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Nuclear weapons testing is the act of experimentally and deliberately firing one or more nuclear devices in a controlled manner pursuant to a military, scientific or technological goal. This has been done on test sites on land or waters owned, controlled or leased from the owners by one of the eight nuclear nations: the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan and North Korea, or has been done on or over ocean sites far from territorial waters. There have been 2,121 tests done since the first in July 1945, involving 2,476 nuclear devices. As of 1993, worldwide, 520 atmospheric nuclear explosions (including eight underwater) have been conducted with a total yield of 545 megatons (Mt): 217 Mt from pure fission and 328 Mt from bombs using fusion, while the estimated number of underground nuclear tests conducted in the period from 1957 to 1992 is 1,352 explosions with a total yield of 90 Mt.[1] As a result of the 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, there were no declared tests between the 1998 Pakistani Chagai-II and the 2006 North Korean test, and none outside North Korea to date.
Very few unknown tests are suspected at this time, the Vela incident being the most prominent. Israel is the only country suspected of having nuclear weapons but not confirmed to have ever tested any.
The following are considered nuclear tests:
Single nuclear devices fired in deep horizontal tunnels (drifts) or in vertical shafts, in shallow shafts ("cratering"), underwater, on barges or vessels on the water, on land, in towers, carried by balloons, shot from cannons, dropped from airplanes with or without parachutes, and shot into a ballistic trajectory, into high atmosphere or into near space on rockets. Since 1963 the great majority have been underground due to the Partial Test Ban Treaty.
Salvo tests in which several devices are fired simultaneously, as defined by international treaties:
In conformity with treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union, ... For nuclear weapon tests, a salvo is defined as two or more underground nuclear explosions conducted at a test site within an area delineated by a circle having a diameter of two kilometers and conducted within a total period of time of 0.1 second.[2]
The two nuclear bombs dropped in combat over Japan in 1945. While the primary purpose of these two detonations was military and not experimental, observations were made and the tables would be incomplete without them.
Nuclear safety tests in which the nuclear yield was intended to be zero, and which failed to some extent if a nuclear yield was detected. There have been failures, and therefore they are included in the lists, as well as the successes.
Fizzles, in which the expected yield was not reached.
Tests intended but not completed because of vehicle or other support failures that destroyed the device.
Tests that were emplaced and could not be fired for various reasons. Usually, the devices were ultimately destroyed by later conventional or nuclear explosions.
Not included as nuclear tests:
Misfires which were corrected and later fired as intended.
Hydro-nuclear or subcritical testing in which the normal fuel material for a nuclear device is below the amount necessary to sustain a chain reaction. The line here is finely drawn, but, among other things, subcritical testing is not prohibited by the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, while safety tests are.[3][4]
The table in this section summarizes all worldwide nuclear testing (including the two bombs dropped in combat which were not tests). The country names are links to summary articles for each country, which may in turn be used to drill down to test series articles which contain details on every known nuclear explosion and test. The notes attached to various table cells detail how the numbers therein are arrived at.
^Detonations include zero-yield detonations in safety tests and failed full yield tests, but not those in the accident category listed above.
^The number of detonations for which the yield is unknown.
^As declared so by the nation testing; some may have been dual use.
^Tests which violate the PTBT – atmospheric, surface, barge, space, and underwater tests.
^Including five tests in which the devices were destroyed before detonation by rocket failures, and the combat bombs dropped on Japan in World War II
^Includes both application tests and research tests at NTS.
^When a test yield reads "< number kt" (like "< 20 kt") this total scores the yield as half the stated maximum, i.e., 10 kt in this example.
^Includes the test device left behind in Semipalatinsk and 11 apparent failures not in the official list, but included in list in reference following:[7]
^124 applications tests and 32 research tests which helped design better PNE charges.
^Includes the 43 Vixen tests, which were safety tests.
^Including 5 Pollen plutonium dispersal tests near at Adrar Tikertine near In Ekker, and two possible safety tests in 1978, listed in reference following:[8]
^Four of the tests at In Ekker were the focus of attention at APEX (Application pacifique des expérimentations nucléaires). They gave the tests different names, causing some confusion.
^Includes one test destroyed before detonation by a failed parachute, and two which are unlisted in most sources, but are listed in the reference following:[6]
^Indira Gandhi, in her capacity as India's Minister of Atomic Energy at the time, declared the Smiling Buddha test to have been a test for the peaceful uses of atomic power.
^There is some uncertainty as to exactly how many bombs were exploded in each of Pakistan's tests. It could be as low as three altogether or as high as six.
In the following subsections, a selection of significant tests (by no means exhaustive) is listed, representative of the testing effort in each nuclear country.
The standard official list of tests for American devices is arguably the United States Department of Energy DoE-209 document.[5] The United States conducted around 1,054 nuclear tests (by official count) between 1945 and 1992, including 216 atmospheric, underwater, and space tests.[9] Some significant tests conducted by the United States include:
Shot "Baker" of Operation Crossroads (1946) was the first underwater nuclear explosion.
The Trinity test on 16 July 1945, near Socorro, New Mexico, was the first-ever test of a nuclear weapon (yield of around 20 kilotons).
Operation Sandstone,Yoke nuclear device detonation. 1948The Operation Sandstone test series conducted in April and May 1948 at Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands, was a critical step in advancing nuclear weapons development. Overseen by Joint Task Force 7 (JTF-7), the operation consisted of three atomic detonations, X-RAY, YOKE, and ZEBRA designed to evaluate new bomb designs with increased efficiency and improved fissile material usage.
The Operation Ranger test series was the fourth American nuclear test operation. It was conducted between January 27th and February 6th, 1951 and was the first series to be carried out at the Nevada Test Site. All the bombs were dropped by B-50D bombers and exploded in the open air over Frenchman Flat (Area 5).
The Operation Greenhouse shots of May 1951, at Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands, included the first boosted fission weapon test (named Item) and a scientific test (named George) which proved the feasibility of thermonuclear weapons.
The Ivy Mike shot of 1 November 1952, at Enewetak Atoll, was the first full test of a Teller-Ulam design staged hydrogen bomb, with a yield of 10 megatons. This was not a deployable weapon. With its full cryogenic equipment it weighed about 82 tons. [citation needed]
The Castle Bravo shot of 1 March 1954, at Bikini Atoll, was the first test of a deployable (solid fuel) thermonuclear weapon, and also (accidentally)[citation needed] the largest weapon ever tested by the United States (15 megatons). It was also the single largest U.S. radiological accident in connection with nuclear testing.[citation needed] The unanticipated yield, and a change in the weather, resulted in nuclear fallout spreading eastward onto the inhabited Rongelap and Rongerik atolls, which were soon evacuated.[citation needed] Many of the Marshall Islands natives have since suffered from birth defects and have received some compensation from the federal government of the United States.[citation needed] A Japanese fishing boat, the Daigo Fukuryū Maru, also came into contact with the fallout, which caused many of the crew to grow ill; one eventually died. The crew's exposure was referenced in the film Godzilla as a criticism of American nuclear tests in the Pacific.[citation needed]
The Operation Plumbbob series of May–October 1957 is considered the biggest, longest, and most controversial test series that occurred within the continental United States. Rainier Mesa, Frenchman Flat, and Yucca Flat were all used for the 29 different atmospheric explosions.[10]
Operation Dominic, Sunset bomb detonation.Shot Frigate Bird of Operation Dominic on 6 May 1962, was the only U.S. test of an operational ballistic missile with a live nuclear warhead (yield of 600 kilotons), at Johnston Atoll in the Pacific. In general, missile systems were tested without live warheads and warheads were tested separately for safety concerns. In the early 1960s there were mounting questions about how the systems would behave under combat conditions (when they were mated, in military parlance), and this test was meant to dispel these concerns. However, the warhead had to be somewhat modified before its use, and the missile was only a SLBM (and not an ICBM), so by itself, it did not satisfy all concerns.[11]
Shot Sedan of Operation Storax on 6 July 1962 (yield of 104 kilotons), was an attempt at showing the feasibility of using nuclear weapons for civilian, peaceful purposes as part of Operation Plowshare. In this instance, a 1280-feet-in-diameter and 320-feet-deep explosion crater, morphologically similar to an impact crater, was created at the Nevada Test Site.
Shot Divider of Operation Julin on 23 September 1992, at the Nevada Test Site, was the last U.S. nuclear test. Described as a "test to ensure safety of deterrent forces", the series was interrupted by the beginning of negotiations over the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty.[12]
After the fall of the USSR, the American government (as a member of the International Consortium International Science and Technology Center) hired top scientists in Sarov (aka Arzamas-16, the Soviet equivalent of Los Alamos and thus sometimes called Los Arzamas) to draft documents about the history of the Soviet atomic program.[14] One of the documents was the definitive list of Soviet nuclear tests.[6] Most of the tests have no code names, unlike the American tests, so they are known by their test numbers from this document. Some list compilers have detected discrepancies in that list; one device was abandoned in its cove in a tunnel in Semipalatinsk when the Soviets abandoned Kazakhstan,[15] and one list[16] lists 13 other tests which apparently failed to provide any yield. The source for that was the well respected Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces[17] which confirms 11 of the 13; those 11 are in the Wikipedia lists.
The Soviet Union conducted 715 nuclear tests (by the official count)[18] between 1949 and 1990, including 219 atmospheric, underwater, and space tests. Most of them took place at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan and the Northern Test Site at Novaya Zemlya. Additional industrial tests were conducted at various locations in Russia and Kazakhstan, while a small number of tests were conducted in Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan.
In addition, the large-scale military exercise was conducted by Soviet army to explore the possibility of defensive and offensive warfare operations on the nuclear battlefield. The exercise, under code name of Snezhok (Snowball), involved detonation of a nuclear bomb twice as powerful as the one used in Nagasaki and approximately 45,000 soldiers coming through the epicenter immediately after the blast[19] The exercise was conducted on September 14, 1954, under command of MarshalGeorgy Zhukov to the north of Totskoye village in Orenburg Oblast, Russia.[citation needed]
RDS-6s (known as Joe 4 in the West), August 12, 1953: first Soviet thermonuclear test using a sloyka (layer cake) design. The design proved to be unscalable into megaton yields, but it was air-deployable.
RDS-37, November 22, 1955: first Soviet multi-megaton, true hydrogen bomb test using Andrei Sakharov's third idea, essentially a re-invention of the Teller-Ulam.
Tsar Bomba, October 30, 1961: largest nuclear weapon ever detonated, with a design yield of 100 Mt, de-rated to 50 Mt for the test drop.
The last Soviet test took place on October 24, 1990. After the dissolution of the USSR in 1992, Ukraine and Russia inherited the USSR's nuclear stockpile, though Ukraine later handed theirs over to the latter, while Kazakhstan inherited the Semipalatinsk nuclear test area, as well as the Baikonur Cosmodrome, the Sary Shagan missile/radar test area and three ballistic missile fields. Semipalatinsk included at least the one unexploded device, later blown up with conventional explosives by a combined US–Kazakh team. No testing has occurred in the former territory of the USSR since its dissolution.[citation needed]
The United Kingdom has conducted 45 tests (12 in Australian territory, including 3 in the Montebello Islands of Western Australia and 9 in mainland South Australia (7 at Maralinga and 2 at Emu Field); 9 in the Line Islands of the central Pacific (3 at Malden Island and 6 at Kiritimati/Christmas Island); and 24 in the U.S. as part of joint test series). Often excluded from British totals are the 31 safety tests of Operation Vixen in Maralinga. British test series include:
France conducted 210 nuclear tests between February 13, 1960 and January 27, 1996.[21] Four were tested at Reggane, French Algeria, 13 at In Ekker, Algeria and the rest at Moruroa and Fangataufa Atolls in French Polynesia. Often skipped in lists are the 5 safety tests at Adrar Tikertine in Algeria.[8]
Operation Gerboise bleue, February 13, 1960 (first atomic bomb) and three more: Reggane, Algeria; in the atmosphere; final test reputed to be more intended to prevent the weapon from falling into the hands of generals rebelling against French colonial rule than for testing purposes.[22]
Operation Agathe, November 7, 1961 and 12 more: In Ekker, Algeria; underground
Operation Aldébaran, July 2, 1966 and 45 more: Moruroa and Fangataufa; in the atmosphere;
Canopus first hydrogen bomb: August 24, 1968 (Fangataufa)
Operation Achille June 5, 1975 and 146 more: Moruroa and Fangataufa; underground
Operation Xouthos last test: January 27, 1996 (Fangataufa)
India announced it had conducted a test of a single device in 1974 near Pakistan's eastern border under the codename Operation Smiling Buddha. After 24 years, India publicly announced five further nuclear tests on May 11 and May 13, 1998. The official number of Indian nuclear tests is six, conducted under two different code-names and at different times.
May 11, 1998: Operation Shakti (type: implosion, 3 uranium and 2 plutonium devices, all underground). The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) of India and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) simultaneously conducted a test of three nuclear devices at the Indian ArmyPokhran Test Range (IAPTR) on May 11, 1998. Two days later, on May 13, the AEC and DRDO carried out a test of two further nuclear devices, detonated simultaneously. During this operation, AEC India claimed to have tested a three-stage thermonuclear device (Teller-Ulam design), but the yield of the tests was significantly lower than that expected from thermonuclear devices. The yields remain questionable, at best, by Western and Indian scholars, estimated at 45 kt; scale down of 200 kt model.
Pakistan conducted 6 official tests, under 2 different code names, in the final week of May 1998. From 1983 to 1994, around 24 nuclear cold tests were carried out by Pakistan; these remained unannounced and classified until 2000. In May 1998, Pakistan responded publicly by testing 6 nuclear devices.[29]
May 28, 1998: Chagai-I (type: implosion, HEU and underground). One underground horizontal-shaft tunnel test (inside a granite mountain) of boosted fission devices at Koh Kambaran in the Ras Koh Hills in Chagai District of Balochistan Province.[29][31] The announced yield of the five devices was a total of 40–45 kilotonnes with the largest having a yield of approximately 30–45 kilotonnes. An independent assessment however put the test yield at no more than 12 kt and the maximum yield of a single device at only 9 kt as opposed to 35 kt as claimed by Pakistani authorities.[32] According to The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, the maximum yield was only 2–10 kt as opposed to the claim of 35 kt and the total yield of all tests was no more than 8–15 kt.[33]
May 30, 1998: Chagai-II (type: implosion, plutonium device and underground). One underground vertical-shaft tunnel test of a miniaturized fission device having an announced yield of approximately 18–20 kilotonnes, carried out in the Kharan Desert in Kharan District, Balochistan Province.[31] An independent assessment put the figure of this test at 4–6 kt only.[32] Some Western seismologists put the figure at a mere 2 kt.[33]
On October 9, 2006, North Korea announced they had conducted a nuclear test in North Hamgyong Province on the northeast coast at 10:36 AM (11:30 AEST). There was a 3.58 magnitude earthquake reported in South Korea, and a 4.2 magnitude tremor was detected 386 km (240 mi) north of P'yongyang. The low estimates on the yield of the test—potentially less than a kiloton in strength—have led to speculation as to whether it was a fizzle (unsuccessful test), or not a genuine nuclear test at all.
On May 25, 2009, North Korea announced having conducted a second nuclear test. A tremor, with magnitude reports ranging from 4.7 to 5.3, was detected at Mantapsan, 375 km (233 mi) northeast of P'yongyang and within a few kilometers of the 2006 test location. While estimates, as to yield, are still uncertain, with reports ranging from 3 to 20 kilotons, the stronger tremor indicates a significantly larger yield than the 2006 test.
On January 6, 2016, North Korea announced that it conducted a successful test of a hydrogen bomb. The seismic event, at a magnitude of 5.1, occurred 19 kilometers (12 miles) east-northeast of Sungjibaegam.[41]
On September 9, 2016, North Korea announced another successful nuclear weapon test at the Punggye-ri Test Site. This is the first warhead the state claims to be able to mount to a missile or long-range rocket previously tested in June 2016.[42] Estimates for the explosive yield range from 20 to 30 kt and coincided with a 5.3 magnitude earthquake in the region.[43]
On September 3, 2017, North Korea successfully detonated its first weapon self-designated as a hydrogen bomb.[44] Initial yield estimates place it at 100 kt. Reports indicate that the test blast caused a magnitude 6.3 earthquake,[45] and possibly resulted in a cave-in at the test site.[46]
There have been a number of significant alleged, disputed or unacknowledged accounts of countries testing nuclear explosives. Their status is either not certain or entirely disputed by most mainstream experts.
On April 15, 2020, the Wall Street Journal published details of a US State Department report on activity during 2019 at China's Lop Nur test site, alleging supercritical experiments could have occurred in an absence of effective monitoring.[47][48]
China’s possible preparation to operate its Lop Nur test site year-round, its use of explosive containment chambers, extensive excavation activities at Lop Nur, and lack of transparency on its nuclear testing activities – which has included frequently blocking the flow of data from its International Monitoring System (IMS) stations to the International Data Center operated by the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty Organization – raise concerns regarding its adherence to the “zero yield” standard.
— U.S. Department of State, Executive Summary on Findings On Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments, April 2020
On September 9, 2004, South Korean media reported that there had been a large explosion at the Chinese/North Korean border. This explosion left a crater visible by satellite and precipitated a large (3-km diameter) mushroom cloud. The United States and South Korea quickly downplayed this, explaining it as a forest fire that had nothing to do with the DPRK's nuclear weapons program.
Because Pakistan's nuclear program was conducted under extreme secrecy, it raised concerns in the Soviet Union and India, who suspected that since the 1974 test it was inevitable that Pakistan would further develop its program. The pro-Soviet newspaper, The Patriot, reported that "Pakistan has exploded a nuclear device in the range of 20 to 50 kilotons" in 1983.[52] But it was widely dismissed by Western diplomats as it was pointed out that The Patriot had previously engaged in spreading disinformation on several occasions. In 1983, India and the Soviet Union both investigated secret tests but, due to lack of any scientific data, these statements were widely dismissed.[53]
In their book, The Nuclear Express, authors Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman also allege that the People's Republic of China allowed Pakistan to detonate a nuclear weapon at its Lop Nur test site in 1990, eight years before Pakistan held its first official weapons test.[54]
However, senior scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan strongly rejected the claim in May 1998.[55] According to Khan, due to its sensitivity, no country allows another country to use their test site to explode the devices.[55] Such an agreement only existed between the United States and the United Kingdom since the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defense Agreement which among other things allows Britain access to the American Nevada National Security Site for testing.[56] Dr. Samar Mubarakmand, another senior scientist, also confirmed Dr. Khan's statement and acknowledged that cold tests were carried out, under codename Kirana-I, in a test site which was built by the Corps of Engineers under the guidance of the PAEC.[57]
Additionally, the UK conducted nuclear tests in Australia in the 1950s.
The Yekaterinburg Fireball of November 14, 2014, is alleged by some[58] to have been a nuclear test in space, which would not have been detected by the CTBTO because the CTBTO does not have autonomous ways to monitor space nuclear tests (i.e. satellites) and relies thus on information that member States would accept to provide. The fireball happened a few days before a conference in Yekaterinburg on the theme of air/missile defense.[59] The affirmation, however, is disputed as the Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations claimed it was an "on-ground" explosion.[60]The Siberian Times, a local newspaper, noted that "the light was not accompanied by any sound".[60]
The Vela incident was an unidentified double flash of light detected by a partly functional, decommissioned American Vela Satellite on September 22, 1979, in the Indian Ocean (near the Prince Edward Islands off Antarctica). Sensors which could have recorded proof of a nuclear test were not functioning on this satellite. It is possible that this was produced by a nuclear device. If this flash detection was actually a nuclear test, a popular theory favored in the diary of then sitting American President Jimmy Carter, is that it resulted from a covert joint South African and Israeli nuclear test of an advanced highly miniaturized Israeli artillery shell sized device which was unintentionally detectable by satellite optical sensor due to a break in the cloud cover of a typhoon.[61] Analysis of the South African nuclear program later showed only six of the crudest and heavy designs weighing well over 340 kg had been built when they finally declared and disarmed their nuclear arsenal.[62] The 1986 Vanunu leaks analyzed by nuclear weapon miniaturization pioneer Ted Taylor revealed very sophisticated miniaturized Israeli designs among the evidence presented.[63] Also suspected were France testing a neutron bomb near their Kerguelen Islands territory,[64] the Soviet Union making a prohibited atmospheric test,[65][66] as well as India or Pakistan doing initial proof of concept tests of early weaponized nuclear bombs.[67]
Missiles and nuclear warheads have usually been tested separately because testing them together is considered highly dangerous; they are certainly the most extreme type of live fire exercise. The only US live test of an operational missile was the following:
Frigate Bird: on May 6, 1962, a UGM-27 Polaris A-2 missile with a live 600 kt W47 warhead was launched from the USS Ethan Allen; it flew 1,800 km (1,100 mi), re-entered the atmosphere, and detonated at an altitude of 3.4 km (2.1 mi) over the South Pacific.
Other live tests with the nuclear explosive delivered by rocket by the USA include:
The July 19, 1957 test Plumbbob/John fired a small yield nuclear weapon on an AIR-2 Genie air-to-air rocket from a jet fighter.
On August 1, 1958, Redstone rocket launched nuclear test Teak that detonated at an altitude of 77.8 km (48.3 mi). On August 12, 1958, Redstone #CC51 launched nuclear test Orange to a detonation altitude of 43 km (27 mi). Both were part of Operation Hardtack I and had a yield of 3.75 Mt
The Soviet Union tested nuclear explosives on rockets as part of their development of a localized anti-ballistic missile system in the 1960s. Some of the Soviet nuclear tests with warheads delivered by rocket include:
Baikal (USSR Test #25, February 2, 1956, at Aralsk) – one test, with a R-5M rocket launch from Kapustin Yar.
ZUR-215 (#34, January 19, 1957, at Kapustin Yar) – one test, with a rocket launch from Kapustin Yar.
(#82 and 83, early November 1958) two tests, done after declared cease-fire for test moratorium negotiations, from Kapustin Yar.
Groza (#88, September 6, 1961, at Kapustin Yar) – one test, with a rocket launch from Kapustin Yar.
Grom (#115, October 6, 1961, at Kapustin Yar) – one test, with a rocket launch from Kapustin Yar.
Volga (#106 and 108, September 20–22, 1961, at Novaya Zemlya) – two tests, with R-11M rockets launch from Rogachevo.
Roza (#94 and 99, September 12–16, 1961, at Novaya Zemlya) – two tests, with R-12 rockets launch from Vorkuta.
Raduga (#121, October 20, 1961, at Novaya Zemlya) – one test, with a R-13 rocket launch.
Tyulpan (#164, September 8, 1962, at Novaya Zemlya) – one test, with R-14 rockets launched from Chita.
Operation K (1961 and 1962, at Sary-Shagan) – five tests, at high altitude, with rockets launched from Kapustin Yar.
The Soviet Union also conducted three live nuclear torpedo tests including:
Test of the T-5 torpedo on September 21, 1955 at Novaya Zemlya.
Test of the T-5 torpedo on October 10, 1957 at Novaya Zemlya.
Test of the T-5 torpedo on October 23, 1961 at Novaya Zemlya.
The People's Republic of China conducted CHIC-4 with a Dongfeng-2 rocket launch on October 25, 1966. The warhead exploded with a yield of 12 kt.
^Pavlovski, O. A. (14 August 1998). "Radiological Consequences of Nuclear Testing for the Population of the Former USSR (Input Information, Models, Dose, and Risk Estimates)". Atmospheric Nuclear Tests. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 219–260. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-03610-5_17. ISBN978-3-642-08359-4.
^ abcAndryushin, L. A.; Voloshin, N. P.; Ilkaev, R. I.; Matushchenko, A. M.; Ryabev, L. D.; Strukov, V. G.; Chernyshev, A. K.; Yudin, Yu. A. (1999). "Catalog of Worldwide Nuclear Testing". Sarov, Russia: RFNC-VNIIEF. Archived from the original on 2013-12-19. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
^ abEducational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. (1998). Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. p. 24.
^—S.G. Roy, "India Investigates Reported Nuclear Test," United Press International, 25 June 1983, International; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 25 June 1983, http://web.lexis-nexis.comArchived 2009-01-09 at the Wayback Machine; "Pakistan Adamantly Rejects Accusation it Tested Bomb," Washington Post, 26 June 1983, First Section, World News, A24; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 25 June 1983, http://web.lexis-nexis.com .
^Richelson, Jeffrey T. (2007). Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea. W. W. Norton Co. ISBN0-393-32982-8.
^"One hell of a gamble by Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali" p132.
The list of nuclear weapons tests chronicles the more than 2,000 detonations of nuclear devices conducted by at least eight nations since the inaugural Trinity test on July 16, 1945, primarily to validate warhead designs, measure explosive yields, evaluate delivery systems, and analyze blast, thermal, and radiological effects under controlled conditions.[1] These experiments, spanning atmospheric, underwater, underground, and space-based formats, were dominated by the United States with 1,054 tests through 1992 and the Soviet Union with 715 tests through 1990, followed by France (210), the United Kingdom (45, including joint operations), and China (45).[2][1] Later entrants like India (6 in 1974 and 1998), Pakistan (6 in 1998), and North Korea (6 from 2006 to 2017) contributed fewer but geopolitically pivotal events, often amid international condemnation and sanctions.[1]The cumulative data reveal stark asymmetries in testing volume tied to superpower rivalries during the Cold War, with empirical records documenting yields from sub-kiloton "zero-yield" simulations to megaton-class devices like the Soviet Tsar Bomba (50 megatons in 1961), though many tests involved non-weaponizable or hydronuclear configurations for research.[1] Interactive maps and visualizations of global nuclear test locations are available online, such as the comprehensive map of over 2,600 detonations provided by ClimateViewer (climateviewer.org) and time-lapse animations like Isao Hashimoto's depiction of explosions since 1945.[3][4] Atmospheric tests, peaking in the 1950s and early 1960s, dispersed global radioactive fallout linked to elevated cancer incidences in exposed populations, prompting the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty that shifted most activity underground to mitigate detectability and environmental release.[5] The 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty sought a total halt but remains unratified by key states like the United States and China, leaving subcritical and simulated testing as ongoing practices for stockpile stewardship without full-yield explosions.[6] Compilations of these events draw from declassified government archives, seismic monitoring, and radionuclide detection, underscoring how testing regimes advanced destructive capabilities while generating verifiable geophysical signatures for arms control verification.[7]
Summary Statistics
Total Tests and Yields by Nation
The United States conducted 1,054 nuclear tests between July 1945 and September 1992, encompassing both atmospheric and underground detonations, with an estimated total yield of approximately 215 megatons (Mt) of TNT equivalent.[2][8] These figures derive from official U.S. Department of Energy records, which account for 1,149 devices across the tests, including multi-device events.[9]The Soviet Union performed 715 tests from 1949 to 1990, with an estimated total yield of around 247 Mt, predominantly from large-yield atmospheric explosions such as the 50 Mt Tsar Bomba in 1961.[1] Yield estimates for Soviet tests rely on seismic monitoring, radiochemical analysis, and declassified data, though uncertainties persist due to incomplete disclosure of device counts (969 total) and exact configurations.[10] These two superpowers executed over 85% of all known nuclear tests, enabling iterative refinement of warhead designs that enhanced arsenal reliability and deterrence capabilities, as evidenced by their progression to thermonuclear weapons with megaton-scale yields.Other nations conducted fewer tests, reflecting limited programs and later entry into nuclear capabilities. France tallied 210 tests from 1960 to 1996, yielding about 13 Mt total.[1][8] The United Kingdom (45 tests, 1952–1991, ~10 Mt), China (45 tests, 1964–1996, ~22 Mt), India (6 detonations across 3 test events, 1974–1998, <0.06 Mt), Pakistan (6 detonations across 2 test events, 1998, <0.01 Mt), and North Korea (6 tests, 2006–2017, estimated 0.2–0.25 Mt combined) followed, with yields derived from seismic data and official announcements where available.[1][8]
The disparities in test volumes—U.S. and Soviet programs dwarfing others by orders of magnitude—correlate directly with the sophistication of their deployed arsenals, as extensive testing allowed validation of complex physics models for boosting, staging, and miniaturization absent in low-volume programs.[1] Yield totals exclude non-explosive safety experiments and focus on fission/fusion detonations exceeding critical mass.
Types of Tests and Methodologies
Nuclear weapons tests are categorized primarily by their physical environment and detonation method, which influence data collection, yield verification, and environmental effects. Atmospheric tests, conducted in the open air via methods such as free-air drops from aircraft, tower detonations at heights up to several hundred meters, or balloon suspensions, produce visible fireballs, shock waves, and widespread radioactive fallout dispersed by wind patterns.[11] These tests allow direct observation of blast effects, thermal radiation, and electromagnetic pulses but generate significant global fallout, with yields measured through fireball radius scaling laws, radiochemical analysis of debris, and ground-based instrumentation for overpressure and luminosity.[12] Underwater tests, typically on barges or in submerged shafts, create steam cavities, base surges, and localized contamination, enabling study of hull shock and hydrodynamic effects while yields are determined from bubble pulsation periods and seawater sampling for fission products.[2]Underground tests, emplaced in vertical shafts or horizontal tunnels at depths scaled to yield (often 100-800 meters for megaton-scale devices to ensure containment), minimize surface disruption and fallout through rock overburden, though risks include venting of radioactive gases if containment fails.[13] Yields are empirically validated using seismic wave amplitudes—correlating P-wave and S-wave magnitudes to explosive energy via empirical formulas calibrated against known tests—alongside post-detonation crater dimensions for shallow burials and borehole sampling for radiochemical assays of activation products like barium-140 or xenon isotopes.[12][14] These methodologies provide precise warhead performance data, with seismic networks distinguishing explosions from earthquakes through waveform analysis and isotropic radiation patterns.[15]The 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, prohibiting tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, prompted a near-exclusive shift to underground methods among signatories to reduce environmental and health risks from fallout while preserving scientific verification capabilities.[16] This transition maintained data quality through advanced containment engineering and remote sensing, though it complicated direct observation of certain effects like air-blast scaling.[11] Detection of clandestine tests relies on international monitoring systems integrating seismic, hydroacoustic, infrasound, and radionuclide sensors to confirm nuclear signatures via noble gas plumes or particle ratios indicative of fission.[14][15]
Known Tests by Country
United States
The United States conducted 1,054 nuclear tests between July 1945 and September 1992, encompassing a range of device types from fission to multi-stage thermonuclear weapons, primarily to verify warhead designs, assess delivery system integration, and evaluate safety features such as one-point safety to prevent accidental high-yield detonations.[2][1] These tests transitioned from atmospheric detonations in remote Pacific locations for high-yield experiments to predominantly underground testing at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) after 1951, enabling contained empirical data collection on seismic effects, containment, and stockpile reliability amid growing environmental and treaty constraints.[9] The program yielded operational advancements, including reliable thermonuclear primaries and secondaries, with tests confirming predictive models refined through post-detonation diagnostics.[17]The inaugural Trinity test occurred on July 16, 1945, at the Jornada del Muerto site within the Alamogordo Bombing Range, New Mexico, detonating a 21-kiloton plutonium implosion device atop a 100-foot tower and validating the complex lens assembly essential for symmetric compression in production weapons.[18][19] Postwar, Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 comprised two 23-kiloton tests—Able, an airburst assessing blast damage to a fleet of 95 target vessels, and Baker, an underwater detonation evaluating radiological effects and hull breaching, which informed naval vulnerability and decontamination protocols despite operational challenges like persistent contamination.[20][9]Early Pacific series at Enewetok Atoll advanced fusion concepts, with Operation Greenhouse (1951) achieving boosted yields up to 225 kilotons through deuterium-tritium enhancement, paving the way for thermonuclear scalability.[17] Operation Ivy's Mike shot on November 1, 1952, produced a 10.4-megaton liquid-deuterium device, the first full-scale hydrogen bomb, confirming staged fission-fusion-fission reactions despite cryogenic handling complexities.[9] Operation Castle's Bravo test on March 1, 1954, at Bikini Atoll unexpectedly yielded 15 megatons—over twice the 6-megaton prediction—due to unanticipated fusion from lithium-7 in the deuteride fuel, providing critical data on dry thermonuclear fuels and enhancing subsequent designs for lighter, deployable warheads.[21]From 1951 onward, the NTS dominated testing with 928 detonations, including 100 atmospheric shots for tactical weapon effects and 828 underground events post-1957, focusing on low-yield devices, arming/fuzing/safing mechanisms, and integration with missiles like Minuteman and Polaris.[22] Series such as Operation Teapot (1955) and Plumbbob (1957) refined safety protocols, with Plumbbob's 29 tests yielding empirical evidence of inadvertent neutron-induced fission risks and successful parachute-retarded drops for earth-penetrating simulations.[23] Following the 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty prohibiting atmospheric tests, the U.S. executed approximately 760 underground tests through 1992, achieving containment for over 90% of events and advancing computer-validated stewardship models for warhead longevity without full-yield verification.[2]Pacific Proving Grounds hosted high-yield thermonuclear validations into the 1960s, as in Operation Dominic (1962) with 36 atmospheric and high-altitude shots, including Frigate Bird's live Polaris missile warhead integration yielding 600 kilotons.[9] The final test, Divider, detonated underground at NTS on September 23, 1992, as part of Operation Julin, closing the explosive testing era with data reinforcing stockpile confidence amid moratorium pressures.[23][24]
The Soviet nuclear testing program commenced with the detonation of RDS-1 on August 29, 1949, at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan, producing a yield of 22 kilotons in a plutonium implosion device comparable to the U.S. Nagasaki bomb.[25] This test, conducted amid intense efforts to achieve parity with U.S. capabilities, marked the USSR's entry into the nuclear age four years after the American Trinity test, driven by espionage-derived designs and rapid indigenous development under Lavrentiy Beria's oversight. Semipalatinsk served as the primary site for early low-yield and experimental tests, hosting 456 explosions in total, including both atmospheric and underground configurations to refine fission and early thermonuclear designs.[26]Subsequent tests escalated in scale and sophistication, with the first two-stage thermonuclear device, RDS-37, tested on November 22, 1955, at Semipalatinsk, yielding 1.6 megatons and demonstrating layered fission-fusion staging independent of U.S. Teller-Ulam configuration.[27] Atmospheric testing peaked prior to the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, encompassing 219 detonations that included air bursts, tower shots, and underwater events, primarily to validate multi-megaton yields against seismic detection thresholds. The program shifted Arctic focus to Novaya Zemlya from 1955 onward for high-yield atmospheric trials, conducting over 130 tests there to minimize continental fallout while advancing deliverable warheads; seismic arrays corroborated yields exceeding 10 megatons in several instances, underscoring engineering feats despite opaque reporting.[28]A pinnacle was the October 30, 1961, air-drop of the 50-megaton AN602 device—known as Tsar Bomba—over Novaya Zemlya, the largest nuclear explosion ever, scaled down from a 100-megaton design to reduce fallout and aircraft risk, yet generating seismic signals equivalent to a magnitude 5.0-5.25 earthquake and a fireball visible 1,000 kilometers away.[29] This test highlighted Soviet mastery of three-stage thermonuclear scaling for psychological and technical deterrence. Post-1963, testing moved underground at both sites, with 124 peaceful nuclear explosions integrated for civil engineering validation, though these blurred lines with weapons development; warhead tests for intercontinental ballistic missiles like the R-7 and UR-100 achieved reliable reentry and high-yield deployment by the late 1950s, enabling strategic equivalence as verified by U.S. intelligence seismic monitoring.[30] The program concluded with a unilateral moratorium in 1990, totaling 715 tests that aggregated yields around 247 megatons, emphasizing empirical validation of heavy-element synthesis and compression dynamics over theoretical modeling alone.[31]
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom conducted 45 nuclear tests between 3 October 1952 and 26 November 1991, establishing itself as the third nation to develop and detonate nuclear weapons after the United States and Soviet Union.[32] These tests encompassed plutonium implosion devices, boosted fission designs, and thermonuclear weapons, with total yields ranging from sub-kiloton to a maximum of 3 megatons.[33] Initial efforts focused on independent atomic bomb development amid post-World War II technological constraints, utilizing remote Australian sites under agreements with the Australian government.[34]The inaugural test, Operation Hurricane, detonated a 25-kiloton plutonium device on 3 October 1952 aboard HMS Plymouth in the Monte Bello Islands, confirming the UK's ability to produce weapons-grade plutonium at its Sellafield facility and assemble implosion systems without full reliance on wartime alliances.[33] Subsequent Australian series—Totem (two tests at Emu Field in October 1953, yields approximately 10 kilotons each), Buffalo (four tests at Maralinga in September-October 1956, yields 1-15 kilotons), and Antler (three tests at Maralinga in September-October 1957, yields up to 1 kiloton)—refined safety, efficiency, and yield predictability for tactical and strategic applications, incorporating tower, ground, and air-drop configurations.[33] These 12 atmospheric tests provided empirical data on blast effects, fallout patterns, and device hardening, verified through on-site instrumentation and seismic monitoring.Thermonuclear development shifted to the Pacific with Operation Grapple (1957-1958), involving nine air-dropped tests at Malden and Christmas Islands, where initial designs drawing from open-source intelligence yielded partial successes before achieving a full multi-stage fusion detonation of 3 megatons on 28 April 1958 (Grapple Y).[33] This progression demonstrated causal links between compression staging and megaton-scale energy release, independent of direct foreign blueprints despite prior collaboration gaps.[34] Post-1958, the US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement enabled 24 underground tests at the Nevada Test Site (1962-1991), focusing on warhead safety for Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missiles, hydrodynamic simulations, and subcritical experiments, leveraging shared facilities to enhance deterrence reliability without atmospheric releases.[32] These efforts contributed to NATO's nuclear posture by ensuring verifiable weapon performance through joint data analysis and British-operated seismic verification networks.
Operation
Dates
Location
Tests
Key Yields (kt)
Hurricane
Oct 1952
Monte Bello Islands, Australia
1
25
Totem
Oct 1953
Emu Field, Australia
2
~10 each
Buffalo
Sep-Oct 1956
Maralinga, Australia
4
1–15
Antler
Sep-Oct 1957
Maralinga, Australia
3
<1–1
Grapple
May 1957–Sep 1958
Malden/Christmas Islands, Pacific
9
0.3–3,000
Nevada series
1962–Nov 1991
Nevada Test Site, USA
24
Subcritical to low kt (many zero-yield)
France
France conducted 210 nuclear weapons tests from 13 February 1960 to 27 January 1996, establishing its independent nuclear arsenal as the force de frappe under President Charles de Gaulle's directive for strategic autonomy beyond NATO dependencies. These detonations, totaling an estimated yield of approximately 13 megatons, progressed from plutonium-based fission devices to multi-stage thermonuclear weapons, with empirical validation through seismic and radiochemical analysis confirming fusion efficiencies. Initial tests occurred in the Algerian Sahara amid decolonization pressures, shifting post-1966 to controlled environments at Mururoa and Fangataufa atolls in French Polynesia to accommodate escalating device complexities and yields.[1][35]The program commenced with Gerboise Bleue on 13 February 1960 at the Reggane site in Algeria's Sahara Desert, a 70-kiloton plutonium implosion device detonated via tower at 105 meters altitude, marking France's entry as the fourth nuclear state. Four more surface and balloon-suspended tests followed that year, yielding 10-60 kilotons each, with subsequent Algerian series through 1966 incorporating 17 total detonations, including early safety and boosted-fission experiments amid local seismic monitoring. Algerian independence in 1962 necessitated relocation; the inaugural Pacific test, Aldébaran, exploded on 2 July 1966 at Mururoa with a 120-kiloton yield, initiating 193 French Polynesia-based trials focused on warhead miniaturization for missile integration.[36]France achieved thermonuclear capability with the Canopus detonation on 24 August 1968 at Fangataufa, a balloon-suspended two-stage device yielding 2.6 megatons, where French seismic stations recorded telltale fusion signatures—distinct from fission-only profiles—corroborating multi-megaton scalability despite initial design constraints from limited fissile materials. Atmospheric testing, totaling 46 events across sites with combined yields over 10 megatons, dispersed fallout variably; documented cases, such as wind shifts during low-yield shots, exceeded containment models, prompting international scrutiny, though aggregate exposure assessments indicate negligible global dispersion beyond regional baselines. Transitioning in 1975 to underground galleries at the atolls—following 1974's final open-air burst—enabled 147 contained tests, reducing atmospheric venting through engineered stemming and hydraulic fracturing containment, as verified by post-shot radiometry and international seismic networks.[37][38][39]This subsurface phase prioritized delivery system compatibility and low-yield tactical variants, culminating in 1996's Xouthos series amid Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty pressures, with yields calibrated via computer modeling cross-checked against historical data for force de frappe sustainment without proliferation risks. While Polynesian fallout incidents fueled compensation claims—substantiated by elevated cesium-137 in some atoll soils—contained detonations empirically curtailed broader radiological pathways, aligning with causal containment mechanics over unverified environmental extrapolations.[40]
China
China conducted 45 nuclear tests at the Lop Nur site in Xinjiang from October 16, 1964, to July 29, 1996, establishing an indigenous capability for fission, boosted fission, and multi-stage thermonuclear weapons amid superpower encirclement and severed Soviet technical assistance after 1960.[41][42] The program yielded approximately 23 megatons in total explosive power, with 23 atmospheric detonations in the initial phase and 22 underground tests thereafter, the latter dominating after October 16, 1980, to contain fallout and refine containment engineering.[8][43]The inaugural test, CHIC-1 (Project 596), detonated a 22-kiloton highly enriched uranium implosion device on a 100-meter tower, confirming basic fission viability through domestic uranium enrichment and plutonium production cycles.[41] Rapid iteration followed, with CHIC-2 (May 14, 1965; ~40 kt plutonium fission, tower) and CHIC-3 (May 9, 1966; ~200 kt, airdrop), building empirical data on yield scaling and delivery integration despite resource constraints.[42] Thermonuclear progression culminated in CHIC-6 on June 17, 1967, an airdropped two-stage device yielding 3.3 megatons, achieved via staged compression and lithium deuteride fusion without external blueprints.[44]Subsequent high-yield atmospheric tests, such as CHIC-18 (November 17, 1976; ~4 megatons, airdrop), validated multi-megaton primaries and neutronics for strategic deterrence, with yields reflecting iterative hydrodynamic and radiation implosion efficiencies.[45] Underground series from the 1980s onward prioritized warheadminiaturization for missile delivery, including boosted fission enhancements evidenced in low-yield events like CHIC-35 (1990) to CHIC-45 (1996), supporting a lean arsenal oriented toward assured retaliation rather than parity.[46][41]
These detonations, conducted under resource scarcity, empirically validated designs for reliable second-strike forces, culminating in a posture of minimal deterrence without reliance on foreign validation.[41]
India
India conducted its first underground nuclear test, codenamed Smiling Buddha, on 18 May 1974 at the Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan's Thar Desert.[47] The government described it as a peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE) with a yield of 15 kilotons (kt), derived from plutonium produced in the CIRUS reactor using heavy water supplied by Canada under safeguards intended for civilian use.[48] Seismic data from the event, with a body-wave magnitude (mb) of approximately 5.0, corroborated a yield in the 10-15 kt range, consistent with the device's implosion-type design tested in secrecy to affirm technical capability amid regional security concerns following China's 1964 test.[49]In May 1998, India executed five additional underground tests under Pokhran-II (also known as Operation Shakti) at the same site, comprising three simultaneous detonations on 11 May and two on 13 May, totaling six declared tests to date.[48] These were framed as essential for establishing a credible minimum deterrent against nuclear threats from China, which possessed an advanced arsenal, and Pakistan's parallel covert program, without pursuing escalation through larger stockpiles or first-use doctrines.[50] Official announcements specified yields of 45 kt for the thermonuclear primary (Shakti-I), 15 kt for a linear implosion fission device (Shakti-II), 0.3 kt for experimental sub-kiloton (Shakti-III) on 11 May, and 0.5 kt plus 0.2 kt low-yield boosted devices on 13 May, with Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) seismic analysis claiming confirmation of a total ~58-63 kt for the 11 May event via waveform correlation to the 1974 test.[48]Independent seismic assessments, however, indicated lower aggregate yields, with mb magnitudes of 5.0-5.2 for 11 May suggesting 15-25 kt total, potentially reflecting underperformance in the thermonuclear stage due to fusion yield shortfalls.[49] This discrepancy aligns with later assertions by Indian coordinator K. Santhanam in 2009 that the hydrogen bomb "fizzled," yielding under 10 kt for the fusion component based on absent cratering and subdued seismic signals, though official sources maintain design success and sufficient deterrence validation.[51] Post-1998, India imposed a voluntary testing moratorium, emphasizing no-first-use and restraint in arsenal sizing.
Pakistan conducted six underground nuclear detonations in Balochistan province on May 28 and 30, 1998, as a direct counter to India's Pokhran-II tests conducted earlier that month, aiming to establish a nuclear deterrent against India's conventional military advantage.[52] The tests marked Pakistan's entry as the seventh acknowledged nuclear-armed state and involved fission devices developed indigenously, with the program accelerated under Prime MinisterNawaz Sharif following intelligence on India's preparations.[52] Seismic monitoring confirmed the explosions, though yield estimates diverged significantly from official announcements due to geological factors and calibration differences in global networks.[53]The initial series, Chagai-I, comprised five simultaneous detonations on May 28, 1998, at 15:15 PKT in horizontal shafts within the Ras Koh Hills of Chagai District.[54]Pakistan's Atomic Energy Commission claimed a total yield of 36–40 kilotons, attributing it to a mix of implosion-type devices including two sub-kiloton boosted fission yields, one 5-kiloton device, and two higher-yield assemblies up to 12 kilotons each, with some reports suggesting an attempted thermonuclear configuration.[52] Independent seismic assessments, however, pegged the aggregate yield lower: the U.S. Geological Survey and Prototype International Data Center recorded a body-wave magnitude (mb) of 4.8, corresponding to 5–15 kilotons based on Pahute Mesa calibration, while Berkeley seismologists estimated 1–6 kilotons from regional data.[53][52]Chagai-II followed on May 30, 1998, with a single low-yield device detonated in the Kharan Desert, approximately 150 kilometers southwest of the Ras Koh site, to verify plutonium-based designs amid international sanctions pressure. Official claims stated a yield of 18–20 kilotons, but seismic signals—partially obscured by aftershocks from a nearby earthquake—indicated 3–6 kilotons per analyses from the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty monitoring prototype and other networks.[52] No significant radionuclide venting was detected internationally, consistent with contained underground tests, though the seismic signatures empirically verified fission reactions.[52]
These tests, totaling an officially asserted 50–60 kilotons but seismically assessed at 4–20 kilotons combined, demonstrated Pakistan's rapid replication of nuclear capability from designs possibly accelerated via foreign assistance networks, prioritizing survivable second-strike posture over maximal yields.[52][53] Post-test, Pakistan imposed a moratorium on further explosions, shifting to subcritical and computer-simulated validation amid global non-proliferation scrutiny.[52]
North Korea
North Korea conducted six underground nuclear tests at the Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site in the Kilju County of North Hamgyong Province between 2006 and 2017, marking a progression from low-yield fission devices to higher-yield explosions with claims of thermonuclear capability.[55][56] These tests, detected via seismic signals by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) International Monitoring System and corroborated by radionuclide traces in some cases, occurred amid international sanctions imposed by the United Nations Security Council in response to the program's advancement.[57][58] Independent seismic analyses indicate escalating yields, with the 2017 test registering a body-wave magnitude of approximately 6.3, the highest among them. No verifiable nuclear tests have occurred since September 2017, as confirmed by global seismic networks up to the present.[56]The tests served North Korea's stated goal of developing a nuclear deterrent against perceived threats from the United States and South Korea, with official announcements emphasizing miniaturization for delivery systems and two-stage thermonuclear designs, though empirical yield data and seismic waveforms suggest primarily boosted fission devices until potentially the final test.[59][60]
Date
Estimated Yield (kt)
Key Details
9 October 2006
0.7–2
First test; seismic magnitude ~4.3; confirmed by CTBTO seismic and radionuclide detection; low-yield plutonium device.[56][60]
25 May 2009
2–5
Second test; seismic magnitude ~4.7; response to prior rocket launch criticisms; horizontal tunnel at Punggye-ri.[55][60]
12 February 2013
6–16
Third test; seismic magnitude ~5.1; announced as part of "miniaturized" warhead development.[56][60]
6 January 2016
7–15
Fourth test; claimed as hydrogen bomb but seismic data indicates boosted fission; magnitude ~5.1.[56][60]
Sixth and largest; claimed thermonuclear; magnitude 6.1–6.3; caused Mount Mantap subsidence per satellite imagery and seismic modeling; radionuclide xenon-133 detected.[57][61][60]
Post-2017, North Korea has maintained a de facto moratorium on nuclear testing while advancing missile programs, with seismic events at Punggye-ri attributed to non-nuclear activities like tunnel collapses rather than explosions.[62] This pause aligns with diplomatic engagements, including summits with the United States in 2018–2019, though verification of arsenal capabilities remains limited absent further tests.[58]
Alleged and Unconfirmed Tests
Vela Incident
The Vela Incident refers to an anomalous double flash detected by the United States Vela 6911 satellite on September 22, 1979, at 00:53 UTC, in a remote region of the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 47°S 40°E, between South Africa and the Prince Edward Islands.[63][64] The satellite's bhangmeters, optical sensors calibrated to identify nuclear detonations via their characteristic "double flash" pattern—a brief initial brightening followed by a slower secondary pulse from the expanding fireball—registered the signal with high confidence, consistent with prior calibrated observations of over 40 atmospheric nuclear tests.[65] No seismic signals indicative of a ground-based explosion were recorded, and initial post-event monitoring detected no widespread radioactive fallout, leading to speculation of a low-yield (estimated 2-3 kilotons) atmospheric, surface, or possibly subsurface burst designed to minimize detectability.[66][64]Supporting evidence for a nuclear test includes corroborating detections: hydroacoustic sensors registered signals consistent with an underwater or surface explosion near the flash location, while ionospheric wave perturbations observed by the satellite aligned with electromagnetic pulses from a nuclear event.[67][68] Retrospective analyses identified elevated iodine-131 levels in thyroids of Australian sheep grazing in September 1979, a short-lived fission byproduct plausibly dispersed from a southern hemisphere low-yield test, as iodine-131's 8-day half-life limits long-range transport plausibility from known northern tests.[64][69] Declassified U.S. intelligence assessments, including a CIA evaluation, assigned a "90% plus" probability to a nuclear detonation, attributing it most likely to Israel—potentially in collaboration with South Africa—given Israel's advanced but untested nuclear arsenal, historical cooperation with Pretoria on nuclear matters, and the event's timing amid regional tensions.[63][70]Opposing interpretations posited non-nuclear causes, such as a meteoroid impact or satellite instrumentation fault, citing the absence of confirmatory seismic or radionuclide data from global networks and the Vela system's age (launched 1968, beyond design life).[71] However, these explanations strain causal realism: meteors produce single, streaking flashes without the precise double-pulse signature, and no contemporaneous meteor observations or debris aligned with the coordinates; electronic anomalies in prior Vela data lacked the event's fidelity to nuclear benchmarks.[65][72] The Carter administration, facing diplomatic sensitivities with Israel, commissioned the Ruina Panel, which leaned against a test but relied on incomplete data and has been critiqued for underweighting the bhangmeter's specificity (false positives near zero in thousands of orbits).[67][73]Empirical data from declassified analyses and signal forensics tilt decisively toward a clandestine nuclear test, as the double flash's uniqueness—unambiguously tied to nuclear physics in controlled tests—outweighs inconclusive absences like fallout, which could result from a contained or ocean-dispersed yield.[64][68]Israel has maintained its policy of nuclear ambiguity, neither confirming nor denying the event, while South Africa later dismantled its program without admission; no state has officially claimed responsibility.[63][74] The incident underscores challenges in verifying low-yield tests amid the 1978 South Pacific moratorium and pre-1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty era, highlighting how opacity enables proliferation without overt escalation.[70]
Israeli Nuclear Tests
Israel has maintained a policy of nuclear ambiguity, neither confirming nor denying possession of nuclear weapons, and has not officially acknowledged conducting any nuclear tests. Allegations of Israeli nuclear testing persist primarily due to circumstantial evidence and intelligence assessments, though direct empirical verification remains absent. These claims often involve potential collaborations with other nations, but lack seismic or radiological confirmation attributable solely to Israel.[66][72]The most prominent allegation centers on the Vela Incident of September 22, 1979, when a U.S. Vela 6911 satellite detected a characteristic double optical flash in the South Atlantic Ocean, near the Prince Edward Islands, indicative of a low-kiloton nuclear detonation. The signal matched the satellite's calibrated signature for nuclear explosions, with an estimated yield of 2-3 kilotons, and was accompanied by hydroacoustic detections consistent with an underwater or surface burst. U.S. intelligence, including CIA analysis, assessed a "90% plus" probability that it was a nuclear test, with Israel identified as the most likely perpetrator, possibly in joint operation with South Africa, given their documented nuclear cooperation and the test site's remoteness. Detection of iodine-131 in Australian rainwater shortly afterward provided additional circumstantial support for a nuclear event, though alternative explanations like a meteor or natural phenomenon have been proposed but deemed improbable by optical and signal experts.[63][64][72]Other unconfirmed allegations include possible Israeli tests in the Indian Ocean during the 1960s or 1970s, potentially assisted by France, which provided early nuclear assistance including the Dimona reactor, or South Africa amid their bilateral exchanges of nuclear technology. These claims rely on declassified U.S. intelligence noting Israeli-South African ties post-1976, when Western sanctions limited South Africa's options, but no specific seismic or optical data corroborates oceanic bursts beyond the Vela event. Mordechai Vanunu's 1986 revelations detailed Israel's advanced plutonium production at Dimona—capable of yielding material for up to 200 warheads—and thermonuclear designs, implying sophisticated capabilities possibly honed through simulations or foreign data rather than full-yield tests, as no test-related disclosures emerged from his accounts.[70][75][76]As a non-signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, Israel faces no formal obligation to disclose tests, and the opacity policy prioritizes deterrence without verification risks. While Vela's evidence suggests a probable test, subsequent U.S. administrations downplayed it to avoid proliferation precedents, highlighting tensions between empirical signals and geopolitical restraint. No subsequent anomalies have been credibly linked to Israeli activity.[77][66]
Other Allegations
Allegations have surfaced claiming that India's 1974 Smiling Buddha underground explosion, officially described as a peaceful nuclear device, was in fact a covert test of a nuclear weapon prototype, with yields estimated at 6-15 kilotons based on seismic recordings.[47] Proponents cite design similarities to implosion-type bombs and India's subsequent advancements in warhead miniaturization, suggesting it advanced weapons development despite non-proliferation assurances.[78] However, declassified intelligence assessments indicate the device lacked key weaponization features like efficient neutron reflectors, rendering it more a proof-of-concept than a deliverable warhead, with no radionuclide data confirming boosted fission or thermonuclear elements.[79]Unsubstantiated claims in the 1980s alleged low-yield nuclear tests at Pakistan's Kahuta enrichment facility, prompted by U.S. intelligence reports of suspicious seismic activity and optical flashes detected by satellites, amid fears of an "Islamic bomb."[80] These stemmed from rapid uranium enrichment progress and covert procurement networks, leading to joint India-Israel strike plans aborted due to U.S. warnings.[81] Yet, no confirmatory seismic waveforms matching known tests were recorded by international stations, and radionuclide sampling yielded negative results, contrasting with verifiable 1998 Pakistani detonations that produced distinct P-wave signatures and xenon isotopes.[82]Post-1990 rumors of clandestine Russian nuclear tests at Novaya Zemlya persisted, fueled by satellite imagery of construction upticks and statements from site officials indicating readiness for explosive activities amid geopolitical tensions.[83] Some reports speculated hidden detonations to validate aging stockpiles or novel designs, citing the site's history of over 130 Soviet-era tests until 1990.[84]Empirical evidence refutes this: global seismic networks detected no explosion-like signals post-moratorium, and the International Monitoring System's radionuclide stations reported no anomalous isotopes, with Russian declarations confirming only subcritical hydrotests lacking supercritical fission.[85]Scrutiny of such allegations highlights detection challenges but underscores their improbability given technological advances. Underground tests produce distinctive high-frequency seismic ratios and isotropic waveforms unlike tectonic earthquakes, detectable with 99% accuracy via statistical models analyzing regional arrays.[86]Radionuclide confirmation, via xenon-133 plumes, further distinguishes explosions, as absent in alleged cases; while rare masking by co-timed quakes is theoretically possible, it requires implausible precision and leaves hydrological tracers.[87] These first-principles limits—yield thresholds for evasion exceeding sub-kiloton levels—explain why no covert full-yield tests align with monitoring data since the 1990s.[88]
Delivery System Integration Tests
Live Warhead Missile and Rocket Tests
Live warhead missile and rocket tests involve launching operational nuclear warheads aboard ballistic missiles or rockets to validate end-to-end delivery system performance, including boost, flight dynamics, reentry vehicle survival, arming sequences, and detonation under realistic conditions. These differ from static or drop tests by simulating full mission profiles, confirming warhead integrity against acceleration, vibration, thermal stresses, and separation mechanics. Such tests were rare due to high risks, costs, and political sensitivities, with empirical data from telemetry, yield measurements, and debris analysis providing verification of success.[89][90]The United States conducted the only confirmed full-range operational test of a live nuclear warhead on a submarine-launched ballistic missile during Operation Dominic on May 6, 1962, designated Frigate Bird. A Polaris A1 missile carrying a W47 thermonuclear warhead (nominal yield 600 kilotons) was fired from the USS Ethan Allen (SSBN-608 in the Pacific Ocean, traveling approximately 1,900 kilometers downrange before reentry and airburst detonation at 3.8 kilometers altitude. Telemetry confirmed warhead arming, fuse function, and yield within design parameters, with optical and seismic data registering the explosion as expected, proving the system's reliability for fleet deployment.[89][91] This remains the sole U.S. live-fire proof of an operational sea-launched missile, as subsequent tests used inert or partial-yield substitutes amid moratorium pressures.[89]![Operation Dominic - Frigate Bird nuclear explosion.jpg][float-right]Earlier in Operation Dominic, the U.S. performed missile-launched high-altitude tests using modified Thor intermediate-range ballistic missiles to loft live warheads for Operation Fishbowl shots, such as Starfish Prime (July 9, 1962, 1.4 megatons at 400 km altitude). These validated warhead performance in exo-atmospheric environments but focused on effects rather than full reentry delivery, with rockets like Nike-Zeus supplementing for lower-altitude intercepts.[89][90] No U.S. intercontinental ballistic missile has undergone a live warhead full-range test, relying instead on sub-scale and hydrodynamic simulations post-1963.[92]The Soviet Union conducted missile flights with live nuclear warheads on shorter-range systems, such as the R-5M in 1956, which successfully delivered a warhead over 1,200 kilometers for ground impact and detonation, confirming basic integration.[93] Claims of full-range ICBM tests with detonations, like a purported 1962 R-16 launch of a 24-megaton device, lack declassified telemetry or independent yield verification, with most Soviet ICBM validations using mock warheads to avoid atmospheric fallout risks.[94] China executed a missile-delivered live test in October 1966 using a Dong Feng-2 to transport a warhead to Lop Nur for detonation, but this involved suborbital lofting to the test site rather than operational reentry over intercontinental distances.[95] Other nuclear states, including France and the UK, have integrated warheads via missile tests but exclusively with dummies, prioritizing simulations over live detonations.[96][32] These tests underscored delivery reliability's causal role in deterrence credibility, though post-test-ban reliance on non-nuclear proxies raises uncertainties about untested modern variants' performance under combat stresses.[92]
Notable Individual Tests
Highest Yield Explosions
The highest-yield nuclear tests, all thermonuclear devices detonated in the atmosphere, demonstrated the scaling potential of multi-stage fusion designs but also highlighted engineering constraints like delivery systems and fallout mitigation. Yields were estimated using methods such as fireball radius measurements, seismic data, and bhangmeters, with the Soviet Tsar Bomba (AN602) achieving the maximum at 50 megatons (Mt) TNT equivalent on October 30, 1961, over Novaya Zemlya archipelago.[29][97] Originally designed for up to 100 Mt, it was scaled down by substituting a lead tamper for uranium-238 to reduce radioactive fallout, while still requiring a modified Tu-95V bomber for airburst delivery at 4 km altitude; the explosion produced a fireball 8 km wide, a mushroom cloud exceeding 60 km height, and a shockwave that circled the Earth three times, registering as a seismic event of magnitude 5.0 to 5.25.[29][97]
First full-scale thermonuclear test; experimental cryogenic device vaporized Elugelab island.[99][100]
The United States' Castle Bravo test on March 1, 1954, at Bikini Atoll yielded 15 Mt—2.5 times the predicted 6 Mt—due to unanticipated fusion contributions from lithium-7 in the secondary stage, resulting in a fireball 7 km across, base surge extending 50 km, and widespread fallout contaminating over 11,000 km², including Rongelap Atoll residents and the Japanese fishing vessel Daigo Fukuryū Maru.[21][98] This test's EMP disrupted electronics and radio communications regionally, while seismic effects were recorded globally.[21]Preceding it, the Ivy Mike shot on November 1, 1952, at Enewetak Atoll marked the first successful thermonuclear detonation at 10.4 Mt, employing a large cryogenic liquid deuterium-tritium core in a sausage-shaped device weighing 82 tons and measuring 7 m long; it excavated a 1.9 km wide, 50 m deep crater, with the fireball's thermal pulse igniting distant vegetation and generating EMP that blacked out power in the Marshall Islands.[99][100] These tests underscored fusion staging efficiencies but imposed no evident barrier to global conflict through deterrence alone, as mutual assured destruction doctrines persisted amid escalating arsenals.[29]
First Tests and Milestones
The United States conducted the world's first nuclear test, code-named Trinity, on July 16, 1945, at the Alamogordo Bombing Range in New Mexico, detonating a plutonium implosion device with a yield of approximately 20 kilotons.[101][102] This test validated the implosion design central to subsequent plutonium-based weapons, establishing empirical benchmarks for fission chain reactions measured via gauges and seismic instruments.[101]A pivotal milestone followed with the first thermonuclear detonation, Ivy Mike, on November 1, 1952, at Enewetak Atoll, yielding 10.4 megatons through fusion of liquid deuterium boosted by a fission primary.[99] This demonstrated scalable multi-stage designs, far exceeding fission limits and enabling megaton-class deterrence, though the device was impractical for delivery due to its size.[99]The Soviet Union achieved its inaugural test, RDS-1, on August 29, 1949, at Semipalatinsk, replicating the U.S. Fat Manplutonium implosion with a yield of about 22 kilotons.[103] The United Kingdom followed with Operation Hurricane on October 3, 1952, at Monte Bello Islands, detonating a 25-kiloton plutonium device independently developed to affirm strategic autonomy.[33]France's first test, Gerboise Bleue, occurred on February 13, 1960, in the Algerian Sahara at Reggane, yielding around 70 kilotons from a plutonium implosion.[36] China conducted its debut explosion on October 16, 1964, at Lop Nur, a 22-kiloton uranium fission device that confirmed indigenous capabilities amid geopolitical isolation.[104]India's initial underground test, Smiling Buddha, took place on May 18, 1974, at Pokhran with a reported 12-kiloton yield, framed as a peaceful nuclear explosion but marking entry into the nuclear club.[47] Pakistan responded with Chagai-I on May 28, 1998, conducting multiple underground detonations estimated at 5-12 kilotons total to counter regional threats.[105] North Korea's first underground test followed on October 9, 2006, at Punggye-ri with a sub-kiloton yield, signaling basic fission proficiency despite technical challenges.[106]The 1950s marked a shift toward underground testing for containment, beginning with the U.S. Rainier shot on September 19, 1957, at Nevada, which minimized atmospheric fallout while allowing yield assessment via contained seismic data.[107] This transition, driven by environmental and detection concerns, set precedents for verifiable deterrence thresholds without global dispersion.[107]
Treaties, Moratoriums, and Strategic Implications
Test Ban Treaties and Compliance
The Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT), signed on August 5, 1963, by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, and entering into force on October 10, 1963, prohibited nuclear weapons tests or any other nuclear explosions in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, while permitting underground testing.[108][109] Over 100 nations eventually adhered to the treaty, which was motivated in part by concerns over radioactive fallout from atmospheric tests.[110]Signatories to the LTBT, including its primary architects, complied with the prohibitions after 1963, as evidenced by the absence of detected atmospheric, space, or underwater nuclear explosions through seismic, radionuclide, and hydroacoustic monitoring networks that were rudimentary but sufficient for large-yield events.[109] Non-signatories France and China, however, conducted 50 and 23 atmospheric tests, respectively, between 1960 and 1980, with France ceasing in 1974 and China in 1980, after which global atmospheric testing ended empirically.[109] The treaty's implementation reduced worldwide exposure to radioactive fallout, lowering health risks such as increased cancer incidence among downwind populations near test sites.[111]The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), opened for signature on September 24, 1996, bans all nuclear explosions, whether for military or civilian purposes, interpreting the prohibition as zero-yield to exclude any self-sustaining supercritical chain reaction while permitting subcritical hydrodynamic tests that produce no nuclear yield.[6][112] As of 2025, it has been signed by 187 states and ratified by 178, but has not entered into force, requiring ratification by all 44 Annex 2 states with nuclear capabilities; eight—China, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel, North Korea, Pakistan, and the United States—have not ratified.[113] A de facto global norm against testing has held among most states since 1998, though North Korea, a non-signatory, conducted six underground nuclear tests between 2006 and 2017, evading treaty constraints through non-participation and seismic signatures distinguishable from earthquakes via the CTBT's International Monitoring System.[114][115]Compliance with the CTBT faces challenges from verification ambiguities, including debates over low-yield hydronuclear experiments that may approach supercritical thresholds without producing measurable yield, as alleged by U.S. assessments of Russian activities in 2019.[116] Proponents highlight environmental benefits akin to the LTBT, such as preventing further radioactive contamination from over 2,000 historical tests, which released isotopes affecting ecosystems and human health globally.[117] Critics, however, emphasize risks of undetected cheating by non-compliant states or threshold powers exploiting zero-yield loopholes, undermining the treaty's non-proliferation goals absent universal adherence and robust on-site inspections.[116][118]
Moratorium Effects on Arsenal Reliability
The United States imposed a voluntary moratorium on nuclear explosive testing on September 23, 1992, shifting reliance to the Stockpile Stewardship Program (SSP) for maintaining arsenal reliability through computer simulations, laboratory experiments, and subcritical tests that avoid supercritical chain reactions.[119][120] The SSP has certified the stockpile annually since inception, certifying over 12,000 warheads as of 2023, but lab directors have noted gradual declines in confidence due to untested aging effects.[121][122]Subcritical tests, conducted at sites like the Nevada National Security Site, utilize small plutonium quantities to study material properties under high pressures but fall short of replicating full-scale hydrodynamic implosion, boost gas dynamics, or fusion ignition sequences inherent to live detonations.[123][124] These experiments validate basic physics but cannot confirm integrated weapon performance, such as yield variability from minor material anomalies, limiting empirical assurance of "one-point safety" or predictable outputs without nuclear yield data.[125]Aging warheads exacerbate these gaps, with plutonium pits prone to alpha decay-induced helium buildup, microstructural changes, and oxidation, potentially altering compression efficiency; high explosives degrade via chemical instability, and electronics face radiation hardening failures over decades.[92][121] Without live testing, undetected "pit sort" variations or refurbishment deviations risk partial fissions or reduced yields, as surveillance inspections reveal but cannot fully quantify under explosive conditions, heightening deterrence uncertainties.[122][126]The Soviet arsenal's post-1991 challenges, amid economic collapse and halted maintenance, demonstrated rapid degradation risks from neglected surveillance, with fissile material corrosion and component failures reported in unsecured storage, paralleling moratorium-era concerns over unverified longevity without testing validation.[127][128]Critics of the moratorium, including some weapons experts, contend that SSP limitations undermine deterrence credibility against testing adversaries like China (over 500 tests post-1996) and North Korea (six since 2006), where uncertified U.S. modifications lack proof-of-performance.[129][130] Proponents of continued reliance assert simulations and historical data suffice for high-confidence certification, though acknowledging rivals' empirical edges from full-yield validations.[131][132]
Debates on Resuming Testing
The United States has maintained a voluntary moratorium on explosive nuclear weapons testing since its final underground test on September 23, 1992, relying instead on the Stockpile Stewardship Program (SSP) to certify arsenal reliability through non-explosive simulations and subcritical experiments.[133] This approach has sustained the existing U.S. stockpile without full-yield tests for over three decades, but growing nuclear advancements by adversaries—such as North Korea's sixth and most powerful test on September 3, 2017, yielding an estimated 250 kilotons, and China's expansion of its arsenal to over 500 warheads by 2024—have intensified debates on resumption to address empirical gaps in verifying modernized designs.[134] Proponents argue that unilateral restraint undermines deterrence, as adversaries exploit testing asymmetries to enhance capabilities, potentially eroding U.S. confidence in warhead performance under real-world stresses.[129]Advocates for resumption, including analyses from the Heritage Foundation, emphasize the need for full-yield tests to validate upgrades like the W87-1 warhead, a modified design slated for deployment on the Ground Based Strategic Deterrent (Sentinel) intercontinental ballistic missile by the early 2030s, which incorporates new components requiring empirical proof of yield and reliability beyond SSP models.[129] They further contend that integration of nuclear payloads with hypersonic glide vehicles—amid China's and Russia's operational deployments—demands explosive validation to ensure functionality against advanced defenses, as computer simulations alone cannot fully replicate dynamic fission-fusion interactions or material aging in novel configurations.[129]Heritage's January 2025 report specifically highlights threats from North Korea and China, asserting that restored test readiness would signal resolve and maintain a credible deterrent, preventing escalation risks from perceived U.S. vulnerabilities.[129]Project 2025 policy recommendations similarly call for achieving "immediate test readiness" to counter these peer competitors, prioritizing national security over extended abstinence.[135]Opponents, including arms control advocates, argue against resumption on grounds of environmental and public health risks, citing historical atmospheric tests' global fallout that elevated worldwide radiation exposure and contributed to increased cancer rates among downwind populations.[136] For underground tests, they reference potential venting of radioactive gases, as occurred in some Nevada Test Site events, which could exacerbate localized contamination and seismic hazards.[13] However, empirical data from post-1963 underground testing indicate highly contained effects, with negligible transboundary fallout and no verifiable global health epidemics attributable to these detonations, as containment depths exceeding 500 meters minimized releases compared to surface or atmospheric variants.[13] Critics also claim the SSP obviates testing needs, but this overlooks causal realities: adversaries' ongoing or suspected tests enable iterative improvements that U.S. restraint cannot match, potentially compromising deterrence efficacy and increasing war probabilities if arsenal doubts arise during crises.[130]As of October 2025, no U.S. resumption has occurred, with the SSP certified annually as sufficient by the Department of Energy, yet debates persist amid reports of possible Chinese sub-kiloton tests and Russia's claimed adherence to the moratorium despite infrastructure maintenance.[137] While environmental concerns merit consideration, strategic analyses underscore that credible deterrence—empirically tied to demonstrated capabilities—averts conflicts whose human and ecological costs dwarf isolated test impacts, favoring preparedness over indefinite unilateral forbearance in an era of asymmetric advancement.[129][130]
