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Luke the Evangelist
Luke the Evangelist
Luke the Evangelist
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Key Information

Luke of Antioch
OccupationChristian missionary and Historian
LanguageKoine Greek
Notable worksGospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles

Luke the Evangelist[a] was one of the Four Evangelists—the four traditionally ascribed authors of the canonical gospels. The Early Church Fathers ascribed to him authorship of both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles. Prominent figures in early Christianity such as Jerome and Eusebius later reaffirmed his authorship, although a lack of conclusive evidence as to the identity of the author of the works has led to discussion in scholarly circles, both secular and religious.

The New Testament mentions Luke briefly a few times, and the Epistle to the Colossians[4] refers to him as a physician (from Greek for 'one who heals'); thus he is thought to have been both a physician and a disciple of Paul.

Since the early years of the faith, Christians have regarded him as a saint. He is believed to have been a martyr, reportedly having been hanged from an olive tree, though some believe otherwise.[b] The Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic church and other major denominations venerate him as Saint Luke the Evangelist and as a patron saint of artists, physicians, bachelors, notaries, butchers, brewers, and others; his feast day is 18 October.[5][6] He is also described in the New Testament as a Doctor.[7]

Life

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Print of Luke the Evangelist[8]

Many scholars believe that Luke was a physician who lived in the Hellenistic city of Antioch in Ancient Syria,[c] born of a Greek family,[9][10][11] although some scholars and theologians think Luke was a Hellenic Jew.[12][13] While it has been widely accepted that the theology of Luke–Acts points to a gentile Christian writing for a gentile audience, some have concluded that it is more plausible that Luke–Acts is directed to a community made up of both Jewish and gentile Christians since there is stress on the scriptural roots of the gentile mission (see the use of Isaiah 49:6 in Luke–Acts).[14][15] DNA testing on what some Christian tradition holds to be his body has revealed Syrian ancestry.[16]

Whether Luke was a Jew or gentile, or something in between, it is clear from the quality of the Greek language used in Luke-Acts that the author, held in Christian tradition to be Luke, was one of the most highly educated of the authors of the New Testament. The author's conscious and intentional allusions and references to, and quotations of, ancient Classical and Hellenistic Greek authors, such as Homer, Aesop, Epimenides, Euripides, Plato, and Aratus indicate that he was familiar with actual Greek literary texts. This familiarity most likely derived from his experiences as a youth of the very homogeneous Hellenistic educational curriculum (ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία, enkyklios paideia) that had been, and would continue to be, used for centuries throughout the eastern Mediterranean.[17]

Luke's earliest mention is in the Epistle to Philemon, chapter 1, verse 24.[18] He is also mentioned in Colossians 4:14[19] and 2 Timothy 4:11,[20] both traditionally held to be Pauline epistles (see Authorship of the Pauline epistles).[21][22][23][24][25]

James Tissot, Saint Luke, Brooklyn Museum

Epiphanius states that Luke was one of the Seventy Apostles (Panarion 51.11), and John Chrysostom indicates at one point that the "brother" that Paul mentions in the Second Epistle to the Corinthians 8:18[26] is either Luke or Barnabas (Homily 18 on Second Corinthians on 2 Corinthians 8:18).

If one accepts that Luke was indeed the author of the Gospel bearing his name and the Acts of the Apostles, certain details of his personal life can be reasonably assumed. While he does exclude himself from those who were eyewitnesses to Jesus' ministry, he repeatedly uses the word we in describing the Pauline missions in Acts of the Apostles, indicating that he was personally there at those times.[27]

Saint Luke as depicted in the head-piece of an Armenian Gospel manuscript from 1609, held at the Bodleian Library

The composition of the writings, as well as the range of vocabulary used, indicate that the author was an educated man. A quote in the Epistle to the Colossians differentiates between Luke and other colleagues "of the circumcision."

10My fellow prisoner Aristarchus sends you his greetings, as does Mark, the cousin of Barnabas. 11Jesus, who is called Justus, also sends greetings. These are the only Jews among my co-workers for the kingdom of God, and they have proved a comfort to me. [...] 14Our dear friend Luke, the doctor, and Demas send greetings.

— Colossians 4:10–11, 14[28]

This comment has traditionally caused commentators to conclude that Luke was a gentile. If this were true, it would make Luke the only writer of the New Testament who can clearly be identified as not being Jewish. However, that is not the only possibility. Although Luke is considered likely to have been a gentile Christian, some scholars believe him to have been a Hellenized Jew.[12][13][29] The phrase could just as easily be used to differentiate between those Christians who strictly observed the rituals of Judaism and those who did not.[27]

Luke's presence in Rome with the Apostle Paul near the end of Paul's life was attested by 2 Timothy 4:11: "Only Luke is with me". In the last chapter of the Book of Acts, widely attributed to Luke, there are several accounts in the first person also affirming Luke's presence in Rome, including Acts 28:16:[30] "And when we came to Rome..." According to some accounts, Luke also contributed to the authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews.[31]

Luke died at age 84 in Boeotia, according to a "fairly early and widespread tradition".[32] According to Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos, Greek historian of the 14th century (and others), Luke's tomb was located in Thebes, whence his relics were transferred to Constantinople in the year 357.[33]

Authorship of Luke and Acts

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See also: Authorship of Luke–Acts

The Gospel of Luke does not name its author.[34][35][36][37] The Gospel was not, nor does it claim to be, written by direct witnesses to the reported events, unlike Acts beginning in the sixteenth chapter.[38][39][40] However, in most translations the author suggests that they have investigated the book's events and notes the name (Theophilus) of that to whom they are writing.

The earliest manuscript of the Gospel (Papyrus 75 = Papyrus Bodmer XIV-XV), dated c. AD 200, ascribes the work to Luke; as did Irenaeus writing c. AD 180, and the Muratorian fragment, a 7th-century Latin manuscript thought to be copied and translated from a Greek manuscript as old as AD 170.[41]

The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts. Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution by a single author.[42]

St. Luke painting the Virgin, by Maarten van Heemskerck, 1532

As a historian

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See also: Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles, Census of Quirinius, and Chronology of Jesus
Detail from a window in the parish church of SS Mary and Lambert, Stonham Aspal, Suffolk, with stained glass representing St Luke the Evangelist

Most scholars understand Luke's works (Luke–Acts) in the tradition of Greek historiography.[43] Luke 1:1–4, drawing on historical investigation, identified the work to the readers as belonging to the genre of history.[44] There is disagreement about how best to treat Luke's writings, with some historians regarding Luke as highly accurate,[45][46] and others taking a more critical approach.[47][48][49][50][d]

Based on his accurate description of towns, cities and islands, as well as correctly naming various official titles, archaeologist William Mitchell Ramsay wrote that "Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact trustworthy. …[He] should be placed along with the very greatest of historians."[45] Professor of Classics at Auckland University, Edward Musgrave Blaiklock, wrote: "For accuracy of detail, and for evocation of atmosphere, Luke stands, in fact, with Thucydides. The Acts of the Apostles is not shoddy product of pious imagining, but a trustworthy record. …It was the spadework of archaeology which first revealed the truth."[46] New Testament scholar Colin Hemer has made a number of advancements in understanding the historical nature and accuracy of Luke's writings.[51]

On the purpose of Acts, New Testament scholar Luke Timothy Johnson has noted that "Luke's account is selected and shaped to suit his apologetic interests, not in defiance of but in conformity to ancient standards of historiography."[52] Such a position is shared by Richard Heard, who sees historical deficiencies as arising from "special objects in writing and to the limitations of his sources of information."[53]

In modern times, Luke's competence as a historian is questioned, depending upon one's a priori view of the supernatural.[47] Since post-Enlightenment historians work with methodological naturalism,[54][48][49][50][d][e] such historians would see a narrative that relates supernatural, fantastic things like angels, demons etc., as problematic as a historical source. Mark Powell claims that "it is doubtful whether the writing of history was ever Luke's intent. Luke wrote to proclaim, to persuade, and to interpret; he did not write to preserve records for posterity. An awareness of this, has been, for many, the final nail in Luke the historian's coffin."[47]

Robert M. Grant has noted that although Luke saw himself within the historical tradition, his work contains a number of statistical improbabilities, such as the sizable crowd addressed by Peter in Acts 4:4. He has also noted chronological difficulties whereby Luke "has Gamaliel refer to Theudas and Judas in the wrong order, and Theudas actually rebelled about a decade after Gamaliel spoke (5:36–7)",[43] though this report's status as a chronological difficulty is hotly disputed.[55][56]

Brent Landau writes:

So how do we account for a Gospel that is believable about minor events but implausible about a major one? One possible explanation is that Luke believed that Jesus’ birth was of such importance for the entire world that he dramatically juxtaposed this event against an (imagined) act of worldwide domination by a Roman emperor who was himself called “savior” and “son of God”—but who was nothing of the sort. For an ancient historian following in the footsteps of Thucydides, such a procedure would have been perfectly acceptable.[57]

As an artist

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Luke the Evangelist painting the first icon of the Virgin Mary

Christian tradition, starting from the 8th century, states that Luke was the first icon painter. He is said to have painted pictures of the Virgin Mary and Child, in particular the Hodegetria image in Constantinople (now lost). Starting from the 11th century, a number of painted images were venerated as his autograph works, including the Black Madonna of Częstochowa, Our Lady of Vladimir, and Madonna del Rosario. He was also said to have painted Saints Peter and Paul, and to have illustrated a gospel book with a full cycle of miniatures.[58][f]

The late medieval Guilds of Saint Luke gathered together and protected painters in many cities of Europe, especially Flanders. The Academy of Saint Luke, in Rome, was imitated in many other European cities during the 16th century. The tradition that Luke painted icons of Mary and Jesus has been common, particularly in Eastern Orthodoxy. The tradition also has support from the Saint Thomas Christians of India who claim to still have one of the Theotokos icons that Saint Luke painted and which Saint Thomas brought to India.[g][failed verification]

The art critic A. I. Uspensky writes that the icons attributed to the brush of the Evangelist Luke have a completely Byzantine character that was fully established only in the 5th-6th centuries.[59]

Symbol

[edit]
Winged altar of the Guild of Saint Luke, by Hermen Rode, Lübeck (1484)

In traditional depictions, such as paintings, evangelist portraits, and church mosaics, Saint Luke is often accompanied by an ox or bull, usually having wings. The ox is mentioned in both Ezechiel 1:10 and Revelation 4:7. Sometimes only the symbol is shown, especially when in a combination of those of all Four Evangelists.[60][61] "St Luke is suggested by the ox, a sacrificial animal, because his Gospel stresses the sacrificial nature of Christ's ministry and opens with Zechariah performing his priestly duties."[62]

Veneration

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Eastern Orthodoxy

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The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorated Saint Luke,[63] Apostle of the Seventy, Evangelist, companion (coworker) of the holy Apostle Paul, hieromartyr, physician, first icon painter with several feast days. The following are fixed feast days:

There are also moveable feasts in which Luke is commemorated:

  • Synaxis of All Saints of Achaia - Moveable holiday the Sunday before the feast of Saint Andrew (30 November).[71]
  • Synaxis of All Saints of Boeotia - Moveable holiday on the last Saturday of May.[72]

Roman Catholicism

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The Roman Catholic Church commemorates Luke the Evangelist on 18 October.[73]

Oriental Orthodoxy

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The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates the martyrdom of Luke on Paopi 22.[74]

Anglicanism

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The Church of England commemorates Luke the Evangelist on 18 October.[75]

Relics

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Despot George of Serbia purportedly bought the relics from the Ottoman sultan Murad II for 30,000 gold coins. After the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia, the kingdom's last queen, George's granddaughter Mary, who had brought the relics with her from Serbia as her dowry, sold them to the Venetian Republic.[76]

Reliquary of St. Luke the Evangelist in Padua

In 1992, the then Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Ieronymos of Thebes and Livadeia (who subsequently became Archbishop Ieronymos II of Athens and All Greece) requested from Bishop Antonio Mattiazzo of Padua the return of "a significant fragment of the relics of St. Luke to be placed on the site where the holy tomb of the Evangelist is located and venerated today". This prompted a scientific investigation of the relics in Padua, and by numerous lines of empirical evidence (archeological analyses of the Tomb in Thebes and the Reliquary of Padua, anatomical analyses of the remains, carbon-14 dating, comparison with the purported skull of the Evangelist located in Prague) confirmed that these were the remains of an individual of Syrian descent who died between AD 72 and AD 416.[77][78] The Bishop of Padua then delivered to Metropolitan Ieronymos the rib of Saint Luke that was closest to his heart to be kept at his tomb in Thebes.[79][80]

Thus, the relics of Saint Luke are divided as follows:

We also collected and typed modern samples from Syria and Greece. By comparison with these population samples, and with samples from Anatolia that were already available in the literature, we could reject the hypothesis that the body belonged to a Greek, rather than a Syrian, individual. However, the probability of an origin in the area of modern Turkey was only insignificantly lower than the probability of a Syrian origin. The genetic evidence is therefore compatible with the possibility that the body comes from Syria, but also with its replacement in Constantinople.[81]

— Genetic characterization of the body attributed to the evangelist Luke

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  • Luke the Evangelist in art

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Luke the Evangelist

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Luke the Evangelist, traditionally regarded as the author of the third in the and the , was a first-century physician and a companion of the Apostle Paul. His writings, dedicated to a patron named , form a significant portion, approximately one-quarter, of the and emphasize themes of compassion, salvation for all people, and the early Christian church's expansion. Luke's provides a detailed narrative of ' life, ministry, death, and resurrection, drawing from eyewitness accounts and earlier sources like the of Mark, while chronicles the apostles' missionary work following . As "the beloved physician," Luke is mentioned by Paul in several epistles, including Colossians, where he is listed among faithful coworkers during Paul's imprisonment in around 60–62 CE. He likely joined Paul during the second missionary journey in Troas around 50 CE and accompanied him on parts of the third journey, including travels to , , and eventually to as a . Luke's medical background is reflected in his precise descriptions of illnesses and healings in his texts, such as the case of a with a hemorrhage or the suffered by Publius's father. Educated possibly in Tarsus—a center of learning rivaling and —Luke demonstrated proficiency in Greek and familiarity with Jewish scriptures, suggesting a Hellenistic Jewish or influence in his early life. Tradition holds that Luke was born in Antioch, Syria, and died at age 84 in (though some traditions place it in ), details unverified by contemporary records. His feast day is observed on in both Western and Eastern Christian traditions, honoring him as the of physicians, artists, and notaries. While modern scholarship debates the exact authorship of Luke-Acts due to the anonymous nature of the texts, the early church unanimously attributed them to Luke by the second century, valuing his orderly historical approach to Christian origins.

Identity and Biography

Historical Identity

Luke the Evangelist is traditionally identified as a Christian of Greek or Syrian descent, born in the Hellenistic city of Antioch in in the early first century AD. This origin is attested in early Christian traditions, including the Anti-Marcionite Prologue to the Gospel of Luke, which describes him as "a Syrian of Antioch, a Syrian by race," and of Caesarea's Ecclesiastical History, which notes his Antiochian parentage. As a resident of Antioch, a major center of and cultural crossroads between Greek, Roman, and Semitic influences, Luke would have been immersed in a diverse Hellenistic environment that shaped his worldview. His profession as a physician is directly supported by the New Testament in Colossians 4:14, where Paul refers to him as "Luke the beloved physician." This identification aligns with the medical terminology and precise descriptions of ailments found in the Lukan writings, suggesting training in Hellenistic medicine, possibly at centers like Alexandria where anatomical knowledge and Greek learning were advanced. Early sources, such as the Muratorian Canon from the late second century, reinforce this by calling him the "well-known physician" who composed his Gospel after Christ's ascension. In the context of first-century Hellenistic Judaism and emerging Christianity, a physician like Luke would have possessed a liberal education, including proficiency in Greek rhetoric, which is evident in the polished, historiographical style of his works. Some second-century traditions, including patristic writings, propose that Luke may have been a to prior to his , reflecting the syncretic religious landscape of Antioch where converts to were common. However, the predominant early identification emphasizes his status, inferred from Colossians 4:10–11, where Paul lists fellow workers "from the circumcision" (Aristarchus, Mark, and ) but omits Luke, implying he was not Jewish by birth. Modern scholarship largely upholds this traditional portrait of Luke as a non-Jewish author, highlighting his perspective through the universalist themes in his writings, such as the emphasis on extending to and the portrayal of ' ministry transcending Jewish boundaries. This outlook is seen as stemming from his Hellenistic background, distinguishing his narrative from more Jewish-oriented Gospels like Matthew. Scholars note that while debates persist—some suggesting a Hellenistic — the exclusion from the "circumcision" group in Colossians provides the strongest biblical evidence for his ethnicity, influencing his sympathetic depiction of non-Jews in early Christian .

Association with Paul

Luke is mentioned three times in the Pauline epistles as a companion and fellow worker of the Apostle Paul. In Colossians 4:14, Paul refers to him as "Luke the beloved physician," indicating his professional background and close association during Paul's imprisonment. Similarly, Philemon 24 lists Luke among Paul's "fellow workers," alongside figures like Mark and Aristarchus, underscoring his collaborative role in ministry. In 2 Timothy 4:11, written from Paul's second Roman imprisonment, he notes, "Only Luke is with me," highlighting Luke's loyalty and presence in Paul's final days. These references are found in the undisputedly authentic Pauline epistles of Colossians and Philemon, as well as 2 Timothy (whose authenticity is debated among scholars), establish Luke as a trusted associate in early Christian missions. The strongest evidence for Luke's companionship with Paul appears in the "we" passages of the , where the narrative shifts to first-person plural, suggesting the author's direct participation in events. These include Acts 16:10-17, describing the journey from Troas to ; Acts 20:5-15 and 21:1-18, covering travel from to ; and Acts 27:1-28:16, detailing the voyage to . Early church fathers like interpreted these as Luke's firsthand accounts, portraying him as Paul's long-time traveling companion. Scholar further argued that the detailed geography and in the voyage narrative reflect an eyewitness perspective. These passages imply Luke's presence at key events in Paul's ministry, such as the conversion in (Acts 16), the procession to amid prophecies of peril (Acts 21), and the perilous sea journey culminating in Paul's arrival in (Acts 27-28). Such involvement would position Luke as an active participant in Paul's missionary efforts, providing intimate insights into the across the . Scholarly debate persists over whether the "we" passages denote actual companionship or serve as a literary device to enhance authenticity and immediacy, a common Hellenistic technique. Proponents of authorship by a Pauline companion, including and modern conservatives, cite the passages' abrupt shifts and vivid details as of personal experience. Critics like Ehrman counter that discrepancies between Acts and Paul's letters—such as differing accounts of Paul's conversion and theology—suggest the author lacked direct knowledge, viewing the "we" sections as stylistic rather than biographical. While no consensus exists, the passages remain central to discussions of Luke's role in Paul's missions.

Death and Martyrdom Traditions

The provides no details about the death of Luke the Evangelist, leaving his end shrouded in later traditions that emerged in the second through fourth centuries. Early patristic writers such as and , who discuss Luke's authorship and association with Paul, make no mention of his demise, contributing to scholarly skepticism regarding specific claims of martyrdom due to the lack of contemporaneous evidence. Modern historians view these accounts as hagiographical developments rather than verifiable history, often influenced by the need to align Luke with the apostolic martyrs. One widespread tradition holds that Luke died of natural causes around 84–100 AD in , , at the age of 84. This is recorded in the prologue to the Gospel of Luke, a text from the fourth century or earlier, which states he preached in parts of and before his peaceful passing full of the . A variant in Jerome's De Viris Illustribus (c. 393 AD) places his death in at the same age, emphasizing his advanced years without reference to violence. These accounts suggest a natural end after a long life of ministry, possibly after traveling to following Paul's martyrdom. Contrasting traditions portray Luke as a , reflecting the cultural elevation of evangelists in early Christian lore. The Pseudo-Hippolytan On the Twelve Apostles (third century) describes him as one of the who suffered crucifixion on an olive tree after preaching the Gospel, induced to faith by Paul. Later Greek sources, including references in Alban Butler's compilation drawing from Hippolytus and Gregory Nazianzen (fourth century), locate this martyrdom in Elaea, Peloponnesus, where he was reportedly beaten or hanged upside down, echoing Peter's execution. Some accounts, like those in the fifth-century African , explicitly title him "Evangelist and ," though without details. Apocryphal texts further embellish these legends, influencing medieval . The Martyrdom of Luke (fifth century or later, surviving in Syriac, Coptic, , and Ethiopic versions) depicts ordering his arrest in for sorcery; after miraculous healings and conversions, including reattaching his severed arm, Luke is beheaded, his body cast into the sea, and later recovered on an island for veneration. This narrative, akin to the in structure, blends evangelism with dramatic persecution but dates well after the second century, underscoring the legendary evolution of traditions absent from core patristic writings.

Literary Works

The Gospel of Luke

The Gospel of Luke is the third of the , composed likely between 85 and 100 CE, drawing primarily from the Gospel of Mark as its basic narrative framework, the hypothetical for shared sayings with Matthew, and unique L material for additional traditions specific to Luke. This composition positions it as a later development in the Synoptic tradition, integrating earlier sources to craft a cohesive account of ' life and ministry tailored to a broader audience. The Gospel's structure unfolds in a deliberate progression: chapters 1–2 present the infancy narrative, detailing the births of and with emphasis on Mary's role and prophetic fulfillments; this is followed by ' Galilean ministry (chapters 3–9), focusing on teachings, , and discipleship; a extended journey to (chapters 9–19) highlights parables and ethical instructions; culminating in the passion narrative (chapters 20–23) and resurrection appearances (chapter 24). This framework, longer than , allows for expanded reflections on ' journey as a model for believers. Central themes underscore salvation's universality, extending to Gentiles, the poor, women, and social outcasts, as seen in parables like the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), which exemplifies neighborly love across ethnic divides, and the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32), illustrating divine forgiveness for the wayward. Theologically, the narrative emphasizes prayer—exemplified by the Lord's Prayer in Luke 11:1–4—guidance by the Holy Spirit, and a mission to proclaim the kingdom to all nations, reflecting a vision of inclusive redemption. This Gospel forms the first volume of a unified work with the Acts of the Apostles, tracing salvation history from Jesus to the early church.

The Acts of the Apostles

The Acts of the Apostles, often simply called Acts, serves as the second volume in the two-part work traditionally attributed to Luke, continuing the narrative from the Gospel of Luke by chronicling the early Christian church's expansion after Jesus' ascension. Its primary purpose is to demonstrate the fulfillment of Jesus' commission in Acts 1:8, where the apostles are instructed to be witnesses "in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth," portraying the spread of the Gospel from its Jewish origins in Jerusalem to the Gentile world, culminating in Rome. This theological emphasis underscores the role of the Holy Spirit in empowering the church's mission, transforming a small group of disciples into a global movement. The book is structured in a geographical and thematic progression that mirrors Acts 1:8. Chapters 1–5 focus on the establishment of the church in , detailing the selection of Matthias to replace Judas, communal life among believers, and early miracles and persecutions. Chapters 6–8 depict expansion into and , including the appointment of deacons like , whose martyrdom sparks persecution leading to the Gospel's spread beyond , and Philip's evangelistic work in and with the . The bulk of the narrative, chapters 9–28, centers on the Pauline missions, beginning with Saul's (later Paul's) conversion on the road to and extending through his three journeys across Asia Minor, , and into , before his arrest in and trials that lead to his voyage to , where he preaches under . Key events highlight pivotal moments in this expansion. The outpouring of the in empowers the apostles to speak in diverse languages, resulting in Peter's sermon that leads to about 3,000 conversions and the church's public birth. Paul's dramatic conversion in marks a turning point, redirecting his zeal from persecuting to proclaiming Christ among Gentiles. The in resolves tensions over Gentile inclusion, affirming that salvation comes through faith in without requiring adherence to , thus opening the mission to the wider world. Paul's subsequent trials, from his defense before the and Roman officials in Acts 22–26 to his shipwreck en route to in Acts 27, underscore themes of divine protection and the unstoppable advance of . Acts employs distinctive literary techniques to convey authenticity and immediacy. The "we" passages—appearing in sections like Acts 16:10–17, 20:5–15, 21:1–18, and 27:1–28:16—shift to first-person plural, suggesting the author accompanied Paul and provided eyewitness details of travels and events. The book also features numerous speeches, comprising about half its content, such as Peter's address in :14–36, which interprets the Spirit's arrival through prophecy, and Paul's defenses that articulate Christian doctrine to Jewish and Roman audiences. These elements collectively portray the church's growth as a divinely orchestrated continuation of ' ministry through the apostles.

Authorship and Composition

The traditional attribution of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles to Luke, the physician and companion of Paul mentioned in Colossians 4:14, Philemon 24, and 2 Timothy 4:11, originates in early patristic writings. Irenaeus of Lyons, writing around 180 CE, explicitly identifies Luke as the author in Against Heresies 3.1.1, stating that "Luke, the follower of Paul, set down in a book the Gospel as it was preached by [Paul]," linking this to the prologue in Luke 1:1–4, which describes an orderly account drawn from eyewitnesses and ministers of the word. Tertullian, in Against Marcion 4.2 (c. 207–212 CE), similarly affirms Luke's authorship of the third Gospel, contrasting it with Marcion's edited version and emphasizing its alignment with apostolic tradition. This view was nearly unanimous among second- and third-century church fathers, including Clement of Alexandria and Origen, who connected the works to Luke's status as Paul's associate, providing indirect support through references to his travels and observations in Acts' "we" passages (e.g., Acts 16:10–17). Modern scholarship, however, debates this attribution, often viewing the texts as anonymous compositions pseudonymously circulated under Luke's name to lend authority, a common practice in known as pseudepigraphy. While the unity of Luke-Acts as a two-volume work by a single is widely accepted—evidenced by shared vocabulary (e.g., over 100 words unique to both, such as sōzō for salvation in a holistic sense), literary structure (Acts 1:1 referencing the "former treatise"), and theological themes like the universal spread of the Gospel from to —scholars like Bart Ehrman argue against direct authorship by the historical Luke due to discrepancies with Paul's letters and the texts' post-Pauline perspective. The anonymous nature is reinforced by the absence of a named in the texts themselves, contrasting with signed works like Paul's epistles. Dating places Luke-Acts after 70 CE, with scholarly consensus favoring 80–90 CE for the Gospel, based on its reference to the destruction of Jerusalem in Luke 21:20–24, which describes the event as fulfilled prophecy ("your enemies will build an embankment against you and encircle you and hem you in on every side"), implying knowledge of the Temple's fall in 70 CE. This postdates the Gospel of Mark (c. 65–70 CE), from which Luke draws approximately 50–60% of its narrative material, often expanding or refining it (e.g., the healing of the paralytic in Luke 5:17–26 parallels Mark 2:1–12 but adds details on faith). According to the , dominant in synoptic studies, Luke also incorporates the hypothetical document—a sayings collection shared with Matthew, containing about 230 verses like the (:20–49)—along with "L" material unique to Luke (e.g., the parables of the Good Samaritan and Prodigal Son) and oral traditions from early Christian communities, as hinted in the prologue's mention of "delivered" accounts. Linguistically, the works are composed in polished , accessible to a Hellenistic audience, yet infused with Semitisms—Hebraic or syntactic structures like redundant pronouns (e.g., "he answered and said" in Luke 7:22) and paratactic clauses—suggesting influence from Jewish oral traditions or translation from Semitic sources. Supporting the physician tradition, the vocabulary includes technical medical terms not found in other Gospels, such as hudropikos (dropsy, Luke 14:2), astheneō in contexts (e.g., Luke 4:40), and precise anatomical descriptions (e.g., "high fever" in Luke 4:38), as analyzed by William Hobart in The Medical Language of St. Luke (1882), who identified over 100 such expressions; though modern critiques note many are Septuagintal or common Koine, the concentration bolsters the case for an educated, medically informed author.

Attributes and Portrayals

As a

In the prologue to his Gospel, Luke declares his intention to compile an "orderly account" of the events surrounding , drawing from those who "from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word" (Luke 1:3). This approach mirrors the conventions of Greco-Roman , where authors like emphasized structured narratives based on reliable testimonies to assure readers of the certainty of the matters discussed. Luke's reliance on such sources underscores his self-presentation as a careful investigator, though ancient historians often blended factual reporting with interpretive elements to convey deeper truths. Luke demonstrates a keen eye for administrative details in Acts, accurately employing Roman official titles such as "" for Gallio in (Acts 18:12), a term confirmed by a inscription dating to around 52 CE that places Gallio in that role. Similarly, his geographical precision is evident in descriptions like Paul's journey along the Egnatian Way, the major Roman road from Neapolis to (Acts 16:12), built between 146 and 120 BCE and used for military and commercial travel in the first century CE. While Luke's generally aligns with external records—such as the death of I in 44 CE (Acts 12:23) and a under (Acts 11:28), both corroborated by —some timelines appear compressed to emphasize thematic progression rather than strict sequencing. Scholars regard Luke-Acts as reliable for broad historical outlines of early Christian expansion and first-century Roman provincial life, particularly when compared to Josephus's Jewish Antiquities, which shares details like the succession of procurators Felix and Festus in the 50s CE. However, Luke's selectivity is notable; he omits key events such as Paul's death and trial in , focusing instead on events that highlight communal harmony and missionary success up to Paul's . This curation reflects Luke's intent to craft a "theological history," portraying the church's growth as the fulfillment of , where God's plan (expressed through the necessity of dei in Greek) guides events from Jesus's ministry to the gospel's spread across the empire.

As a Physician

The tradition identifying Luke as a physician finds support in the specialized terminology and descriptive precision evident in the Gospel of Luke and . In his seminal 1882 work The Medical Language of St. Luke, William Kirk cataloged over 300 words and phrases with medical connotations unique to these texts among writings, positing that such vocabulary—drawn from Hippocratic and Galenic traditions—indicates an author trained in . This analysis has influenced subsequent scholarship, though it remains debated for its implications on authorship. Hobart's claims faced significant critique from Henry J. Cadbury in The Style and Literary Method of Luke (1920), who argued that approximately 90% of the identified terms appear in non-medical Hellenistic authors like Josephus, Plutarch, and Lucian, often with comparable frequency, suggesting they formed part of everyday Greek rather than exclusively professional jargon. Cadbury further noted that terms deemed medical by Hobart, such as σμυρνίζω (to anoint with myrrh), occur in Matthew and Mark but not Luke, undermining claims of distinctive medical usage. Despite these objections, later lexical studies using resources like the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae have reaffirmed that Luke employs certain rare terms—such as τρῆμα/βελόνη (hole of a needle) in Luke 18:25—confined primarily to medical writers like Galen, lending partial credence to a physician's influence. Specific passages highlight this potential medical lens. In Luke 4:38, the account of Simon's mother-in-law specifies a "high fever" (πυρετῷ μεγάλῳ), a diagnostic classification echoed in Galen and absent from Mark 1:30's vaguer "burning with fever" (πυρέσσουσαν πυρετῷ); Luke also favors the plural "fevers" (πυρετοί) throughout, mirroring Hippocratic precision for recurrent or compound fevers, unlike the singular in other Gospels. Similarly, Acts 28:8 describes Publius's father as "afflicted with fever and dysentery" (συνεχόμενον πυρετοῖς καὶ δυσεντερίῳ), deploying technical terms from ancient pathology not replicated elsewhere in the New Testament, evoking clinical case reports. The healing of the withered hand in Luke 6:6-10 adds anatomical specificity by noting the "right hand" (χεῖρα δεξιάν), a convention in medical literature to denote the affected limb, implying observant detail beyond synoptic parallels. These elements contribute to Luke-Acts' thematic emphasis on compassionate , where ' miracles address physical ailments with empathy, potentially shaped by the author's profession and extending to broader concern for the sick, poor, and outcasts as recipients of . This portrayal underscores a holistic view of restoration, aligning medical insight with spiritual narrative.

As an Artist

A medieval tradition portrays Luke the Evangelist as the first Christian artist, crediting him with portraits of the Virgin Mary and Child Jesus from life, thereby founding the practice of Christian portraiture. This legend emerged in early , likely between the 5th and 8th centuries, amid growing of religious images and the Iconoclastic Controversy, where defenders of icons sought apostolic precedents to legitimize their use. Luke's suitability as the purported artist stemmed from his biblical identity as a physician (Colossians 4:14) and evangelist, whose detailed descriptions of Mary were seen as "painting with words," extending metaphorically to literal artistry. Early textual references include Andrew of Crete's 8th-century on image and John of Damascus's defenses of icons, which invoked Luke's role without historical evidence. Several ancient icons were retrospectively attributed to Luke, enhancing the legend's prestige despite their anachronistic nature, as systematic Christian developed centuries after his lifetime in the . The most prominent example is the Hodegetria icon ("She who shows the way"), a Virgin and Child image housed in Constantinople's Hodegon Monastery from at least the , believed to have been painted by Luke on a panel and discovered by . This attribution, first documented around the , symbolized divine guidance and apostolic authenticity, influencing Byzantine and later Western art, though modern scholarship confirms the icon's origins in post-5th-century traditions rather than direct 1st-century creation. From the onward, Luke's artistic persona elevated him as the of painters, inspiring guilds across that regulated the profession and fostered artistic communities. In , medieval guilds like those in Bruges and (documented from but rooted earlier) invoked Luke's protection, often commissioning altarpieces depicting him at work. In , similar organizations culminated in Rome's (founded 1593), which drew on the to promote artistic standards and piety. These guilds underscored Luke's role in bridging faith and craft, with members viewing their work as a continuation of his sacred vocation. Scholars universally dismiss the painting legend as pious fiction, lacking any contemporary evidence from Luke's era and serving primarily to authenticate icons during theological debates. Nonetheless, its cultural impact persisted into the Renaissance, profoundly shaping depictions of artistic inspiration. Flemish master Rogier van der Weyden's Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin (c. 1435–1440) exemplifies this, portraying Luke sketching Mary in a domestic Ghent interior, blending realism with devotion to affirm the artist's divine mediation; the figure of Luke likely serves as a self-portrait, elevating painting as a contemplative act akin to evangelism.

Symbolic Representation

In , the symbolic representation of Luke the Evangelist is the winged , derived from the visions of the four living creatures in the . These creatures appear in :5 and 1:10, where one has the face of an among other forms, and in 4:6-8, depicting four winged beings around God's , including a calf or . Early Church Fathers, such as St. Irenaeus in the and St. Jerome in the , associated the specifically with Luke due to the Gospel's emphasis on sacrificial themes, beginning with the priest Zechariah offering incense in the Temple (Luke 1:8-10), evoking imagery of temple sacrifices involving oxen. The symbol's evolution in art traces back to the 3rd century, appearing in Roman catacomb frescoes, such as those in the Catacomb of Peter and Marcellinus, where winged creatures represent the evangelists in symbolic form. By the , it featured in mosaics like the apse of in , and in the 5th century, in the dome mosaics of the in . During the medieval period, the winged ox became prominent in illuminated manuscripts, bestiaries, and architectural sculpture, often integrated into evangelist portraits; for instance, 13th-century tympana at cathedrals in León and depict it alongside human figures of the saints. This development reflects a growing theological integration of the symbol with Luke's narrative of Christ's priestly and atoning role. Variations of the symbol include the ox holding a book to signify the Gospel, common in medieval manuscripts like the (8th century), and occasionally shown without wings in later contexts. In modern church art, the winged ox persists in windows, altars, and mosaics, such as those in St. Anne's Church in , maintaining its role as a visual shorthand for Luke's evangelistic legacy. Theologically, the ox embodies strength and service, mirroring the animal's role in ancient sacrifices, and underscores Luke's focus on and the redemptive sacrifice of Christ.

Veneration

In Eastern Christianity

In the , Saint Luke the Evangelist is venerated as one of the Seventy Apostles, a beloved physician, and the author of the third and the , with his primary feast observed on October 18 according to the , corresponding to October 31 in the . Liturgical services on this day include the of Saint John Chrysostom, preceded by and Great Vespers, featuring hymns such as the Apolytikion in the Third Tone, which entreats him to intercede with God for mercy, and the Kontakion in the Fourth Tone, praising him as a disciple who illuminated the world with divine teachings alongside Paul. These hymns frequently portray Luke as the "all-praiseworthy physician" who heals souls and bodies, emphasizing his role in recording Christ's salvific message for Gentiles, and as the Church's first iconographer, credited with painting the initial icons of the (Virgin Mary) and Apostles Peter and Paul, blessed by the Virgin herself. Icons of Saint Luke in Eastern Orthodox tradition typically depict him holding a representing his , accompanied by his symbolic evangelist's attribute of the , signifying sacrificial as drawn from Ezekiel's vision and . Among the , veneration of Saint Luke similarly highlights his Antiochene origins as a native of that Syrian city, underscoring his Hellenistic background and contributions to early tailored for audiences. In the , his martyrdom is commemorated on the 22nd of Baba (approximately November 1 in the ), recounting his beheading under Emperor after miraculous healings that converted 276 souls, including imperial officials, with his body recovered from the sea and buried honorably. The integrates apocryphal traditions, such as the Martyrdom of Luke, preserved in Syriac manuscripts alongside those of Peter and Paul, which narrate his preaching in Thebes and execution by hanging from an olive tree at age 84, influencing liturgical narratives of his missionary zeal. These churches emphasize Luke's Antiochene roots in their synaxaria and hagiographies, portraying him as a bridge between Jewish and Christianity through his writings dedicated to . Saint Luke holds a prominent role in Eastern Christian lectionaries, where his Gospel is read extensively during the liturgical year, comprising nineteen weeks of continuous pericopes from the Monday after the Elevation of the Cross through the pre-Lenten period, highlighting themes of mercy, the marginalized, and the Holy Spirit's guidance. On major feasts dedicated to him, such as October 18 in the Orthodox tradition, readings include Colossians 4:5-18, affirming his status as the "beloved physician," and Luke 10:16-21, underscoring his apostolic authority. Monasteries dedicated to Saint Luke reflect this liturgical centrality; in Greece, the tradition of his episcopacy in Thebes, Boeotia, inspires ongoing veneration at sites like the ancient cathedral there, where his purported tomb and relics have drawn pilgrims seeking healing from a wonderworking myron (holy oil). In Egypt, Coptic monastic communities, though not featuring a major monastery solely named for him, incorporate his feast into broader apostolic commemorations, with his Gospel influencing the spiritual formation in houses like those of Saint Anthony and Saint Bishoy. Modern observances in maintain these traditions vibrantly, particularly in , where annual processions in Thebes on honor Luke's martyrdom site, involving the faithful carrying his and relics from the through the streets, accompanied by hymns and prayers for healing and evangelism. This reverence extends beyond Orthodox boundaries to the community, which honors Luke as one of several prophetic figures from biblical traditions, integrating him into their esoteric as a sage embodying divine knowledge and compassion.

In Western Christianity

In the Roman Catholic tradition, Saint Luke the Evangelist is venerated as one of the four principal evangelists, with his sainthood recognized implicitly through longstanding liturgical and devotional practices rather than a formal process, which developed later in for post-apostolic figures. His holds a prominent place in the , serving as the primary proclaimed during Year C of the three-year cycle for Masses, thereby shaping the of the faithful with its emphasis on , , and outreach to the marginalized. Devotion to Luke extends to medical and hospitaller communities, such as the , where he is invoked as patron of physicians and healers, reflecting his traditional identification as a doctor in Colossians 4:14; members have historically sought his during plagues and in . Within , Luke is commemorated on October 18, as outlined in the , with a that highlights his role as a physician and chronicler of Christ's compassion, inviting reflection on the Gospel's call to and . Protestant scholarship, particularly in reformational traditions, has emphasized the historical reliability of Luke's writings, viewing the Gospel and Acts as meticulous accounts grounded in and Greco-Roman historiographical standards, which bolster arguments for the veracity of early Christian events. Medieval Western includes legends of Luke's being translated to in the early centuries, where they were enshrined as symbols of apostolic continuity, fostering pilgrimages and relic cults that integrated his legacy into the fabric of . Artistic representations in cathedrals, such as the stained-glass depictions of the evangelists in Cathedral's windows, portray Luke with his symbolic , underscoring his contemplative gaze on the and reinforcing devotional themes of amid Gothic visual . Post-Reformation interpretations have highlighted Luke's —evident in narratives like the Good Samaritan and the inclusion of Gentiles—as a bridge in ecumenical dialogues, promoting shared Christian commitments to and global mission across denominational lines.

Feast Days and Patronage

The primary feast day of Luke the Evangelist is in the , observed universally in the Roman Catholic Church and by Eastern Orthodox churches that follow the Revised Julian calendar. In Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions adhering to the , the feast falls on Julian, equivalent to October 31 in the . A secondary commemoration occurs on in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, as part of the of the Seventy Apostles, recognizing Luke's role among Christ's disciples. Saint Luke is the of physicians and surgeons, attributed to his identification as a physician in Colossians 4:14. He is also invoked as patron of artists and iconographers, stemming from early Christian legends that he painted the first icons of the Virgin Mary. Additional professions under his patronage include notaries, butchers, brewers, bookbinders, and bachelors. Regionally, Saint Luke is the patron of Thebes in , where tradition records him serving as bishop before his death. In , he holds special patronage over the medical profession, honored by the Croatian Catholic Medical Association. Luke has long been the patron of professional guilds, particularly painters' and artists' brotherhoods in medieval , who adopted him due to his reputed artistic endeavors. In contemporary observances, his feast inspires medical conferences focused on ethical practice and art festivals celebrating Christian iconography, such as events organized by medical associations in .

Relics and Legacy

Known Relics

The primary relics attributed to Luke the Evangelist are his bodily remains, housed in the in , , where they have been venerated since at least the . According to historical accounts, these relics were originally interred in , following Luke's death there in the 1st century, before being translated to the in around 357 AD under Emperor . They were subsequently moved to , with traditions varying on the exact timing—some sources point to the 8th or during the Iconoclastic persecutions, while others link the transfer to Venetian Crusaders amid the 1204 . Several other sites claim possession of portions of Luke's remains, contributing to ongoing debates about distribution and authenticity. A purported to be Luke's is preserved in in , , reportedly brought there by Charles IV in 1354 from . The 2001 scientific analysis confirmed that this matches the neck vertebrae and overall profile of the Padua remains, supporting its authenticity as part of the same individual. Another claimed relic of his head resides in a 14th-century silver bust at the Treasury Museum of in , also originating from , though its provenance has been contested in favor of the Prague artifact. Additional body parts, such as ribs or other fragments, have been reported in veneration sites including Thebes (where an empty ancient sarcophagus marks the traditional tomb) and various churches in , though these claims stem from medieval relocations during conflicts like the . Authenticity debates surrounding these relics often center on medieval thefts and fragmented transfers, particularly during the when Crusaders looted , dispersing holy remains across Europe. In , the relics were documented in a 1177 unearthing by the but were hidden during invasions, resurfacing in a leaden casket; a formal inventory conducted in 1562 by church authorities confirmed the presence of skeletal remains matching ancient descriptions, including symbolic engravings like an eight-armed cross and the evangelist's emblem of an ox. These events fueled about complete provenance, with some traditions suggesting portions were divided among sites like Thebes and to protect them from . Today, the Padua relics are displayed in a marble sarcophagus within the basilica's left transept, encased in ornate reliquaries that allow veneration while preserving the remains. Annual expositions occur on Luke's feast day, October 18, drawing pilgrims to the site, where the relics are presented alongside historical artifacts from their transfers. Similar displays exist for the claimed head relics in Prague and Rome, maintained in cathedral treasuries for liturgical and devotional access.

Archaeological and Scientific Analysis

Modern scientific examinations of relics attributed to Luke the Evangelist have centered on the skeletal remains preserved in the Basilica of Santa Giustina in , , providing tentative support for their antiquity but no definitive proof of identity. In 2001, genetic analysis confirmed the bones belonged to a male individual who died at an advanced age (over 70 years), with evident and skeletal deformations but no signs of trauma indicative of violent death or martyrdom. Mitochondrial DNA sequencing indicated a probable Middle Eastern origin, specifically Syrian, with an odds ratio of 2.87 favoring this ancestry over Greek (95% CI: 1.06–6.17), aligning with traditions placing Luke's background in the . Radiocarbon dating of a tooth from the remains yielded a date range of AD 72 to 416 (95% CI), consistent with a 1st- or early 2nd-century timeframe that could encompass Luke's traditional lifespan, though the broad interval prevents precise attribution. The pre-HV identified in the mtDNA is common across the Mediterranean region, further supporting a plausible 1st-century profile without confirming replacement by later relics during historical transfers, such as from Thebes to . In the realm of textual , surviving papyri fragments attest to the early circulation of Luke's Gospel and Acts shortly after their composition. (P75), a dated paleographically to the early (ca. 175–225 CE), preserves most of Luke (3:18–24:53) alongside John, exhibiting a text closely aligned with 4th-century codices like Vaticanus, which underscores the rapid and stable transmission of Luke's writings in Christian communities by the . Despite these findings, significant lacunae persist in the for Luke specifically. No artifacts directly linked to his personal life or activities have been unearthed, and excavations in Antioch—long associated with his origins as a possible native or resident—have uncovered early Christian sites but yielded no conclusive material evidence tying them to the evangelist, sustaining scholarly debates on his biographical connections to the region.

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