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1400s (decade)
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The 1400s ran from January 1, 1400, to December 31, 1409.

Events

1400

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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1401

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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1402

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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1403

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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1404

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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1405

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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1406

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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Ernst der Eiserne

October–December

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1407

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January–March

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April–June

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July–December

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  • October 5 – A group of high officials of the former Vietnamese government are put on trial before China's Emperor Cheng Zu at Nanjing, and charged with treason for killing the previous Vietnamese ruler. Most of the prisoners are executed.[96]
  • October 20 – The English Parliament is opened at Gloucester after being summoned on August 26 by King Henry IV, and is marked by arguments between the House of Lords and the House of Commons over primacy and initiation of money bills.[97]
  • November 20 – A solemn truce is agreed upon between John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy and Louis I, Duke of Orléans under the auspices of John, Duke of Berry.
  • November 23 – The Duke of Orleans is assassinated, and war breaks out again between the Burgundians and the Duke's followers.[98]
  • December 2 –
    • China's Emperor Cheng Zu sends an order to Marquis Zhang Fu, who had recently conquered Vietnam and executed many of its officials, to avoid harming any innocent Vietnamese civilians.[99]
    • The English Parliament closes after having met for six weeks.
  • December – The Yongle Encyclopedia, until the 21st century the largest encyclopedia of history, is completed in China after four years of work by 2,169 scholars at the Hanlin Academy and the Imperial University.[100]

Date unknown

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1408

This section is transcluded from 1408. (edit | history)

January–March

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April–June

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  • April 8 – Appenzell Wars: In the Appenzell region of Switzerland, the alliance of the region with St. Gallen, the ("alliance over the lake", referring to the nearby Lake Constance fails in its attempt to liberate the city of Bregenz from Austrian rule.[102] From the Holy Roman Empire, King Rupert of Germany orders the dissolution of the Bund ob dem See.[102]
  • May 18 – Western Schism: In response to the January 12 ultimatum by France, the antipope Benedict publishes a bull directing the excommunication of anyone, including King Charles VI, who attempted to withdraw obedience to the Avignon Papacy. The bull, "a major tactical mistake" by Benedict, gives the leaders of the University of Paris a pretext to declare those who had carried the bull to be guilty of high treason, and to accuse Benedict to be guilty of an attack on the royal dignity and national honor. King Charles then withdraws further support of Pope Benedict and proclaims the neutrality of France in the schism between Avignon and Rome.[101]
  • May 28 – A representative of Burma's Kingdom of Ava apologizes to the Ming dynasty Emperor of China for the kingdom's occupation of China's vassals, the Shan States, particularly the Mongyang State, whose monarch was killed in 1406.[105]
  • June 15 – After receiving the news that France will no longer support his Avignon Obedience, the Antipope Benedict XIII issues the Bull Celestis altitudo, summoning the a council to meet on November 1 at the French city of Perpignan, and then flees from the French-controlled Italian region of Genoa to avoid arrest.[106]

July–December

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Date unknown

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1409

This section is transcluded from 1409. (edit | history)

January–March

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April–June

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The Battle of Sanluri

July–September

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October–December

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Date unknown

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Significant people

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Births

Transcluding articles: 1400, 1401, 1402, 1403, 1404, 1405, 1406, 1407, 1408, and 1409

1400

1401

1402

1403

1404

1405

1406

1407

1408

1409

Deaths

Transcluding articles: 1400, 1401, 1402, 1403, 1404, 1405, 1406, 1407, 1408, and 1409

1400

Richard II of England
Geoffrey Chaucer

1401

1402

1403

1404

1405

1406

1407

1408

1409

References

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1400s (decade)

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The 1400s decade (1400–1409) was a tumultuous period in the late Middle Ages defined by military conquests, dynastic shifts, and regional power struggles across Eurasia. Timur, the Turco-Mongol warlord, conducted devastating campaigns that sacked cities in Syria and Mesopotamia before decisively defeating Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, capturing the sultan and triggering a civil war known as the Ottoman Interregnum that weakened the empire's expansionist momentum. In Western Europe, the death of deposed King Richard II in early 1400 confirmed Henry IV's Lancastrian rule, even as Owain Glyndŵr's rebellion erupted in Wales, challenging English authority through guerrilla warfare and alliances that briefly controlled significant territories. Southeast Asia saw the founding of the Malacca Sultanate in 1400 by Paramesvara, establishing an early hub for maritime trade routes connecting India, China, and the archipelago. These events reflected broader patterns of imperial overreach and local resistance, with Timur's death in 1405 fragmenting his empire and averting further invasions of , while European conflicts like the ongoing simmered alongside internal revolts. In the Mediterranean, the decade closed with Aragon's victory at the Battle of Sanluri in 1409, extinguishing the independent in and advancing Iberian consolidation. Such developments underscored a world in transition, where nomadic incursions disrupted sedentary powers and nascent states laid groundwork for future commercial networks, amid persistent feudal instabilities.

Historical overview

Geopolitical and social context

In Western Europe, the early 15th century featured dynastic consolidation amid ongoing feudal rivalries and the protracted Hundred Years' War, though active campaigning remained limited during 1400–1409 following earlier truces. England under Henry IV faced internal challenges, including the Welsh revolt initiated by Owain Glyndŵr in September 1400, which sought independence and tied down English resources until broader suppression efforts in subsequent years. The Holy Roman Empire saw political fragmentation with the deposition of King Wenceslaus IV in August 1400 and the election of Rupert of the Palatinate as King of the Romans, reflecting electoral disputes among German princes. In France, factional strife between Burgundians and Armagnacs escalated after the assassination of Louis I, Duke of Orléans, on November 23, 1407, foreshadowing deeper civil discord that intertwined with the Anglo-French conflict. Further east, the Central Asian conqueror decisively defeated Ottoman at the on July 28, 1402, capturing the sultan and triggering the —a decade-long civil war among Bayezid's sons that fragmented Ottoman control over and the until Mehmed I's victory in 1413. This setback halted Ottoman advances into Europe temporarily, allowing Byzantine remnants and European powers brief respite. In East Asia, the underwent a violent culminating in the Yongle Emperor's (Zhu Di) usurpation of the throne from his nephew Jianwen in 1402, followed by purges of rivals and the launch of military campaigns, including the invasion of Dai Viet in 1406–1407 to reassert Chinese suzerainty. Social structures across persisted in a rigidly hierarchical feudal order, with approximately 90% of the engaged in rural as peasants bound by customary obligations to lords, though the lingering demographic scars of the —which recent tree-ring studies attribute to a massive mid-14th-century volcanic eruption that cooled Europe, disrupted trade and harvests, and fueled the plague (killing up to 60% of the population)—created persistent labor shortages that elevated wages and encouraged some commutation of labor services for money rents. However, recent analyses indicate these shifts did not precipitate radical restructuring, as noble and clerical elites reconsolidated authority, maintaining with limited mobility for the lower orders. Urban areas, particularly in and the , exhibited nascent commercial revival through guilds and trade fairs, but villages remained the societal core, where communal life revolved around manorial economies and ecclesiastical influence.

Intellectual and religious landscape

The Western Schism persisted throughout the decade, dividing Latin Christendom between Pope Gregory XII in Rome and Antipope Benedict XIII in Avignon, undermining papal authority and fostering theological debates on ecclesiastical governance. This crisis culminated in the Council of Pisa, convened on March 25, 1409, by cardinals from both obediences, which declared both pontiffs heretical, deposed them on June 15, and elected Alexander V as pope on June 26, thereby creating a third claimant and exacerbating the schism until its resolution at the Council of Constance in 1417. The council's actions advanced conciliarist doctrines, positing that general councils possess superior authority to individual popes in matters of reform and deposition, a view articulated by figures like Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson, though it lacked canonical legitimacy and failed to unify the church. Intellectually, the decade bridged late medieval scholasticism—dominant in northern European universities like Paris and Oxford, with its emphasis on Aristotelian dialectics and theological synthesis—and the nascent Italian Renaissance humanism, which prioritized classical texts, rhetoric, and civic virtue over abstract speculation. In Italy, humanists continued recovering ancient manuscripts from monastic libraries, promoting studia humanitatis (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy) as essential for educated elites. Coluccio Salutati, chancellor of Florence and a pivotal early humanist, died on May 4, 1406, after decades of advocating the active civic life modeled on Cicero and defending Florence's republican ideals against authoritarianism, influencing successors like Leonardo Bruni. His voluminous correspondence and defenses of classical ethics underscored humanism's shift toward human agency and moral autonomy within a Christian framework. In England, the death of on October 25, 1400, concluded a major phase of , as his Canterbury Tales—completed in the prior decade—elevated prose and poetry through realistic social observation and ironic narrative, laying groundwork for later secular literary traditions despite clerical opposition to his critiques of corruption. Chaucer's fusion of French, Italian (Dante, Boccaccio), and classical influences exemplified emerging lay intellectualism, though scholastic theology remained the era's primary religious discourse, with reformers like John Wycliffe's Lollard followers circulating unauthorized English Bible translations amid suppression. Overall, these developments reflected causal tensions between centralized ecclesiastical power and decentralized intellectual inquiry, with humanism's empirical turn toward antiquity challenging scholastic orthodoxy's reliance on authority.

Chronological events

1400

In England, the year marked the death of the deposed King Richard II on February 14, while imprisoned at Pontefract Castle, likely from starvation ordered by his successor Henry IV; this event solidified the Lancastrian claim to the throne amid ongoing instability from the 1399 deposition. On September 16, Welsh noble Owain Glyndŵr proclaimed himself Prince of Wales, initiating a revolt against English rule that would challenge Henry IV's authority for over a decade. English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, died on October 25 in London, leaving a lasting influence on vernacular literature. In the , Mongol conqueror (Tamerlane) invaded in autumn, devastating regions after campaigns in Georgia and ; his forces engaged in the Battle of , sacking the city and causing widespread destruction that weakened control. This incursion foreshadowed Timur's broader assaults on Ottoman territories, contributing to temporary fragmentation in the region. Elsewhere, the Kingdom of Malacca was established on the by Parameswara, becoming a key entrepôt for trade between , India, and the archipelago, facilitated by its strategic location and alliances with Ming . In , the between and continued with intermittent skirmishes, though no major battles occurred this year, as both sides consolidated after recent truces. The persisted, with rival popes in and undermining ecclesiastical authority.

1401

In Europe, the Welsh revolt led by against English rule intensified with key military engagements. On , Glyndŵr's supporters captured , holding it for two months and exposing vulnerabilities in English border defenses. In June, Welsh forces achieved a significant victory at the Battle of Mynydd Hyddgen in , where approximately 120 Welsh rebels under Glyndŵr defeated a larger English of around 350-500 men led by royal officials, marking the first major success of the uprising and boosting rebel morale. By November, Glyndŵr attempted to besiege , leading to the inconclusive Battle of Tuthill on 2 November, where English defenders repelled the attackers using early forms of handguns, though the Welsh withdrew strategically intact. In the Holy Roman Empire, Rupert III, Elector Palatine, was crowned King of the Romans on 6 January in Cologne by Archbishop Frederick III of Cologne, after the city of Aachen denied him entry due to disputes over his election following Wenceslaus IV's deposition; this coronation affirmed his claim amid ongoing imperial fragmentation but lacked universal recognition. Rupert's subsequent expedition into Italy later in 1401 aimed to secure imperial coronation in Rome but faltered due to troop desertions in winter, compelling his return without achieving the title of emperor. Beyond Europe, (Tamerlane) completed the subjugation of by besieging and sacking in early 1401, following its partial capture the prior year; the city's governor surrendered, but Timur's forces massacred resistors and deported artisans, devastating the urban center as part of his broader campaigns to consolidate Central Asian dominance over Persian and Levantine territories. This conquest facilitated Timur's subsequent reconquest of later in 1401, further weakening and local dynastic powers.

1402

In July 1402, Timur's Turco-Mongol forces decisively defeated the Ottoman army led by at the near the Çubuk plain, resulting in Bayezid's capture and the temporary halt of Ottoman expansion in . Timur's victory, achieved through superior , deception, and exploitation of Ottoman defections—including from Bayezid's son Süleyman and allied —inflicted heavy casualties on the Ottomans, estimated at over 20,000 dead, and led to the plundering of Ottoman territories. This clash stemmed from border disputes and Bayezid's sheltering of Timur's rivals, marking a rare check on Ottoman momentum and initiating the , a of among Bayezid's sons. On June 22, Welsh rebels under ambushed and routed an English force of about 500-1,000 men commanded by at the (Pilleth) in , killing most and capturing Mortimer, whose nephew was Henry IV's . Glyndŵr's tactical use of terrain—luring the English uphill before flanking from concealed positions—exemplified the guerrilla style of his revolt against English rule, which had escalated since 1400; Mortimer's subsequent alliance with Glyndŵr after ransom refusal deepened the Welsh uprising. In September, border skirmishes intensified when a Scottish raiding army of around 10,000 under Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas, invaded northern England but was decisively repelled by English forces led by Henry Percy (Hotspur) and Ralph Neville at the on September 14, with longbowmen pinning the Scots against the hill's slopes. The English captured Douglas, Murdoch Stewart (future regent), and others, suffering minimal losses, though the decision to hold rather than ransom prisoners fueled grievances against Henry IV, presaging the 1403 Percy rebellion. Timur, consolidating after , besieged the Knights Hospitaller's fortress at Smyrna (Izmir) in December, capturing it after 18 days with massacres and enslavement of defenders, ending the last Crusader outpost in Asia Minor and demonstrating Timur's opportunistic strikes against Christian holdings amid his framing of the Anatolian campaign. In , the death of on September 3 fragmented Milanese power among his heirs, sparking feuds that weakened Lombard ambitions and invited interventions by and . In , Edmund of Langley, 1st and uncle to Henry IV, died on August 1, removing a Lancastrian stabilizer amid ongoing domestic unrest. In , the vanished amid a on July 13, enabling his uncle Zhu Di's seizure of the throne as , though official Ming records obscured the coup's violence.

1403

On January or early February, the Treaty of Gallipoli was signed between Süleyman Çelebi, son of the defeated Ottoman , and Byzantine , allowing the Byzantines temporary recovery of territories including amid the following Timur's victory at in 1402. This agreement stemmed from Ottoman civil strife, enabling Byzantine forces to reclaim Aegean coastal areas previously lost to Ottoman expansion. In , King Henry IV married Joanna of on February 7, securing a political that brought dowry lands in and strengthened Lancastrian rule against ongoing rebellions. This union occurred amid tensions with northern barons, particularly the , who resented unfulfilled promises of Scottish border governance after aiding Henry's 1399 usurpation of Richard II. The Battle of Shrewsbury on July 21 pitted Henry IV's royal army of approximately 14,000 against a rebel force of about 10,000 led by Henry Percy, known as Hotspur, alongside his uncle Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester, and Scottish allies under Archibald Douglas. Hotspur's coalition sought to depose Henry in favor of Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, exploiting Welsh unrest under Owain Glyndŵr and Percy grievances over ransoms and appointments. The engagement, fought on fields near the village of Battlefield outside Shrewsbury, featured intense longbow exchanges—the first massed use of English longbows against each other—resulting in heavy casualties estimated at 3,000-5,000 total, including Hotspur's death from an arrow wound and subsequent royal victory that quelled the immediate threat to the throne. Henry IV himself sustained a facial arrow injury but survived, underscoring the battle's ferocity and its role in stabilizing Lancastrian England. In , the newly enthroned (Zhu Di) dispatched the first to , offering trade goods and titles to Jurchen tribes in exchange for nominal allegiance, initiating Ming efforts to integrate northern frontiers post-usurpation. Concurrently, three eunuch-led fleets proclaimed his accession across to and southern , projecting Ming naval power and countering regional rivals. Charles VII, future King of , was born on February 22 in to Charles VI and , amid the kingdom's civil disruptions from Armagnac-Burgundian feuds and English incursions. These births and diplomatic maneuvers reflected broader European and Asian consolidations amid fragmented polities.

1404

In England, Welsh rebel leader captured in April 1404, establishing it as a center of his administration during the Glyndŵr Rising against English rule; fell to his forces around the same time, marking a high point in the revolt that controlled much of by mid-year. These gains enabled Glyndŵr to convene a parliament at later in 1404, where he proclaimed himself , though English forces under Prince Henry would begin counter-sieges by 1405. Philip the Bold, and influential Valois prince who had shaped French regency politics since the 1380s, died on April 27, 1404, at Halle in Brabant, aged 62; his son succeeded him, inheriting a that controlled key Flemish territories and exerted leverage in the . This transition intensified involvement in French affairs, contributing to factional strife between Armagnacs and . In the Atlantic, Norman explorer , having initiated the conquest of the Canary Islands in 1402, returned from Castile in 1404 bearing a grant from King Henry III naming him lord and king of the islands; he consolidated control over and , advancing Castilian claims against indigenous Guanche resistance and rival Norman settlers. Diplomatically, Castilian ambassador Ruy González de Clavijo reached Timur's court at on September 8, 1404, after a arduous overland journey from Spain via the and Persia; dispatched by Henry III in 1403, Clavijo's mission sought alliance against common foes, observing Timurid splendor and military might before departing in late 1404 amid the empire's internal consolidations. The persisted without resolution, as Bayezid I's sons vied for the throne following Timur's 1402 invasion, with holding European territories and consolidating in . In , the nascent port of , founded circa 1400 by Parameswara, received early Ming Chinese envoys by 1404, foreshadowing its rise as a hub.

1405

In , the Turco-Mongol conqueror , known as Tamerlane, died on 18 in from illness during preparations for a campaign against Ming ; his death at age 68 triggered immediate succession disputes among his sons and grandsons, fragmenting the into warring principalities until stabilization under Shāh Rokh around 1410. Prior to his demise, had partitioned his domains among heirs, but rivalries exacerbated by his absence of a clear successor fueled decades of civil strife, undermining the centralized conquest state he had built through relentless military campaigns. In , Ming Emperor Yongle dispatched Admiral on the first of seven maritime expeditions on 11 July from , commanding a fleet of approximately 62 large treasure ships and numerous escorts with over 27,000 crew; the voyage aimed to assert Chinese naval supremacy, collect tribute, and forge diplomatic ties rather than pursue territorial conquest or aggressive trade. The expedition traversed , visiting , Siam, , and , then proceeded across the to Calicut in and Ceylon, returning to in 1407 after establishing relations with local rulers through displays of wealth and military might, though it yielded limited long-term economic returns compared to its prestige value. In Western Europe, the Welsh revolt led by reached its zenith amid alliances with and against English King Henry IV, whose realm faced compounded threats from domestic unrest, financial strain, and plague outbreaks killing thousands in between 1405 and 1407. French forces numbering around 2,500 landed at in August to bolster Glyndŵr's bid for under the Tripartite Indenture envisioning partitioned , but joint operations faltered due to logistical failures, harsh weather, and English countermeasures, culminating in French withdrawal by November after sieges at and yielded no decisive gains. By year's end, Henry IV convened on 21 December to address the crises, marking a pivotal but unsuccessful effort to rally support amid ongoing rebellions that nearly collapsed English governance. Notable births included Gjergj Kastrioti, later known as , on 6 May in , who would lead resistance against Ottoman expansion in the .

1406

In , King Robert III died on 4 March, reportedly from grief over the captivity of his son James, who had been seized by English forces on 22 March while attempting to flee amid internal power struggles involving the . James was subsequently proclaimed king as James I on 4 April, though he remained imprisoned in for the next 18 years, with regency exercised by Albany, exacerbating factional instability in the kingdom. In the of , Yongle (Zhu Di) initiated the of the imperial palace complex in , later known as the , as part of consolidating his capital's defenses and administrative centrality following the relocation from . Concurrently, Yongle dispatched military expeditions to Annam (modern ), commencing an extended campaign to reassert Chinese over the region, which involved Tran Thien Binh, a to the Vietnamese throne seeking Ming support against the Ho dynasty. On 26 October, Eric of Pomerania, king of the (, , and ), married , daughter of England's Henry IV, strengthening Anglo-Nordic ties amid ongoing Hanseatic trade rivalries in the Baltic. The papal conclave in elected Venetian cardinal Angelo Correr as on 30 November, continuing the with rival claimants in and , as Gregory's selection aimed to rally Italian support but failed to resolve the division. In the , Anthony of Burgundy succeeded his uncle John III as on 18 December following John's death, inheriting a duchy strained by Burgundian expansionism and urban revolts, which Anthony would navigate through alliances with his brother , . Castile saw a dynastic transition on 25 December with the death of King Henry III, succeeded by his infant son John II under the regency of his mother , setting the stage for noble intrigues and Trastámara factionalism. Notable births included Edmund Beaufort on approximately 1406, who would later become 2nd and a key Lancastrian figure in England's .

1407

In January 1407, forces under the completed the initial conquest of Đại Ngu (modern ) by capturing Đông Đô, the eastern capital (present-day ), on January 20, following the deposition of the Hồ dynasty and amid ongoing resistance that prolonged Ming occupation until 1427. This campaign involved over 200,000 troops and aimed to restore Tran dynasty legitimacy while exploiting internal Vietnamese instability from Hồ Quý Ly's reforms. During the return leg of 's first treasure fleet voyage, Ming admiral engaged and defeated the pirate fleet of at , , in 1407, destroying their base and capturing , who was later executed in , thereby securing maritime trade routes for Ming tributary diplomacy. The victory involved superior Ming naval firepower against irregular pirate forces, establishing under a Ming-installed ruler. In , the Casa di San Giorgio was founded in 1407 through the consolidation of public debt obligations (compere) into a single institution managed by elected citizen directors, functioning as an early that handled loans, taxes, and colonial revenues, influencing Genoese for centuries. This entity pooled creditor shares as capital, paid dividends from state revenues, and wielded quasi-sovereign powers, predating modern central banking structures. Factional violence persisted in the , with bloody clashes on January 3 between the Hoeksen and Kabeljauwen guilds in , reflecting ongoing civic strife amid noble rivalries. In , mobs attacked Kraków's Jewish community on October 26, amid rising antisemitic unrest in the Kingdom of Poland. The year's most disruptive European event unfolded in , where a fragile truce on November 20 between Louis of and of —brokered by —collapsed three days later when Orléans, brother to the mentally unstable King Charles VI and effective regent, was assassinated in by Burgundian agents on November 23. later publicly justified the killing as , citing Orléans' alleged debauchery and overreach, which polarized French nobility into (Orléanist) and Burgundian factions, inaugurating a civil war that weakened against English incursions.

1408

On September 23, forces led by , , allied with the Bishop-elect of and the , decisively defeated a larger rebel army from the at the Battle of Othée near modern-day Awans, Belgium; the victory, marked by effective use of disciplined men-at-arms, artillery, and terrain, suppressed an uprising against episcopal authority and reinforced Burgundian influence in the . In the , co-emperor died in Thessalonica on September 22, ending his intermittent rule (1390 and 1403–1408) under the senior emperor Manuel II; his death stabilized succession amid Ottoman pressures but highlighted ongoing imperial fragmentation. On December 5, Emir of the Golden Horde's Nogai forces reached , initiating a brief of the city; unable to breach defenses despite demands for tribute and submission from Grand Prince Vasily I, Edigu withdrew after ravaging suburbs, preserving Muscovite autonomy while exposing Horde fractures. Later that month, on December 12, , (and future ), founded the as a monarchical chivalric order with his consort ; limited to select , it pledged defense of Christianity—particularly against Ottoman expansion—and mutual aid, drawing inspiration from crusading orders to bolster Sigismund's alliances post-defeats like (1396). In , the Ming dynasty's oversaw completion of the Yongle Dadian, a massive compiling 22,937 classical texts into 11,095 volumes via 2,169 scholars; intended as an imperial knowledge repository amid Yongle's cultural patronage, it underscored bureaucratic erudition but survived only in fragments due to later destructions. Korea saw the death of Yi Seong-gye (Taejo), founder of the Joseon dynasty, on June 24; having abdicated in 1398 amid princely strife, his passing at age 72 shifted power consolidation to son Taejong, perpetuating Neo-Confucian reforms initiated against legacies.

1409

The Council of Pisa opened on March 25, 1409, summoned by cardinals from both the Roman and Avignon obediences to address the Western Schism by deposing the rival popes Gregory XII and Benedict XIII, who each claimed legitimacy based on prior elections. Attended by around 300 prelates, the council proceeded despite the absence of the popes, declaring both schismatics and heretics on June 5 before electing Pietro Filargo, Archbishop of Milan, as Pope Alexander V on June 26. Alexander V's brief pontificate, lasting until his death in May 1410, failed to unify the church, as neither Gregory XII nor Benedict XIII relinquished their claims, resulting in three simultaneous papal contenders and exacerbating the division. On June 30, Aragonese forces under King defeated the army of the Giudicato of Arborea at the Battle of Sanluri in southern , where Arborese judge William III of Narbonne commanded approximately 15,000 troops against a smaller but better-equipped Catalan-Sicilian host. The Aragonese victory, achieved through tactical superiority in and despite numerical disadvantage, led to heavy Arborese casualties and the collapse of the kingdom's resistance, culminating in its annexation by the Crown of Aragon by 1420. In March, the concluded with a partition among Habsburg branches, ending conflicts over inheritance following the death of Duke Albert III in 1395, though internal strife persisted. Early precursors to the Hussite movement emerged in Bohemia, as King Wenceslaus IV ceased hostilities against rebel leader near Budějovice on April 25 amid growing religious and social tensions. In Asia, Ming admiral initiated his third maritime expedition in 1409, commanding a fleet that reached Indian seaports before returning via by 1411, furthering China's tributary diplomacy without establishing permanent colonies.

Wars and conflicts

European internal strife

In , King Henry IV confronted significant internal challenges stemming from his 1399 usurpation of Richard II, whose death in early 1400 fueled loyalty among disaffected nobles. The of January 1400, orchestrated by earls including the and Lord le Despenser, aimed to restore Richard II or proclaim a rival claimant but collapsed due to poor coordination and rapid royal response, resulting in executions of key conspirators. This event highlighted ongoing instability, as Henry's insecure throne invited further dissent amid economic strains from plague and war taxes. The most prolonged threat emerged in with the , initiated in September 1400 by , who proclaimed himself against English domination. Glyndŵr's forces employed guerrilla tactics, capturing castles like in 1404 and in 1405, while alliances with French invaders and Scottish raiders amplified the disruption; by 1405, much of acknowledged his authority. English counteroffensives regained ground after 1405, but the revolt persisted into the decade, draining resources and exacerbating fiscal woes that contributed to Henry's health decline. Northern England saw the Percy family's rebellion in 1403, driven by grievances over unpaid Scottish ransoms and favoritism toward Welsh campaigns. Led by Henry "Hotspur" Percy, the uprising culminated in the Battle of Shrewsbury on 21 July 1403, where royal forces under Prince Henry defeated the rebels, killing Hotspur and executing key allies like the Earl of Worcester. Subsequent Percy remnants, including the Earl of Northumberland, attempted revivals in 1405 and 1408, but defeats solidified Lancastrian control, though at the cost of heavy casualties and regional alienation. France descended into factional civil war in late 1407, as rivalry between Duke Louis of (brother to the mentally unstable Charles VI) and Duke John the Fearless of intensified over influence at court. On 23 November 1407, Burgundian agents assassinated Orléans in , prompting Orléanist allies—dubbed Armagnacs after Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac—to retaliate with widespread violence, including massacres in 1411-1412. The conflict fragmented royal authority, enabling English incursions in the and persisting through uneasy truces into the 1410s, with control of shifting between factions. In the Holy Roman Empire's fringes, internal divisions manifested in the Appenzell Wars starting around 1401, where the rural Appenzell peasants resisted Habsburg and abbey overlords, allying with the and securing autonomy by 1411 through victories like the Battle of Vögelinsegg in 1403. These skirmishes reflected broader tensions between imperial princes, urban leagues, and rural communes, underscoring the Empire's decentralized structure amid the transition from King Rupert's death in 1410. Such regional strife, while not empire-wide, eroded central cohesion and foreshadowed Swiss independence movements.

Asian imperial expansions

In the early , the under the (r. 1402–1424) initiated military campaigns to consolidate and expand imperial control over frontier regions, marking a period of assertive territorial growth in . These efforts targeted both northern nomads and southern kingdoms, reflecting a strategy to secure borders, extract tribute, and project dominance following the dynasty's recovery from internal strife. A pivotal expansion occurred in the northeast, where the Ming sought to subdue Jurchen tribes and prevent alliances with Mongol remnants. In 1409, the established the Nurgan Regional Military Commission on the River, installing overseer Yishiha to govern local populations, collect taxes, and enforce Ming over territories previously outside direct control. This administrative outpost facilitated tribute extraction and military garrisons, extending Ming influence into what is now the and countering potential threats from semi-nomadic groups. The most ambitious conquest of the decade targeted (modern ), where the fragile had usurped the throne in 1400, prompting Ming intervention under the pretext of restoring the ousted . From autumn 1406, a Ming expeditionary force of 215,000 troops, commanded by generals including Zhang Fu, invaded across the border, capturing key cities in the by November 19, 1406. By spring 1407, the invaders had subdued the regime, seized Emperor and his family, and fully annexed the kingdom as the province of , imposing direct governance, policies, and resource extraction to integrate it into the imperial economy. This occupation, though initially successful, sowed seeds of prolonged resistance that would culminate in Vietnamese rebellion by the 1420s. These campaigns exemplified Ming , deploying vast , , and to overwhelm numerically inferior foes, but they strained resources and highlighted the limits of sustaining distant annexations amid ongoing northern vigilance. No comparable large-scale expansions occurred elsewhere in during this narrow period, as the under fragmented after his death in 1405, shifting from conquest to internal succession struggles.

Religious developments and controversies

Western Schism persistence

The continued unabated into the 1400s, with Boniface IX holding the papal throne in from his succession in 1389 until his death on October 1, 1404, while Benedict XIII maintained his claim from , having been elected in 1394 following the death of . Both popes excommunicated supporters of their rival, issued conflicting bulls, and appointed cardinals to bolster their obediences, deepening divisions across where allegiances often followed national lines—such as , the , and much of adhering to the Roman pontiff, while and backed Avignon. Benedict XIII faced a in Avignon in 1403 by forces loyal to the Roman obedience but was ultimately freed through negotiations, though he showed no willingness to compromise on resignation. Following Boniface IX's death, Innocent VII was elected in on October 17, 1404, and reigned until his own death on November 6, 1406, amid ongoing schismatic strife that included mutual condemnations and failed diplomatic overtures. Gregory XII succeeded him on November 30, 1406, inheriting the same impasse with Benedict XIII, whose obstinacy prevented any meaningful progress toward unity despite sporadic synods, such as the one in in 1406 that achieved only partial attendance and no resolution. These popes continued to administer their respective courts, collect revenues, and assert spiritual authority, perpetuating administrative dualism within the Church that undermined its centralized governance. By 1408, frustration among cardinals from both obediences led to a joint manifesto calling for a general council to end the schism, culminating in the Council of Pisa convened on March 25, 1409, attended by four patriarchs, 22 cardinals, 80 bishops or their proxies, and numerous other prelates and theologians. The council, influenced by figures like Jean Gerson and Pierre d'Ailly and supported by secular rulers including the French king, declared both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII schismatics and perjurers after they failed to appear following summonses, deposing them on June 5, 1409, and electing Alexander V as the legitimate pope on June 26, 1409. However, Gregory XII fled to Rimini under Venetian protection and refused to abdicate, while Benedict XIII retreated to Peñíscola in Aragon, rejecting the council's authority; Alexander V's brief pontificate (until his death in 1410) thus failed to heal the breach, instead exacerbating it by introducing a third claimant recognized by France, England, Portugal, and others but not by the deposed rivals' adherents. This outcome highlighted the schism's entrenchment, as neither obedience yielded and conciliar efforts lacked the coercive power to enforce unity.

Persecutions and reform attempts

In , the persecution of Lollards—followers of the reformist who criticized clerical corruption, , and papal authority—intensified with the passage of the De heretico comburendo by in 1401. This law authorized bishops to identify, try, and hand over convicted heretics for secular execution by burning, bypassing traditional appeals to the king and marking a shift toward harsher enforcement against dissenting groups amid fears of social unrest linked to Lollard ideas. On February 26, 1401, William Sawtrey, a priest accused of denying Christ's presence in the and affirming Wycliffe's teachings, recanted initially but relapsed; he was degraded from priesthood and burned at Smithfield in in early March, becoming the first execution under the new . This event set a for sporadic burnings of Lollards through the decade, with church authorities like Archbishop enforcing anti-heresy measures to suppress vernacular Bible reading and lay preaching. In , emerged as an early voice for ecclesiastical reform, ordained a in 1400 and appointed preacher at Prague's Bethlehem Chapel in 1402, where he delivered sermons in the Czech vernacular to crowds exceeding 3,000, condemning , indulgences, and clerical immorality while drawing on Wycliffe's writings. Through 1409, Hus's preaching advocated moral renewal within the church, including demands for poverty among clergy and opposition to plural benefices, fostering a reformist sentiment that highlighted abuses exacerbated by the without yet provoking formal . His activities represented a localized push against institutional corruption, influencing Bohemian intellectuals and toward greater scriptural emphasis over ritualistic practices. The , convened on March 25, 1409, by dissident cardinals from both papal obediences, aimed to reform the church by resolving the through conciliar authority, deposing the rival popes Gregory XII and Benedict XIII as schismatics and electing Alexander V on June 26. Attended by 22 cardinals, 80 bishops, and numerous theologians, the assembly asserted the superiority of general councils over popes in matters of faith and unity, issuing reform decrees against absenteeism and concubinage, though these had limited enforcement. Intended as a corrective to papal divisions that undermined church credibility, the council instead exacerbated the crisis by creating a third claimant, delaying true resolution until the in 1417.

Vital events

Births

1404 1405
  • October 18: Enea Silvio Piccolomini (d. 1464), Italian humanist poet and diplomat who became , issuing the bull Execrabilis against appeals from papal decisions and promoting classical learning.
c. 1400
  • (d. 1482), Florentine sculptor renowned for inventing durable enamel-glazed terracotta, as seen in panels for the sacristy commissioned in 1431.

Deaths

died in February 1400 while imprisoned at , likely starved to death or murdered following his deposition by Henry IV; his death was announced on 17 February. , author of and a key figure in English literature, died on 25 October 1400 in from unknown causes. Bayezid I, Ottoman Sultan defeated by at the , died in captivity on 8 March 1403. , longtime mistress and later wife of , whose children became Lancastrian royals, died on 10 May 1403. , and founder of the Valois-Burgundy line, died on 27 April 1404, influencing the power dynamics of the . Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror whose campaigns devastated and the , died on 18 February 1405 while preparing to invade , possibly from illness. Louis I, Duke of Orléans and brother of , was assassinated on 23 November 1407 by , Duke of Burgundy, sparking the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War. Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, rebelled against Henry IV and died on 20 February 1408, possibly by suicide or killed during a . died suddenly on 25 July 1409 without heirs, leading to a in . , former of Richard II, died on 13 September 1409 at age 19 in childbirth.

Notable figures

Rulers and conquerors

Henry IV ruled from 1399 to 1413 after deposing Richard II, who died in captivity on 14 February 1400, marking the end of Plantagenet direct line continuity amid Lancastrian claims. Henry faced persistent challenges, including the Welsh Revolt led by from 1400 to 1409, which tied down English resources and highlighted feudal fractures. In the , Rupert of the Palatinate was elected King of on 21 August 1400, succeeding Wenceslaus IV, and maintained power against rival claims until his death in 1410, navigating electoral disputes and regional autonomies. Meanwhile, in Castile, Henry III reigned until 29 December 1406, commissioning the conquest of the Canary Islands; Norman explorer , vassal to Henry, captured in 1402 and by 1405, initiating Spanish colonization and subjugating Guanche inhabitants through military force and alliances. The decade's most extensive conquests occurred under , the Turco-Mongol ruler based in , who in 1401 sacked , slaughtering over 100,000 and razing structures, consolidating control over . On 20 July 1402, 's army crushed Ottoman Sultan at the , capturing Bayezid and sparking an Ottoman civil war lasting until 1413, which temporarily halted Ottoman expansion into . 's campaigns extended to Georgia and before his death on 18 February 1405 en route to invade Ming , leaving a vast but unstable empire prone to fragmentation. In , Zhu Di usurped the Ming throne in 1402 as the (r. 1402–1424), defeating his nephew Jianwen's forces in a coup that involved burning Nanjing's palace, then initiating administrative centralization and preparations for overseas expeditions. In the Mediterranean, Martin I of concluded the conquest of Sardinia's Arborea kingdom in 1409, defeating William III of at the Battle of Sanluri on 19 June, annexing the last independent Judicate and integrating it into the Crown of .

Intellectuals and reformers

(1331–1406), the Florentine chancellor and a pivotal early humanist, dominated intellectual circles in during the decade, advocating for the revival of rhetoric and philosophy as tools for civic . Through extensive correspondence and , he supported scholars in recovering lost manuscripts, such as those of , and mentored figures like , emphasizing studia humanitatis to foster moral and political virtue amid Florence's republican struggles. His death on October 4, 1406, marked the transition to a new generation, but his influence persisted in shaping humanism's shift toward active over monastic . Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444), Salutati's successor as chancellor in 1427 but active in scholarship throughout the 1400s, exemplified emerging civic humanism with works like the Laudatio Florentinae urbis urbs (1403–1404), which portrayed Florence as a modern analogue to ancient Athens, blending historical narrative with rhetorical eloquence to justify republican governance. Bruni's translations of Aristotle and Plato's dialogues further integrated Greek thought into Latin education, prioritizing empirical observation of history and ethics over scholastic abstraction. In England, Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400), whose Canterbury Tales innovated vernacular poetry with realistic character studies drawn from diverse social strata, died on October 25, 1400, leaving a legacy that challenged courtly idealism with earthy, observational wit, influencing later English humanism. Religious reform efforts centered on precursors to later , particularly Wycliffite Lollards in , who disseminated John Wycliffe's critiques of clerical corruption and through unauthorized and itinerant preaching. The 1401 De heretico comburendo led to the execution of William Sawtre, the first Lollard burned at the stake on February 12, 1401, signaling intensified persecution yet underscoring the movement's grassroots appeal for scriptural authority over papal hierarchy. In , Jean (1363–1429), rector of the , advanced to resolve the , arguing in treatises like De modis significandi (early 1400s) for church reform through representative councils rather than individual popes, influencing the 1409 Council of Pisa's deposition of rival claimants. These efforts highlighted causal tensions between institutional power and demands for doctrinal purity, though suppressed, they eroded scholastic orthodoxy's monopoly.

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