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Krupuk
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 Kerupuk, also known as keropok or kropek, stored in air-tight tin containers to preserve freshness and crispness | |
| Alternative names | Kerupuk |
|---|---|
| Course | Snack |
| Place of origin | Maritime Southeast Asia[1][2][3][4] |
| Region or state | Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, southern Thailand, Brunei and Singapore |
| Serving temperature | Room temperature |
| Main ingredients | Starch, animal proteins, vegetables. |
| Variations | Different variations according to ingredients |
Krupuk (Indonesian pronunciation: [/kruˈpʊk/]), also known as keropok (Malay pronunciation: [/kəˈro.poʔ/]) and kropek (Filipino pronunciation: [/ˈkro.pɛk/]) refers to traditional deep-fried crackers made from starch combined with flavouring ingredients such as prawn, fish or other seafood. The food has long-standing traditions throughout maritime Southeast Asia and neighbouring coastal regions, particularly in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, southern Thailand, Brunei and Singapore.
Krupuk, keropok and kropek encompasses numerous regional varieties, ranging from cassava- or rice-based forms to those made with seafood or animal products such as cattle skin. These varieties are widely consumed as snacks, served alongside main dishes, or sold as regional specialities. Certain forms hold strong associations with local cuisines, including krupuk kulit in Java and Sumatra, keropok lekor in Malay Peninsula and amplang in Borneo.
Variants are also found internationally. In the Netherlands the food is known as kroepoek, reflecting historical ties with Indonesia, while in Suriname it forms part of Javanese-Surinamese cuisine. In global markets it is often sold as “prawn crackers” or “fish crackers.” Comparable preparations exist in Vietnam (Vietnamese: bánh phồng tôm; Lao: ແຄບໝູ), southern China (Chinese: 虾片; pinyin: xiāpiàn) and other coastal areas of Asia, where drying and frying provided a practical method of preserving food resources.
Origins
[edit]
Animal-based preparations in Southeast Asia
[edit]Early forms of such foods in the region are thought to have been made from animal skin, which could be preserved, dried and later fried for consumption. Across Southeast Asia, buffalo, cow and pig skins were traditionally kept for non-culinary purposes such as leatherwork or drum-making, while frying or roasting the skin as food represented a way of maximising the use of slaughtered animals in peasant or village settings where little was wasted. The technique of drying and rendering skin before frying, which causes it to puff when cooked, is believed to have developed independently in different regions, including in Thailand and Indonesia.[5]
In Indonesia, historical sources suggest that krupuk was already known by the 9th or 10th century. The Batu Pura inscription mentions krupuk rambak, a cracker made from cow or buffalo skin that survives today as krupuk kulit, often served with the Javanese dish krechek.[2] According to A. G. Pringgodigdo in the Ensiklopedi Umum, its preparation involved cleaning and boiling hides before slicing and drying them for later use. Similar skin-based crackers also appear in other regional traditions, such as the Sundanese dorokdok and the Minangkabau karupuak jangek.
Development of starch-based crackers
[edit]
Alongside these skin-based varieties, starch-based crackers developed as a distinct preparation method and eventually became the predominant form across Southeast Asia. Their emergence is often linked to broader food practices in Asia, where root crops, grains and seafood formed important components of the diet.[4][6] Mixing starch with ingredients such as fish, shrimp or tubers and then drying the mixture provided a practical way to preserve and extend food resources, and similar techniques appear to have arisen independently in multiple parts of maritime and coastal Southeast Asia.
In the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, bánh phồng tôm developed in areas where rice cultivation and shrimp farming were central to local livelihoods, with production in Sa Đéc becoming particularly prominent during the 19th-century Nguyễn dynasty. Through trade along the South China Sea, these prawn crackers circulated widely and showed close similarities to varieties found elsewhere in maritime Southeast Asia. Comparable preparations were also made in southern China, particularly in Fujian and Guangdong, where shrimp paste and rice flour were combined to produce xiāpiàn. Maritime exchange, especially through Hokkien and Teochew merchants, facilitated the spread of such crackers into Southeast Asia, where they were adapted to local tastes and ingredients.[6]
In the Malay Peninsula, local tradition traces the origin of keropok udang (prawn crackers) to the 16th century, when leftover prawn heads from a feast were used to prepare the first crackers. By the 19th century, keropok was documented by the Malay writer Abdul Kadir Munsyi, who noted its production in the Kuantan region.[2][4] The tradition also extended to the Philippines, where a related preparation known as kropeck is believed to have been introduced through early contact with Malay communities prior to Spanish colonisation. Made from shrimp or fish paste combined with flour and dried before frying, it became a familiar snack and remains widely consumed.[3]
Regional variations and spread
[edit]The development of keropok reflects a broader trend in which local variations of krupuk evolved across Southeast Asia, responding to the availability of cassava, sago, shrimp, fish and other protein sources. This diversity gave rise to numerous regional varieties throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Luzon, the Visayas and beyond, with established centres of trade and cultural exchange enabling the spread of ingredients and culinary techniques.
Culinary profile
[edit]
Preparation and culinary uses
[edit]Most varieties of pre-packaged raw krupuk require sun-drying before being deep-fried to achieve their characteristic crisp texture. They are typically cooked in a wok with hot oil, although alternative methods exist; for example, microwaving raw krupuk for about one minute at medium power (~700 W) can produce a lower-fat version. In its uncooked form, krupuk is small, hard, and darker in colour compared to its puffed, cooked state.[7]
Krupuk and kripik may be eaten on their own as snacks or used as accompaniments to enhance the texture of various dishes. Certain types are commonly paired with preparations such as gado-gado, karedok, rujak, asinan, bubur ayam and certain varieties of soto.[8] Krupuk is also the primary ingredient in seblak, a savoury and spicy preparation in which softened krupuk is stir-fried with meat or seafood in a chilli-based sauce.
Variations
[edit]Indonesia
[edit]
Indonesia has a wide variety of krupuk, with types found in almost every region. The most common are prepared from starch combined with seafood such as shrimp, fish or squid, while others make use of rice or animal products such as cattle skin. These preparations are consumed both as standalone snacks and as accompaniments to meals, reflecting regional preferences and available ingredients.
Among the most widespread types are krupuk putih or krupuk kampung, cassava starch crackers common throughout the archipelago and krupuk gendar, a rice-based cracker especially associated with Java.[9] Seafood-based varieties include krupuk udang (prawn crackers),[10] the most internationally recognised type, and krupuk ikan, widely produced in coastal centres such as Palembang, Bangka, Cirebon and Sidoarjo. Regional specialities also include krupuk kemplang from Palembang, amplang from Kalimantan and krupuk kupang, a clam-based cracker from East Java.
Other distinctive forms highlight cultural and culinary diversity. Krupuk kulit (rambak or jangek) is prepared from cattle skin and is especially popular in West Sumatra and Java, while krupuk kulit babi (pork rinds) are associated with non-Muslim-majority regions such as Bali, North Sumatra and North Sulawesi. Local innovations include krupuk melarat from Cirebon, roasted in clean river sand instead of oil, krupuk mie (noodle crackers) used as toppings for asinan, and speciality products such as krupuk petis from Kendal, krupuk telur asin from Brebes, and krupuk siput gonggong from the Riau Islands.[11]
Malaysia
[edit]
In Malaysia, keropok is most often associated with fish and other seafood, reflecting the country's coastal food traditions. It is widely available in markets and roadside stalls, eaten as a snack or served alongside meals, usually with dipping sauces such as chilli. Production is closely tied to fishing communities, where keropok has long formed part of local food culture and small-scale economies.
Among the many varieties, keropok kering is widely produced across different states and sold throughout the country, with common flavours including ikan tamban (sardine), ikan parang (wolf herring), udang merah (red prawn) and udang putih (white prawn).[12][13] Distinct regional specialities include keropok lekor, a chewy fish cracker emblematic of Terengganu, is usually eaten freshly fried and is also known as keropok gote in Kelantan. Keropok sira refers to fish crackers coated in a sweet and spicy glaze, particularly associated with the east coast of Malay Peninsula. In Sabah, amplang is a popular nugget-shaped fish cracker characteristic of the coastal town of Tawau.
Thailand
[edit]In the southern Thai provinces of Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat, fish crackers are locally known as keropok or krue po (Thai: กรือโป๊ะ). The product is traditionally associated with the Thai Malays and is produced primarily in coastal fishing communities. Similar to Malaysian keropok, it is made either as a chewy form (keropok lekor) or as dried slices (keropok keping) that can later be deep-fried. Preparation typically involves combining minced fish with flour, shaping the mixture into cylinders, boiling until firm and slicing. The product is distributed both as a common snack and as a regional speciality, with more than 200 small-scale producers active in the area.[14][15][16]
Philippines
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In the Philippines, the snack is more commonly known as kropek or kropeck. It is sometimes marketed in English as "fish crackers" or "prawn crackers", and less frequently compared with chicharrón, though the latter usually refers to fried pork or fish skin. While some commercially available vegetarian snacks made from tapioca starch or green peas resemble kropek, they are typically considered distinct products despite their similarities. Kropek is widely sold in small portions at neighbourhood sari-sari stores, as well as in larger bags at supermarkets and convenience shops.
Kropek is typically served as a light snack or appetiser, often accompanied by a vinegar and chilli dipping sauce, and is also consumed during social occasions or as a side dish with meals. Numerous local brands produce different varieties, among them La La Fish Crackers and Oishi, the latter being a Philippines-based snack food company that has expanded across Asia and become one of the region's major producers of prawn and fish crackers.
Netherlands
[edit]
In the Netherlands, kroepoek is commonly known as a familiar element of Indonesian and Indo-Dutch cuisine. It is widely available in supermarkets, Asian grocery stores (toko), and Indonesian or Chinese-Indonesian restaurants, where it is typically served as a side dish or snack. The most common variety is prawn crackers, sold both as dried slices for home frying and in ready-to-eat form. Commercial brands such as Conimex, along with imported products like Krupuk Udang Sidoarjo, have made kroepoek a well-integrated part of Dutch food culture.[17]
Suriname
[edit]In Suriname, kroepoek is widely consumed as part of Javanese-Surinamese cuisine, introduced through Indonesian migration during the colonial period. It is typically served as a snack or as an accompaniment to meals. Common varieties include prawn crackers, cassava-based crackers and rempeyek, all of which are prepared in both household and restaurant settings.[18]
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]- ^ Adrian Vickers (3 November 2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 190–. ISBN 978-1-139-44761-4.
- ^ a b c Wirayudha, Randy (31 August 2017). "Kriuk Sejarah Kerupuk". Historia - Majalah Sejarah Populer Pertama di Indonesia (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 22 May 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ^ a b "Kropek: The History of Our Favorite Prawn Cracker". Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ a b c "Did prawn crackers originate from Malaysia or Indonesia, and which country has the better version?". Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "The History and Secrets of Thailand's Legendary Crispy Pork". Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ a b "The History and Evolution of Prawn Crackers From Street Food to Mass Production". Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ Indonesian Regional Food and Cookery: Prawn cracker
- ^ Karina Armadani (19 December 2014). "Kuliner Tradisional: Menikmati Pedasnya Seblak Khas Bandung". CNN Indonesia (in Indonesian).
- ^ Aisyah, Yuharrani (23 November 2020). "Resep Kerupuk Gendar dari Nasi Sisa, Tanpa Garam Bleng dan Penyedap". KOMPAS.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 11 March 2024.
- ^ "myReal Pulau Pangkor Prawn Crackers by Lumut Crackers Sdn. Bhd". lumutcrackers.com.my.
- ^ "Kerupuk Siput Gonggong Khas Tanjungpinang". Kepritoday (in Indonesian). 24 July 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
- ^ Su-Lyn Tan; Mark Tay (2003). Malaysia & Singapore. Lonely Planet. pp. 149–. ISBN 978-1-74059-370-0.
- ^ Pat Foh Chang (1999). Legends and history of Sarawak. Chang Pat Foh. ISBN 978-983-9475-07-4.
- ^ "กรือโป๊ะ กระโป๊ะ" (in Thai). Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "🍿"กือโป๊ะ" ของกินเล่นจากวิถีชีวิตแดนใต้ – "ปัตตานี" เป็นจังหวัดที่มีพื้นที่ติดทะเล ด้วยเหตุนี้จึงอุดมสมบูรณ์ไปด้วยทรัพยากรทางทะเล โดยเฉพาะปลาทูสดและปลาหลังเขียว" (in Thai). Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "Cracker "Keropok": A review on factors influencing expansion" (PDF). Retrieved 7 September 2025.
- ^ "Kerupuk, Krupuk, Kroepoek (Shrimp Crackers)". Retrieved 6 September 2025.
- ^ "Different But Delicious: Indonesian Prawn Crackers". Retrieved 7 September 2025.
External links
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Krupuk
View on GrokipediaEtymology and Origins
Etymology
The term krupuk originates from the Javanese language, where it is an onomatopoeic word mimicking the crunching sound produced when biting into the crispy snack. This phonetic imitation reflects the snack's defining texture, with roots tracing back to Old Javanese kěrupuk, meaning "crunchy flake". In Javanese, the word also carries the connotation of a "fried side dish" prepared from flour and other ingredients, emphasizing its role in traditional meals.[2][5] The term has evolved with influences from Javanese and Malay linguistic traditions and has been incorporated into standard Indonesian as kerupuk or krupuk, spreading across Southeast Asia through cultural and maritime exchanges. Regional naming conventions vary while retaining phonetic similarities to the original Javanese form. In Malaysia, it is known as keropok, a Malay variant possibly formed by adding a suffix to krupuk for diminutive or descriptive emphasis, particularly in contexts like keropok udang for prawn-based versions.[6] The Philippines adapted the term as kropek or kropeck in Tagalog, borrowed directly from Indonesian/Malay krupuk through pre-colonial trade and later colonial influences via Dutch kroepoek.[7] In southern Thailand, especially provinces like Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat, similar fish crackers are called keropok or krue po, reflecting Malay linguistic proximity in the region. Trade languages, including Hokkien Chinese, have indirectly shaped related terminology in diaspora communities, though direct terms like bak guk for prawn crackers remain less documented in core Southeast Asian contexts.[8]Historical Development
The earliest forms of krupuk are believed to have originated as animal-skin preparations, particularly krupuk kulit made from buffalo or cow hide, in ancient Java and Sumatra. This form of krupuk served as an innovative preservation technique for hides and proteins in tropical climates, where drying methods extended shelf life amid high humidity and heat. Historical sources suggest that krupuk was known in Java by the 9th or 10th century, highlighting its role in early culinary practices among coastal and inland communities.[9] Starch-based krupuk emerged in the 16th century along coastal regions of Southeast Asia, incorporating tapioca flour—introduced via Portuguese trade—with seafood like prawns or fish to create lightweight, durable snacks. This development was influenced by maritime exchanges, including Portuguese introduction of cassava (the source of tapioca) and Chinese culinary techniques for starch processing, which facilitated the blending of local seafood with imported starches for better portability and preservation.[6] These innovations addressed the challenges of preserving seafood in tropical environments, transforming surplus catches into fried, expansive crackers that retained nutritional value without refrigeration.[10] During the colonial era, krupuk spread to the Netherlands through the Dutch East Indies from the 17th to 19th centuries, where it became known as kroepoek and integrated into Indo-Dutch cuisine as a staple side dish in rijsttafel meals.[11] Similarly, in the 19th century, Javanese indentured laborers transported to Suriname by Dutch colonial authorities introduced krupuk, adapting it into local Javanese-Surinamese gastronomy using available ingredients like fish and tubers.[12] In the 20th century, post-colonial commercialization accelerated krupuk's globalization across Southeast Asia, with varieties like Malaysian keropok lekor rising in prominence among fishing communities in Terengganu from the late 20th century onward, driven by excess fish processing into affordable, exportable products.[13] This era marked a shift from artisanal drying to industrial production, enhancing krupuk's accessibility while preserving its foundational role in tropical food security.[14]Preparation and Consumption
Ingredients and Manufacturing Process
Krupuk is primarily composed of tapioca or cassava starch as the main base, often comprising 50-70% of the dough by weight, providing the structure for expansion. Seafood such as minced prawns, fish, or squid contributes 30-50% for flavor and protein, while seasonings including salt (1.5-2%), sugar (1%), monosodium glutamate (0.4-1.5%), and garlic are added at 1-3% total. Binders like water (20-30%) or eggs facilitate dough formation, with ice sometimes used during mixing to control temperature.[1][15][16] The manufacturing process begins with grinding the seafood into a paste and mixing it with starch, seasonings, and water to create a smooth, non-sticky dough, which is kneaded thoroughly. The dough is shaped into cylinders or sheets and steamed at 100°C for 20-120 minutes to fully gelatinize the starch, followed by cooling in iced water for 4-12 hours to promote retrogradation and firm the gel structure. It is then sliced into thin discs or strips, typically 2-3 mm thick.[1][15][16] Drying reduces the moisture content of the slices to 10-15%, essential for proper expansion during frying; traditional methods involve sun-drying on racks for 2-5 days, while modern approaches use hot air ovens at 50-70°C for 7-20 hours. Variations include air-drying for smaller batches or oven-drying to accelerate production, with formulations often using ratios such as 100 parts starch to 50-100 parts seafood paste for balanced texture.[1][16][15] The dried pieces are deep-fried in vegetable oil at 180-200°C for 5-30 seconds, resulting in rapid expansion to 4-5 times the original volume through moisture vaporization and starch gelatinization, yielding the characteristic crisp texture. Steaming prior to slicing is optional in some methods to enhance chewiness before drying. Due to tapioca starch's gluten-free properties, krupuk is naturally suitable for gluten-free diets.[1][15][16]Culinary Uses and Serving Methods
Krupuk serves as both a standalone snack and a versatile accompaniment in Southeast Asian meals, providing a contrasting crunch to rice-based or saucy dishes. When fried, it undergoes significant expansion—often up to four times its original size—due to starch gelatinization, resulting in a light, airy texture that balances heavier flavors in meals like nasi goreng or gado-gado.[17] This expansion makes it ideal for crumbling over salads or soups, where it adds textural contrast without overpowering the primary ingredients.[18][19] In traditional serving methods, krupuk is deep-fried immediately before consumption to ensure maximum crispiness, typically in small batches to prevent sogginess. A common portion involves 5-10 pieces per person, depending on the meal's scale, and it is often presented in wooden bowls alongside multi-course spreads like the Indo-Dutch rijsttafel, where it complements peanut sauces and spiced meats.[20] For standalone enjoyment, it pairs well with dipping sauces such as sambal for heat or peanut sauce for creaminess, enhancing its role as an appetizer during social gatherings. Fried krupuk can be stored in airtight containers at room temperature to maintain its crunch for up to a week.[19] Culturally, krupuk features prominently in festive meals, such as during Indonesia's Lebaran or Malaysia's Hari Raya, where it is served abundantly as part of celebratory spreads symbolizing prosperity and community.[21] In dishes like seblak, softened krupuk forms the base, but fried varieties are frequently added on top for added texture in soup-based preparations. Its integration into fusion cuisines, including European adaptations of Indonesian fare, highlights its adaptability while preserving its role in balancing rich, savory profiles.[22]Regional Variations
Indonesian Varieties
Indonesia boasts a diverse array of krupuk varieties, influenced by its geography and local ingredients, with coastal regions favoring seafood-based types and inland areas incorporating tubers, vegetables, and nuts such as cassava or melinjo. This divide highlights the adaptability of krupuk to available resources, resulting in numerous regional specialties that enhance everyday meals and street food.[23] Seafood-based krupuk are staples in coastal areas, particularly along Java's shores. Krupuk udang, or prawn crackers, derive their characteristic pink hue from shrimp paste or ground prawns mixed with tapioca flour and seasonings like garlic, originating notably from Sidoarjo in East Java.[23] Krupuk ikan, fish crackers, feature ground fish meat combined with tapioca and spices, widely consumed in coastal Java for their savory, umami profile.[23] Non-seafood varieties provide alternatives prominent in inland locales. Krupuk kulit is crafted from dried animal skin, typically cow or buffalo, yielding a chewy, expansive texture upon frying. A renowned example is krupuk rambak, made from cow skin and integral to Yogyakarta's street food scene, often paired with gudeg or sambal.[23][24] Krupuk emping consists of thin, flattened sheets from melinjo nuts, delivering a distinctive nutty flavor and crisp bite favored in central and eastern Indonesia.[23] Regional specialties further exemplify this diversity. Krupuk kemplang from Palembang in South Sumatra blends fish, sago starch, and seasonings, uniquely baked rather than fried for a lighter crunch.[23] In West Java, krupuk blek—also known as krupuk uyel or putih—uses cassava starch to create a soft, spongy texture, often dyed in colors and dating back to the 19th century introduction of cassava to Java.[23][25]Malaysian and Philippine Varieties
In Malaysia, keropok lekor represents a prominent regional adaptation of krupuk, originating from the coastal state of Terengganu where it is crafted in traditional fishing villages along the East Coast. This variety consists of long, cylindrical sticks made from a dough of ground fish—typically herring, ikan tamban, ikan kerisi, or ikan selayang—mixed with sago flour, salt, and sometimes flavor enhancers like monosodium glutamate. The dough is kneaded, shaped into logs, boiled until firm, and then often deep-fried to achieve a chewy yet crispy texture, though it can also be consumed boiled or steamed. Production remains tied to local communities, with small-scale operations in areas like Kuala Terengganu supporting the economy through fresh catches and handmade processes.[26][27][28] Another Malaysian variant, keropok ikan, features thinner, dried fish crackers derived from similar fish-based doughs but sliced into flat pieces, sun-dried, and fried until puffed and crisp, frequently seasoned with chili for a spicy kick. These are commonly enjoyed as snacks during gatherings or paired with kuah, a thick gravy made from tamarind, chilies, and spices, enhancing their savory profile. Unlike the elongated form of keropok lekor, keropok ikan emphasizes a lighter, chip-like consistency suitable for dipping. Malaysian krupuk adaptations, including these, highlight cylindrical shapes and sauce accompaniments, distinguishing them from other regional styles.[29] In the Philippines, krupuk evolves into kropek, bite-sized, commercially produced crackers that prioritize accessibility and bold flavors, often sold in neighborhood sari-sari stores. The classic kropek is shrimp-based, incorporating natural shrimp with tapioca or wheat starch, sugar, iodized salt, and vegetable oil, resulting in a sweet-salty taste influenced by Spanish colonial culinary legacies that blend indigenous seafood with sweetened profiles. Popular brands like Oishi offer colorful variants in flavors such as spicy prawn or plain shrimp, packaged for quick frying at home to yield airy, crunchy bites. Kropeck extends this to fish or squid versions, using local seafood flours for a seafood-forward crunch without the need for extensive preparation.[30][31] A unique Philippine twist is tahong kropek, mussel-flavored crackers processed from green mussels (tahong) harvested in coastal communities, ground with starch and fried into crispy chips that add a briny, umami depth. These are often enriched with local ingredients like moringa for nutrition and sold as affordable snacks, reflecting community-based production in fishing cooperatives. Philippine varieties focus on compact, ready-to-eat forms with a harmonious sweet-salty balance, contrasting the sauce-heavy, elongated Malaysian styles. Both regions share a foundational starch base for texture, but diverge in form and serving customs.[32][31]Other Southeast Asian and Global Adaptations
In Thailand, adaptations of krupuk include puffed rice variants known as khao phong or khao taen, which are prepared by forming cooked sticky rice into thin discs, drying them thoroughly, and then deep-frying to achieve a light, crispy texture.[33] These snacks, often enjoyed as accompaniments to meals or standalone treats, highlight rice as the primary starch base, differing from the more common tapioca or sago in traditional krupuk formulations. Northeastern (Isan)-style crackers may incorporate pla ra, a fermented fish paste made from freshwater fish, salt, and rice bran, adding a pungent umami depth to the flavor profile.[34] Over 200 small-scale producers operate in Thailand's southern border provinces, sustaining local production of these rice-based and fermented variants through traditional methods.[1] In Vietnam, bánh phồng tôm represents a close adaptation, consisting of prawn crackers crafted from ground shrimp mixed with tapioca or rice flour, seasonings like garlic and sugar, and then sliced, dried, and fried to expand dramatically.[35] While similar to Philippine kropek, the emphasis on rice flour in some recipes lends a subtler, chewier texture upon frying, making it a staple snack in southern Vietnamese cuisine.[36] These crackers are often served plain or with dipping sauces, evoking the coastal abundance of shrimp in Mekong Delta traditions.[37] Globally, krupuk has evolved through diaspora communities, notably in the Netherlands as kroepoek, an Indo-Dutch staple influenced by colonial ties and integrated into rijsttafel meals—elaborate rice-based spreads featuring multiple dishes.[38] Brands like Conimex produce mildly spiced variants following Javanese recipes, using prawn and tapioca for a crispy, accessible snack widely available in European supermarkets.[39] In Suriname, Javanese-influenced migrations from the late 19th century introduced prawn crackers akin to bara, adapted as fried, prawn-flavored discs that complement Indo-Surinamese fried rice and curries.[40] Singapore's Chinese communities reimagine them as xian bian (shrimp crackers or xiā piàn), colorful fried discs symbolizing prosperity during Chinese New Year, often vegetable-infused for festive appeal.[41] Twentieth-century Indonesian migrations, particularly labor flows to the Middle East from the 1970s onward, spurred halal-certified krupuk adaptations, ensuring compliance with Islamic dietary laws through prawn-only formulations free of non-halal additives, now common in expatriate markets across Gulf countries.[42]Production and Commercial Aspects
Traditional Production Centers
In Indonesia, Sidoarjo in East Java serves as a primary hub for artisanal prawn cracker production, where family-run workshops have long specialized in crafting krupuk udang using local shrimp and starch mixtures. These operations rely on manual processes passed down through generations, contributing to the region's identity as the largest krupuk center in East Java.[43] Similarly, Juwana in Central Java's Pati Regency is renowned for fish-based krupuk, or kerupuk ikan, where producers utilize riverine drying methods along the Juwana River to sun-dry sheets of fish paste in open areas, leveraging the humid coastal climate for natural preservation.[44] In Palembang, South Sumatra, kemplang crackers are traditionally made from sago palm starch combined with fish or shrimp, reflecting the area's swampy terrain and historical reliance on sago as a staple resource.[45] Across these Indonesian centers, artisanal techniques emphasize community drying yards where large sheets of batter are spread on bamboo mats under the sun, often for several days, to achieve the desired crisp texture upon frying.[46] Local biomass fuels, such as coconut shells or wood residues, are commonly used in subsequent low-heat drying or smoking stages to enhance flavor and extend shelf life without modern equipment.[47] These methods support rural livelihoods, with hundreds of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Java depending on krupuk production for income, often integrating it with fishing or farming activities.[48] In Malaysia, Kuala Terengganu on the east coast stands out as a key production area for keropok lekor, a cylindrical fish cracker tied closely to local fishing ports like Tok Bali and Kuala Besut, where fresh catches of ikan tenggiri (mackerel) are processed seasonally.[49] Production intensifies before the northeast monsoon to stockpile supplies amid reduced fish availability, using manual mincing, mixing with sago, and sun-drying in coastal yards.[50] This artisanal approach sustains community economies in fishing villages, with operations often family-based and reliant on seasonal marine resources.[51] The Philippines features small-scale home industries for kropek, particularly along coastal Cebu and in Manila's markets, where prawn or fish heads—byproducts from local fisheries—are ground with tapioca starch and dried in backyard setups.[52] These operations, typically run by households or micro-enterprises, employ simple sun-drying on screens and frying in reused oil, mirroring traditional preservation techniques adapted to urban and rural coastal settings.[53] Such production bolsters informal economies, providing affordable snacks and utilizing waste from shrimp processing in areas like Cebu.[54]Modern Industry and Export Trends
In contemporary manufacturing, krupuk production has increasingly adopted automated processes in large-scale factories across Indonesia and the Philippines to enhance efficiency and consistency. Factories utilize extrusion techniques to form dough from starch bases like tapioca, followed by drying and frying stages, allowing for higher output compared to traditional methods. For instance, Indonesian brand Finna, produced by PT Sekar Laut Tbk, employs modern processing to ensure product cleanliness and adherence to national and international quality standards, supporting a diverse lineup of over 40 cracker variants.[55] Similarly, in the Philippines, Oishi prawn crackers undergo automated seasoning and packaging after extrusion and frying, streamlining operations for mass distribution.[56] These advancements enable factories to handle substantial volumes, though specific capacities vary by facility. Indonesia dominates krupuk exports, recording approximately US$12 million in value across over 5,000 shipments from July 2024 to June 2025, with primary markets including Malaysia and Taiwan.[57] The country's mandatory halal certification system, phased in nationwide since 2019, has significantly boosted shipments to Muslim-majority regions such as the Middle East by facilitating compliance with import requirements and enhancing market access for processed foods.[58] Other key destinations encompass Europe, the United States, and Australia, where demand for ethnic snacks drives steady imports, though Europe accounts for a notable portion due to diaspora communities.[59] Recent trends in the 2020s reflect evolving consumer preferences, with growth in vegan and plant-based krupuk variants using ingredients like cassava or vegetable starches to mimic traditional flavors without animal products. This aligns with the broader vegan snacks market, valued at US$51.11 billion in 2024 and projected to expand at a 6.10% CAGR through 2032, driven by health-conscious and ethical demands.[60] Sustainable sourcing practices, such as those for eco-friendly tapioca, are also gaining traction; for example, major suppliers like Ingredion have committed to 100% sustainably sourced tapioca by the end of 2025.[61] Post-COVID e-commerce has further propelled sales, with Indonesia's online market surging to US$73 billion in 2023 and expected to exceed US$100 billion by 2025, enabling direct-to-consumer distribution of krupuk via platforms like Shopee and Tokopedia.[62] The industry faces challenges from volatile raw material costs, particularly tapioca flour, which rose to US$500 per ton in 2022 due to Thai export increases and broader climate-related disruptions affecting cassava yields.[63] Cooking oil prices, often palm-based for frying, have also escalated—up 74% year-on-year in early 2022—exacerbating production expenses.[63] In Europe, particularly the Netherlands as a major import hub, the EU Deforestation Regulation, scheduled to apply from December 30, 2025 (with ongoing proposals for a one-year delay to December 2026), will require stricter due diligence on palm oil sourcing, potentially impacting krupuk frying processes and raising compliance costs for exporters.[64][65] Competition from synthetic or ultra-processed snacks adds pressure, though krupuk's cultural appeal sustains its niche.References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/krupuk
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kropek