandules is made with rice and pigeon peas and sofrito which is a traditional dish, especially during Christmas season.^[114] Pigeon peas can also be made in to a stew called asopao de gandules, with plantain balls.^[115] Escabeche de gandules is a spicy pickled pigon pea salad typically served with bread. Pigeon peas are also used to make hummus on the island and called hummus de gandules.

Jamaica also uses pigeon peas instead of kidney beans in their rice and peas dish, especially during the Christmas season.^[116]

Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada have their own variant, called pelau, which includes either beef or chicken, and occasionally pumpkin and pieces of cured pig tail.^[117]

Unlike in some other parts of the Greater Caribbean, in The Bahamas pigeon peas are used in dried form, light brown in color to make the heartier, heavier, signature Bahamian staple dish "Peas 'n Rice."^[118]

In Hawaii they are used to make a dish called gandule rice,^[119] also called godule rice,^[120] gundule rice,^[121] and ganduddy rice^[122] originates on the island from the Puerto Rican community with historic ties to the island and is prepared in a similar manner to that of traditional Puerto Rican arroz con gandules.^[123]

It is an important ingredient of animal feed used in West Africa, especially in Nigeria, where it is also grown. Leaves, pods, seeds and the residues of seed processing are used to feed all kinds of livestock.^[124]

In the Congo pigeon peas are utilized as one of the main food forest and soil improvement crops after using a slash-and-burn fire technique called maala.^[125]

Pigeon peas are in some areas an important crop for green manure, providing up to 90 kg nitrogen per hectare.^[126] The woody stems of pigeon peas can also be used as firewood, fencing, thatch and as a source for rope fiber.^[127]

Pigeon pea has been valued for its medicinal properties since prehistoric times in various regions, including Africa, Egypt and Asia. Today, different countries use different parts of the plant to treat a range of diseases as an alternative medicine. In the Republic of Congo the Kongo, Lari, and Dondo people use the sap of the leaves as an eyedrop for epilepsy.^[128] In Nigeria the leaves are used to treat malaria, while in India they are used to treat diabetes, stomach tumours and wounds. In Oman, pigeon pea is used to treat chronic diseases, and in traditional Chinese medicine it is used to relieve pain and control intestinal worms. In Africa, the seeds are used to treat hepatitis and measles. The widespread traditional medicinal use of the plant is attributed to its rich content of phenolic compounds, which have antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycaemic effects. The leaves also contain flavonoids, terpenoids, essential oils and coumarin, which further enhance its therapeutic potential in the fight against disease.^[129] There are different studies looking at how the medicinal compounds of pigeon pea could be used in future. One study, using rats, found that a pigeonpea beverage could be used as an anti-diabetic functional drink. This drink would help to reduce plasma glucose and total cholesterol levels and increase plasma antioxidant status. Therefore, it could be used in future as an alternative strategy to maintain plasma glucose and cholesterol at normal levels and help prevent diabetes complications.^[130] Furthermore, pigeon pea could be used as a fermented food as this would increase its antioxidant levels and therefore, have an antiatherosclerotic effect. This would help to improve systolic blood pressure as well as diastolic blood pressure. This benefits cardiovascular health and could be developed as a new dietary supplement or functional food that prevents hypertension.^[131]

In Madagascar the branches have been used as a teeth cleaning twig.^[132][133]

• List of pigeon pea diseases