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Phoenice or Phoenike (Ancient Greek: Φοινίκη) was an ancient Greek city in Epirus and capital of the Chaonians.[1][2] It is located high on an almost impregnable hill commanding the fertile valley below and near the modern town of the same name, Finiq, in southern Albania.[2] It was the wealthiest city in Epirus[3] and had the strongest walls until the Roman conquest.[4] It was the location of the Treaty of Phoenice which ended the First Macedonian War.[5] The city is part of an archaeological park.

Key Information

Toponym

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The toponym is ultimately of non-Indo-European origin, as with all names with an -īk suffix in IE languages. There were at least 16 toponyms throughout the Ancient Greek world sharing the root Phoinik-; from Epirus to Lycia. In ancient Greek, φοῖνιξ (phoenix) may have acquired different meanings. They include "dark red or "brown-red", which could have referred to geographical features of particular rivers and mountains. As a name it may have referred to groups which entered the Aegean sea via the southern Anatolian coastline.[6]

History

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Theatre
Phoenice city walls
House with two peristyles

Antiquity

[edit]
Roman cistern
Aprodite from Phoenice (Butrint Museum)

The city was the political centre of the Chaonians, one of the three major Greek tribes in ancient Epirus.[1]

From the second half of the 5th century BC, a number of public buildings were erected on the acropolis, while at the end of the next century the city walls were expanded as part of the defensive strategy of Pyrrhus, leader of united Epirus.[7] The earliest phase of Phoenice's walls consisted of massive blocks up to 3.6 metres thick, the Chaonians' primary concern being to defend the city against Corcyraeans or Illyrian raiders.[8] In the 3rd century BC the urban area was extended on the centre and west sides of the hill.

The patron god of the city was probably Athena Polias.[2]

In circa 233 BC, Queen Deidamia II, the last member of the Aeacid ruling dynasty, was assassinated, the monarchy was abolished in Epirus, and the city became the centre of the federal government of the Epirote League.[9]

In 231 BC, an Illyrian army of Queen Teuta, returning north from a raid in the Peloponnese, captured Phoenice after the town was surrendered by the 800 Gaulish mercenary garrison.[4] An army was sent by the Epirote League to relieve the town but were defeated at the Battle of Phoenice.

The Illyrians were forced to withdraw their troops to deal with an internal rebellion.[4][10][11] A truce was thus reached, and Phoenice and the Illyrians' free-born captives were returned to the Epirotes for a ransom.[4][12] During their occupation of Phoenice, the Illyrians murdered several Roman merchants in the town,[10][11] which would eventually lead to the First Illyrian War.[4]

In 205 BC, a peace treaty was signed there between the Kingdom of Macedon and the Roman Republic that ended the First Macedonian War.[13] During the Third Macedonian War (171 BC–168 BC), Epirus was split into two states with the Molossians siding with the Macedonians and the Chaonians and Thesprotians siding with Rome. The latter were centred in Phoenice under the leadership of Charops.[14]

After the Roman conquest (167 BC), the region of Epirus was devastated, except for the pro-Roman cities in Chaonia; including Phoenice, which had limited Roman occupation at first.[15] The Romans later renovated the city,[16] amongst the buildings of which the great cistern dates from the 2nd c. AD.[17]

Medieval period

[edit]

In the early Byzantine era, Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) constructed fortifications on a hill adjacent to Phoenice.[18] During the 5th and 6th centuries, the city was listed as a see of a bishopric[19] and hosted a number of religious buildings including a baptistery and a basilica,[20] which were influenced by the architectural style of the great basilicas of Nikopolis.[21] Phoenice was one of the main settlements in Epirus Vetus together with Nicopolis, Dodona, Euroia, Andrianoupolis, Anhiasmos, Vouthroton, Photike, Corfu and Ithaka.[22] However, the city vanished after the 6th century and the urban center of the area moved to nearby Mesopotamon.[23]

The Site

[edit]

In the mid-3rd century BC among the public buildings a temple was built, called the thesauròs by Luigi M. Ugolini.[24]

The large theatre had a scenae frons 30m wide. It was built in the 3rd c. BC and renovated in the 2nd. It was rebuilt in the 2nd c. AD under the Romans.

Excavations

[edit]

Formal excavations in the area started in 1924 by an Italian Archaeological Mission as a political tool for Mussolini's nationalistic ambitions to the east of the Adriatic.[25] During 1924–1928, French and Italian archaeologists found a few artifacts in Phoenice. In fact, the Italian mission headed by the fascist prehistorian,[26] Luigi Ugolini, hoped that the prehistoric graves that would be discovered could be attributed to the Illyrians in order exploit Albanian nationalist sentiment, but the finds themselves were hardly stunning.[27] Ugolini also stated that materials found there were related to the Iron Age culture of southern Italy. Ugolini's thesis was later politically exploited by the totalitarian regime of Fascist Italy.[28]

After 1928, excavations moved to the nearby archaeological sites of Kalivo and Çuka e Aitoit (or Mount Eagle) and continued until 1943. After the war, excavations resumed in 1958 by a joint Albanian-USSR archaeological team, which included a thorough topographic survey and mapping. After 1961, when a political rift occurred between Albania and the USSR, excavations continued under Albanian authorities. A complete report of these excavations has not been published. Some parts of the work were published by Albanian archaeologists Bace and Bushati in 1989, reporting Hellenistic domiciles, Roman houses, and other finds dating from the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD. The authors identified three distinct structures, it has been suggested by them that this whole complex comprised a Prytaneion, serving visitors to the town, outside the principal enceinte. Those Albanian archaeologists found also the opportunity to strengthen the nationalistic paradigm of Illyrian-Albanian continuity by reporting similarities of these houses and the medieval Albanian ones. They also found an "egalitarian" nature among the excavated dwellings, in line with the philosophy of communist "self-reliance" promoted by the Albanian state during that period.[29]

Significant recent excavations took place in two stages between 1980 and 1981, and between 1989 and 1991.[30] On the first occasion the theatre was found.[31] At the same time, research continued in the southern necropolis with the discovery of other Hellenistic tombs among which one with rich grave goods, probably from the end of the 4th century BC. These excavations also involved sections of the city walls in the south-west sector and above all the central area of the plateau. The excavations of 1989–1991 are better documented at the Albanian Archaeological Institute in Tirana and included the "House of the two peristyles". Excavations have resumed since 2000.[32]

2012 looting incident

[edit]

In June 2012, looters broke into a Hellenistic-era tomb located on the road that connected Phoenice to its hinterland. The looters reportedly used heavy construction equipment to dig a trench several metres deep through the hillside, scattering the stones of the tomb in the process.[33]

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Phoenice

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Phoenice (Ancient Greek: Φοινίκη) was an ancient Greek city serving as the main settlement and capital of the , one of the principal Greek tribes inhabiting the region of in antiquity. Located on a steep hill overlooking the Bistrica valley in what is now near modern , the city controlled access to the port of Onchesmos (near Saranda) and emerged as a prosperous political, economic, and cultural center during the . Its oldest structures date to the 5th century BCE, when an with public buildings was constructed, and it later featured formidable city walls built in the late 4th to early BCE, earning praise from the historian as the richest, most fortified, and powerful city in . Phoenice played a notable role in regional politics, integrating into the Molossian kingdom under around 297 BCE, before falling under Illyrian and then Roman influence; it was the site of the Peace of Phoenice in 205 BCE, which concluded the between and . The city's archaeological remains, including a well-preserved theater, agora, treasury, Roman necropolis, and a 5th-6th century Christian basilica, attest to its continuous habitation into Late Antiquity until possible abandonment following Avar invasions.

Location and Etymology

Geographical Context

Phoenice was situated in the ancient region of Chaonia, part of Epirus, on a steep hill that offered natural defensive advantages and overlooked surrounding fertile valleys, including the Bistrica valley. The site's elevated position, enhanced by massive polygonal stone walls constructed in the late 4th to early 3rd century BCE, rendered it nearly impregnable. In modern terms, Phoenice corresponds to the area near Finiq village in southern Albania, approximately 8 kilometers northeast of Sarandë and 17 kilometers north of ancient Buthrotum (modern Butrint). Its coordinates are approximately 39.913° N, 20.057° E. The terrain reflects the rugged landscape of Epirus, characterized by hills and mountains, with the city commanding views over plains suitable for agriculture and extending toward the Ionian Sea. Proximity to the coast, accessed via the ancient port of Onchesmos (near modern Sarandë), supported economic activities including trade. Necropolises were located in the plains below, along principal roads.

Name and Toponymy

The name for the city was Φοινίκη (Phoiníkē), attested in Classical sources as the chief settlement of the , one of the major tribes of . This toponym first emerges in historical records around 330–328 BCE, in the Argive list of theorodokoi (sacred envoys hosting delegations for the ), marking Phoinike's role as a recognized urban reference point for the amid their transition from dispersed villages (kata kōmas) to more centralized organization. The Latin form Phoenice appears in Roman historiography, such as Livy's accounts of diplomatic events including the treaty of 205 BCE concluding the . In modern Albanian, the name persists as Finiq, a direct phonetic descendant reflecting post-Classical linguistic shifts in the region. Etymologically, Phoiníkē likely stems from the Greek phoinix, denoting "dark-red," "," or ""—terms associated with production, , or reddish —possibly alluding to local geological features or resources in Chaonia's hilly terrain; analogous derivations appear in toponyms like , linked to purple trade. However, the suffix -ikē suggests potential influence, perhaps Illyrian or non-Indo-European, as proposed by linguists analyzing similar Epirote place names, though direct evidence remains inconclusive without epigraphic precursors.

Historical Development

Foundation and Early Chaonian Period

Phoenice served as the chief settlement and capital of the , an ancient tribe inhabiting the Chaonia region of in northwestern and southern . The city was established by the Chaonians during the BCE, likely in the BCE, though precise founding circumstances remain undocumented due to sparse pre-5th-century evidence. Archaeological investigations reveal the oldest material remains dating to the 5th century BCE, including early settlement layers, fortifications, and artifacts signaling an organized urban community controlling the Bistrica valley and access to ports like Onchesmos (modern ). These findings indicate Phoenice's role as a strategic highland stronghold, leveraging its steep terrain for defense and oversight of regional trade routes. The earliest textual attestation of Phoenice appears in 4th-century BCE lists of theorodokoi—sacred envoys—from sanctuaries at Argos and Epidauros, confirming the city's integration into panhellenic religious networks and its status as a Greek polity. Ancient sources portray the as a Hellenic group, with Phoenice emerging as their political hub amid tribal confederations in , prior to broader Hellenistic influences. In the early Chaonian period, spanning roughly the 6th to 4th centuries BCE, Phoenice functioned as the tribe's administrative and economic core, fostering autonomy until the Chaonians allied with the Molossian kingdom circa 360 BCE under Macedonian influence. This era preceded major expansions, such as the construction of extensive polygonal stone walls in the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE, which later described as among 's most formidable defenses. The city's pre-Hellenistic development reflects Chaonian self-governance, with limited external interference until reunified the tribes in 297 BCE.

Classical Greek and Hellenistic Eras

During the Classical Greek period, Phoenice functioned as the primary settlement and capital of the , one of Epirus's three major tribal confederations alongside the and . Following the assassination of Alexander I of Molossis circa 330 BC, the Chaonian polity regained autonomy from Molossian overlordship, elevating Phoenice's status as a regional political hub amid shifting alliances in the Greek world. In the Hellenistic era, Phoenice integrated into the Epirote League, a federal structure uniting Epirus's tribes under shared governance and military coordination, with the city serving as a strategic stronghold due to its elevated, defensible position. The city's fortifications underwent enhancements, incorporating advanced features such as hollow-based towers and provisions for artillery, reflecting influences from rulers like in the late 4th to early 3rd centuries BC. In 230 BC, Illyrian forces under Queen besieged Phoenice, prompting the Epirote League to dispatch a army that suffered defeat in the ensuing Battle of Phoenice; the subsequently withdrew, forging an alliance with to counter common threats. Phoenice's diplomatic prominence peaked in 205 BC with the negotiation of the Peace of Phoenice, which concluded the between the and . The treaty acknowledged Macedonian territorial gains in while compelling Philip to renounce his alliance with , though it failed to prevent the Second Macedonian War, highlighting Phoenice's role as a neutral venue for interstate arbitration amid expanding Roman influence in the . Archaeological evidence, including Hellenistic-era walls and a , underscores the city's urban development and cultural integration within Greek Hellenistic networks during this period.

Roman Integration and Conflicts

Phoenice hosted the negotiations leading to the Treaty of Phoenice in 205 BC, which concluded the between the and King . The agreement temporarily halted hostilities, with Rome recognizing Philip's control over certain territories in and while securing its interests in the region. During the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC), the , with Phoenice as their principal city, aligned with under the leadership of Charops, who actively supported Roman forces against the Macedonian king and his allies in . This pro-Roman stance contrasted with the Molossians' loyalty to Perseus, fostering internal divisions within Epirus. Following 's decisive victory at the in 168 BC, the Roman general Lucius Aemilius Paullus ordered the plunder of seventy Epirote cities, primarily in Molossian territory, resulting in widespread destruction and the enslavement of approximately 150,000 inhabitants as punishment for aiding Perseus. Chaonia, including Phoenice, escaped this devastation due to its demonstrated loyalty to , with Charops rewarded for his cooperation by being granted authority over the region. Subsequent Roman integration incorporated Phoenice into the province of Macedonia, later reorganized as the separate province of under around 27 BC, where it functioned as a key urban center with Roman administrative and infrastructural developments, such as cisterns and continued use of its Hellenistic theater. The city's pro-Roman elite facilitated a relatively smooth transition, though Epirus as a whole experienced economic recovery only gradually after the initial disruptions.

Byzantine and Medieval Phases

Following the Roman era, Phoinike underwent a significant urban reconfiguration in the AD, with settlement shifting to the higher elevations of the hill—likely the area—owing to hydrological instability affecting lower sectors. This Byzantine phase featured the erection of churches, chapels, and dwellings that repurposed pre-existing Chaonian and Roman masonry, reflecting amid reduced population and heightened defensive priorities. Archaeological strata from joint Italian-Albanian excavations since the early confirm this continuity, with structures oriented toward territorial oversight and localized economic sustenance in a landscape increasingly vulnerable to invasions. By the 7th century, broader disruptions in Epirus—including Slavic incursions—contributed to the site's marginalization, as urban functions transferred to coastal locales like nearby Onchesmos (modern Sarandë area). Medieval occupation persisted in attenuated form through the middle Byzantine centuries and into the Despotate of Epirus (established 1204), a successor entity to the Byzantine Empire in the region. Evidence points to concentrated activity in religious complexes and hilltop fortifications, with monasteries assuming key roles in land management and spiritual authority atop earlier ruins. This era emphasized highland defensibility over expansive urbanism, aligning with the Despotate's fragmented political landscape until its absorption by Ottoman forces around 1479. Post-medieval traces, including Ottoman-era records referencing "" as late as 1431, suggest nominal continuity of the toponym amid agricultural repurposing of lowlands and sporadic village settlement. However, the ancient urban core effectively lapsed into desolation by the late medieval period, supplanted by emerging regional centers, with surviving features like drainage systems from Roman-Byzantine transitions underscoring long-term infrastructural resilience despite demographic shifts.

Archaeological Investigations

Early Explorations and Major Excavations

Formal archaeological investigations at Phoenice commenced in 1924 under the auspices of the Italian Archaeological Mission, directed by Luigi Maria Ugolini as part of Italy's cultural and political initiatives in during the . Ugolini selected the site, a prominent hilltop settlement identifiable from ancient descriptions, for initial excavations in 1925, prioritizing it before shifting focus to nearby in 1928; these efforts uncovered elements of the Hellenistic theater and city walls, though documentation was limited by the mission's broader exploratory aims. Prior to systematic digs, the site's ruins drew sporadic attention from 19th-century European travelers and scholars, who noted visible monumental remains like fortification walls and theater seating, facilitating its correlation with ancient Phoenice through literary sources such as and ; however, these constituted informal surveys rather than structured excavations. Excavations halted after the Italian withdrawal in 1943 amid and subsequent Albanian communist regime, which restricted foreign involvement; limited Albanian-led probes occurred in the mid-20th century, but major post-war efforts resumed only in the late 1980s, with significant Albanian Institute of campaigns from 1989 to 1991 exposing domestic structures including a house with dual peristyles. Albanian teams have since conducted periodic major excavations, such as those expanding urban layouts in the sector, continuing into the 2020s with focuses on Illyrian and Hellenistic phases.

Key Discoveries and Artifacts

The site of Phoinike was first identified as an ancient settlement in 1926 by Italian archaeologist Luigi Maria Ugolini during exploratory work in . Subsequent limited excavations between 1924 and 1928 by French and Italian teams yielded a small number of artifacts, primarily fragments indicative of Hellenistic occupation. Major structural discoveries include the "House of the Two Peristyles," a luxurious Hellenistic-Roman residence uncovered during Albanian-led excavations from 1989 to 1991, featuring multiple colonnaded courtyards and domestic architecture reflecting elite Chaonian society. The theater, dating to the with later Roman modifications, overlooks the surrounding plain and demonstrates public architectural investment, as revealed in ongoing campaigns since 2016. Excavations in the western (nea) and eastern (archaia) agoras over the past decade have exposed public spaces with porticoes and shops, highlighting from the BCE through the Roman era. Artifact assemblages are dominated by black-glazed , accounting for 72% of ceramic finds, including outturned rim plates, stamped decoration plates, small bowls, gutti, and lekythoi, primarily from Hellenistic contexts that confirm links and local production. Numismatic and epigraphic materials from these layers provide evidence of political alliances, such as the 205 BCE site. A notable funerary find is a Hellenistic in the containing a small equid , suggesting practices uncommon in standard Greek customs but attested in Epirote contexts. Later periods yield Late Antique and medieval indicating continued Mediterranean connectivity, alongside ash containers and Roman funerary decorations.

Modern Challenges Including Looting

The archaeological site of Phoenice, now known as the Archaeological Park, has been subject to persistent since the post-communist era, driven by economic hardship, widespread use of metal detectors, and inadequate enforcement mechanisms in Albania's sector. By 1997, the site's steep hillside was already pockmarked with dozens of illegal excavation pits, indicative of systematic for artifacts and metals that undermines stratigraphic integrity and contextual data essential for archaeological interpretation. A specific incident occurred in June 2012, when looters employed heavy construction equipment to breach a Hellenistic-era situated along the ancient linking Phoenice to its , highlighting the use of mechanized tools that accelerate site destruction beyond manual digging. These activities reflect broader vulnerabilities in Albanian , where up to 75% of surveyed sites exhibit signs of , often fueled by international black-market demand for , though Phoenice's exposed terrain and proximity to rural communities exacerbate risks. Preservation efforts have included the establishment of ranger patrols funded by international donors, such as the Italo-Albanian accord and the George H. and Jane A. Mifflin Fund, aimed at curbing further incursions, yet resource constraints limit their effectiveness against organized groups. Beyond looting, natural and environmental threats compound preservation difficulties; for instance, wildfires in August 2024 encroached on the park's periphery, necessitating emergency interventions to shield monuments, though no direct damage to structures was reported due to internal access routes aiding . Ongoing challenges include rural depopulation and urban encroachment in the surrounding municipality, which strain funding for maintenance and digital documentation initiatives intended to support revitalization, while restoration projects, such as those on Roman-era walls, proceed amid bureaucratic hurdles. These factors collectively impede comprehensive site management, prioritizing reactive measures over proactive strategies informed by empirical risk assessments.

Site Description and Features

Urban Layout and Architecture

Phoenice occupied a hilltop location in , with its urban layout adapting to the terrain through terraced structures and districts rather than a strict . The city featured an upper settlement on the eastern hill, representing the oldest inhabited area, and expanded westward during the with the development of a . Excavations reveal a systematic layout in the by the AD, incorporating terraced blocks and orthogonal streets indicative of planned Roman-era . Urban growth initiated around the mid-3rd century BC, marked by Hellenistic expansion including the construction of an at the hill's center and terraced housing districts. Public architecture underwent renewal, with the and theater remodeled in the 2nd century AD during the mid-imperial Roman phase. The theater, dating to the late 3rd or 2nd century BC in its Hellenistic form, exemplifies regional architectural styles adapted to the southern-facing slope overlooking the plain. Residential architecture included elite structures such as the "House of the Two Peristyles," a luxurious Hellenistic residence featuring two courtyards, highlighting continuity in domestic planning from the Classical to Roman eras. Defensive walls encircled the , following the hill's contours with variations in elevation to enclose both upper and lower zones. Roman contributions encompassed like cisterns, supporting sustained habitation into later periods. Overall, Phoenice's architecture reflects Epirote regional traits, with Hellenistic foundations evolving under Roman influence without evidence of abrupt disruption, as confirmed by excavations documenting occupation through the 16th century AD.

Defensive and Public Structures


The defensive structures of Phoenice primarily comprised extensive fortification walls constructed during the , which nearly encircled the hilltop site and underscored its strategic importance. These massive stone walls, built from local , formed a robust perimeter that exploited the natural topography of steep slopes for added impregnability, with earliest sections dating to around the 3rd century BCE. The historian described Phoenice as possessing the strongest walls in , highlighting their role in repelling invasions during regional conflicts. Public structures included a prominent Hellenistic , excavated in 2006 and among the best-preserved features at the site, designed with tiered seating carved into the hillside to accommodate several thousand spectators. The , oriented southward with panoramic views of the plain, underwent modifications in the Roman period, reflecting continued civic use for performances and assemblies. Adjacent to the urban core lay an area, which served as the civic and commercial heart before being partially overlaid by a large and military structures in the Byzantine era under around the 6th century CE. Water infrastructure featured Roman-era cisterns, such as one measuring 18.5 by 15.2 meters with a maximum depth of 3.4 meters, constructed in opus mixtum using irregular stone and courses to store rainwater for public and domestic supply. These elements collectively supported Phoenice's function as a regional administrative center, integrating defensive resilience with facilities for public life and sustenance.

Religious and Cultural Remains

The primary religious remains from the Hellenistic period at Phoenice include a temple dedicated to Zeus of Dodona, the chief deity of the Chaonian tribe, located north of the theater. This structure underscores the city's connections to the Oracle of Dodona, a prominent sanctuary in Epirus consulted for oracles from the 8th century BC onward. A Hellenistic thesauros, potentially serving a temple function, lies adjacent to later basilica remains and was likely adapted as a baptistery in the Byzantine period. During the Byzantine phase, Phoenice functioned as a bishopric starting in the AD, with constructed religious edifices including a and associated . These Christian structures overlay earlier pagan sites, reflecting the transition from Greco-Roman to in the region. Cultural artifacts recovered from excavations encompass terracotta figurines, jewelry, and dating to the Hellenistic era, evidencing trade networks and artistic influences from southern . The site's 3rd-century BC theater, accommodating around 4,000 spectators with preserved stone seating, hosted dramatic performances and public gatherings, exemplifying Hellenistic civic culture. Additional cultural elements include elite residences with courtyards, indicative of Roman-era adaptations of Greek architectural traditions.

Historical Significance and Debates

Role in Regional and Mediterranean Affairs

Phoenice functioned as the primary political center for the , one of the three major tribal confederations in ancient , facilitating coordination within the region's loose federal structure and serving as a base for local governance and defense. Under the Molossian kingdom, allied with Macedon since approximately 360 BCE through dynastic ties such as the marriage of to Philip II, Phoenice gained prominence as a strategic stronghold with robust fortifications. By 297 BCE, following Pyrrhus's reunification of , it emerged as a key royal residence, underscoring its role in consolidating Epirote power amid Hellenistic rivalries. In regional conflicts, Phoenice faced direct threats from Illyrian expansion, notably a siege in 230 BCE by forces under of the Ardiaean kingdom, which temporarily captured the city through internal betrayal before Illyrian withdrawal and subsequent alliance negotiations with . This incursion prompted Roman intervention via the First Illyrian War (229–228 BCE), where Phoenice's liberation marked Rome's initial military foothold on the Adriatic coast, curbing Illyrian piracy and establishing protectorates that integrated into broader Roman strategic interests. The , leveraging Phoenice's position, aligned pro-Roman during later , diverging from Molossian and Thesprotian factions that backed Macedon, which influenced Epirus's divided loyalties and eventual Roman dominance in the . On the Mediterranean scale, Phoenice hosted the Peace of Phoenice in 205 BCE, a treaty between the Roman Republic and King Philip V of Macedon that concluded the First Macedonian War (214–205 BCE) on terms restoring pre-war territorial status without reparations. Negotiated amid Rome's Second Punic War, the agreement freed Roman resources for the Carthaginian front while allowing Philip to pursue Greek consolidations, yet it presaged escalated Roman-Hellenistic confrontations leading to the Second and Third Macedonian Wars. This diplomatic venue highlighted Phoenice's neutrality and accessibility as a bridge between Adriatic and Aegean powers, amplifying Epirus's indirect mediation in the shifting balance of Mediterranean hegemony.

Ethnic and Cultural Interpretations

The , the primary ethnic group associated with Phoenice as its political center from at least the 4th century BCE, are identified in ancient sources and modern scholarship as a Greek-speaking within the broader Epirote . Archaeological evidence from Phoenice, including Greek inscriptions and featuring typical Hellenic names with clear morphological patterns, supports their linguistic and cultural alignment with Greek populations. Participation in panhellenic religious networks is attested by Phoenice's inclusion in the 3rd-century BCE catalogues of theorodokoi, sacred envoys dispatched by major Greek sanctuaries like and Olympia, indicating shared religious practices and communal identity with other Greek poleis. Cultural interpretations emphasize Phoenice's integration into Hellenistic urban traditions, evidenced by monumental architecture such as the 3rd-century BCE theater seating over 4,000, designed in classical Greek style with koilon and orchestra, which facilitated dramatic performances and assemblies typical of Greek civic life. Pottery and fine wares from the site, including Attic imports and local imitations from the 5th–2nd centuries BCE, reflect trade and aesthetic preferences linked to Aegean Greek centers, underscoring a Hellenized material culture rather than distinct indigenous traits. While some ancient authors, such as Thucydides in the 5th century BCE, labeled Epirotes broadly as "barbarians" due to their peripheral geography and nomadic elements, this assessment contrasts with Herodotus's criteria for Greek ethnicity—shared kinship, language, religion, and customs—which Epirotes, including Chaonians, demonstrably met through dialectal Greek speech and worship of Olympian gods like Zeus and Artemis. Modern debates on Chaonian ethnicity occasionally invoke Illyrian affiliations based on proximity to southern Illyrian tribes and limited pre-Hellenistic artifacts, but these lack support from linguistic or epigraphic data, which consistently point to Greek dominance by the Classical period; claims of non-Greek origins often stem from 19th–20th-century nationalist reinterpretations rather than primary evidence. The site's continuity from hill settlements to a fortified Hellenistic further illustrates cultural evolution toward full , with no substantial non-Greek substrate overriding Greek institutional forms like the boule (council) inferred from public buildings.

Legacy in Modern Scholarship

Modern excavations at Phoinike, conducted through the joint Italian-Albanian project since 2000 under directors Sandro De Maria and Shpresa Gjongecaj, have documented substantial urban continuity from the late into the early Roman era ( to ), including the remodeling of the upper city's and the addition of public structures such as the Edificio a in the mid-1st century and the theater in the . These discoveries reveal an expansion of the via orthogonal terraces and roads integrated into regional networks, reflecting local adaptation to Roman infrastructure and agricultural beginning in the Augustan period, without evidence of imposed . Such findings underscore Phoinike's evolving role as a hub in Chaonia, linking it economically and politically to nearby centers like Buthrotum and Hadrianopolis. Scholarly interpretations of Phoinike's cultural and ethnic context emphasize its position as the capital of the , a tribal group described by ancient sources like as barbarians with a non-monarchical structure led by annual archons from noble families, and whose origins remain debated between possible Illyrian affinities or northwestern Greek dialect ties. Material evidence, including 4th-century BCE coinage bearing the legend ΦΟΙΝΙΚΑΙΕΩΝ, Greek-style monumental , and public buildings like the agora, points to accelerated and integration into Epirote federal institutions, such as the koinon formed by the , where Phoinike served as a key polis hosting cults like those of and Asklepios. This synthesis challenges earlier views of as peripheral or isolated, highlighting instead their military alliances (e.g., against Akarnania in 429 BC) and urban development as evidence of participation in broader Greek Mediterranean networks. Albanian archaeological narratives on Phoinike and have been shaped by 20th-century political priorities, with the communist regime under (1944–1985) promoting an Illyrian heritage to construct a unifying national myth amid territorial disputes, often minimizing Greek cultural overlays despite evidence from sites like and Phoinike's Greek inscriptions. Post-1991 and international partnerships have facilitated more empirical approaches, incorporating zooarchaeological, landscape, and textual analyses to reveal Phoinike's strategic significance in Hellenistic symmachiai and Roman provincial dynamics, while projects like FortNet advance studies of fortified Epirote settlements. These efforts prioritize verifiable data over ideological constructs, contributing to refined models of cultural hybridity in the ancient .

References

  1. https://www.livius.org/articles/place/phoenice/
  2. https://albaniavisit.com/attractions/ancient-city-phoenice/
  3. https://evendo.com/locations/albania/gjirokaster/attraction/phoenice-archaeological-park
  4. https://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_second_macedonian.html
  5. https://disci.unibo.it/en/research/archaeological-missions/archaeological-missions-completed/phoinike-albania
  6. https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/531061
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  8. https://www.robertbeekes.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/b118.pdf
  9. https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/phoenicia-phoenicians
  10. https://archiqoo.com/locations/ancient_phoenice.php
  11. https://www.responsiblevacation.com/vacations/archaeology/travel-guide/archaeology-in-albania
  12. http://www.attalus.org/names/p/phoenice.html
  13. https://www.academia.edu/91940977/Late_Classical_Hellenistic_Fortifications_in_Epirus_Fourth_to_Second_century_BC
  14. https://www.historyofwar.org/articles/peace_phoenice.html
  15. https://worldhistoryedu.com/peace-of-phoenice-origin-story-importance-major-facts/
  16. https://topostext.org/place/399201UPho
  17. https://www.jstor.org/stable/297278
  18. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/papers-of-the-british-school-at-rome/article/plundering-of-epirus-in-167-bc-economic-considerations/7B76C0E89A56E69FF2E4E3997F04C6CD
  19. https://press.universitetipolis.edu.al/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/V2_1The-Cultural-Commons-of-Phoenice.pdf
  20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385384922_Continuity_and_Interruption_in_Architecture_-_Case_of_the_historic_urban_landscape_of_Finiq_ancient_Phoinike_Albania
  21. https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/epirus
  22. https://www.britannica.com/place/despotate-of-Epirus
  23. https://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/butrint/discovery.html
  24. https://albaniatravelguide.net/albanian-riviera/phoinike
  25. https://welovesaranda.com/finiq-open-air-archeological-park-and-abandoned-military-base/
  26. https://www.aman-alliance.org/Home/ContentDetail/80343
  27. https://www.voxnews.al/english/aktualitet/germimet-ne-finiqin-antik-arkeologet-hedhin-drite-mbi-historine-ilire-i49414
  28. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/archaeological-reports/article/7-archaeology-in-albania-20142024/4F2336591B8B6264608613C65D1DBCF6
  29. https://www.academia.edu/75218392/Polybius_Phoinike_through_the_Analysis_of_Material_Culture
  30. https://www.academia.edu/36422081/A_hellenistic_tomb_with_a_small_equid_burial_in_the_Phoinike_necropolis_Northern_Epirus_2003_con_Sandro_De_Maria_e_Antonio_Curci_
  31. https://www.academia.edu/93705147/Late_Antique_and_Medieval_Pottery_from_Phoinike_Albania_
  32. https://www.academia.edu/30415619/N_Aleotti_Hellenistic_Ash_Containers_from_Phoinike_Albania_in_Journal_of_Hellenistic_Pottery_and_Material_Culture_Volume_1_2016_pp_37_56
  33. https://traffickingculture.org/app/uploads/2012/07/CWC-10.pdf
  34. http://archeoparks-albania.com/finiq/html/news_fi.html
  35. http://paul-barford.blogspot.com/2012/06/looting-in-albania.html
  36. https://www.koha.net/en/kulture/zjarret-rrezikojne-parkun-arkeologjik-te-finiqit
  37. https://press.universitetipolis.edu.al/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/V3_3Digital-Surveying-for-Revitalization-of-FiniqGG.pdf
  38. https://telegrafi.com/en/restoration-of-the-Roman-wall-in-the-archeological-park-of-Finic/
  39. https://www.academia.edu/42881314/Landscape_and_Citizens_during_the_early_Roman_era_in_Northern_Epirus_Phoinike_and_the_Chaonia_region_2nd_BC_2nd_AD_in_Groma_2_2017_groma_unibo_it
  40. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48632491
  41. https://archaeopresspublishing.com/ojs/index.php/groma/article/view/1324
  42. https://www.responsibletravel.com/holidays/archaeology/travel-guide/archaeology-in-albania
  43. https://www.visitsaranda.net/see/phoenice-archaeological-park/
  44. https://evendo.com/locations/albania/dukagjin/landmark/phoenice-archaeological-park
  45. https://www.attalus.org/bc3/year230.html
  46. https://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_first_illyrian.html
  47. https://helios.eie.gr/helios/bitstream/10442/13454/1/IGRA_Hatzopoulos_97_03.pdf
  48. https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2020/2020.03.49/
  49. http://www.edizioniets.com/priv_file_libro/4662.pdf
  50. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/aspirations-of-albanian-archaeology/F92249B133DBF360783657C4BE35368E
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