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This article is about the species called "elk" in North America. For the species called "elk" in Eurasia (Alces alces), see Moose.
"Elks" redirects here. For other uses, see Elks (disambiguation).
"Wapiti" redirects here. For other uses of the names, see Elk (disambiguation) and Wapiti (disambiguation).

Elk
Temporal range: 2.5–0 Ma
↓
Early Pleistocene – Recent
Photograph of a bull (male) and cow (female)
A bull (male) and cow (female) grazing in Grand Teton National Park
Photograph of a female elk (cow) and her calf
A cow (female) with calf in Wyoming, United States
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Cervidae
Genus: Cervus
Species:
C. canadensis
Binomial name
Cervus canadensis
(Erxleben, 1777)[2]
Subspecies
Synonyms

Various Cervus elaphus subspecies

The elk (pl.: elk or elks; Cervus canadensis) or wapiti, is the second largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in its native range of North America and Central and East Asia. The word "elk" originally referred to the European variety of the moose, Alces alces, but was transferred to Cervus canadensis by North American colonists.

The name "wapiti" is derived from a Shawnee and Cree word meaning "white rump", after the distinctive light fur around the tail region which the animals may fluff-up or raise to signal their agitation or distress to one another, when fleeing perceived threats, or among males courting females and sparring for dominance. A similar trait is seen in other artiodactyl species, like the bighorn sheep, pronghorn and the white-tailed deer, to varying degrees.

Elk dwell in open forest and forest-edge habitats, grazing on grasses and sedges and browsing higher-growing plants, leaves, twigs and bark. Male elk have large, blood- and nerve-filled antlers, which they routinely shed each year as the weather warms. Males also engage in ritualized mating behaviors during the mating season, including posturing to attract females, antler-wrestling (sparring), and bugling, a loud series of throaty whistles, bellows, screams, and other vocalizations that establish dominance over other males and aim to attract females.

Elk were long believed to belong to a subspecies of the European red deer (Cervus elaphus), but evidence from many mitochondrial DNA genetic studies, beginning in 1998, shows that the two are distinct species. The elk's wider rump-patch and paler-hued antlers are key morphological differences that distinguish C. canadensis from C. elaphus. Although it is currently only native to North America, and Central, East and North Asia, elk once had a much wider distribution in the past; prehistoric populations were present across Eurasia and into Western Europe during the Late Pleistocene, surviving into the early Holocene in Southern Sweden and the Alps. The now-extinct North American Merriam's elk subspecies (Cervus canadensis merriami) once ranged south into Mexico. The wapiti has also successfully adapted to countries outside of its natural range where it has been introduced, including Argentina and New Zealand; the animal's adaptability in these areas may, in fact, be so successful as to threaten the sensitive endemic ecosystems and species it encounters.

As a member of the Artiodactyla order (and distant relative of the Bovidae), elk are susceptible to several infectious diseases which can be transmitted to or from domesticated livestock. Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations, primarily by vaccination, have had mixed success. Some cultures revere the elk as having spiritual significance. Antlers and velvet are used in traditional medicines in parts of Asia; the production of ground antler and velvet supplements is also a thriving naturopathic industry in several countries, including the United States, China and Canada. The elk is hunted as a game species, and their meat is lean and higher in protein than beef or chicken.

Naming and etymology

[edit]

By the 17th century, Alces alces (moose, called "elk" in Europe) had long been extirpated from the British Isles, and the meaning of the word "elk" to English-speakers became rather vague, acquiring a meaning similar to "large deer".[3] The name wapiti is from the Shawnee and Cree word waapiti (in Cree syllabics: ᐙᐱᑎ or ᐚᐱᑎ), meaning "white rump".[4] There is a subspecies of wapiti in Mongolia called the Altai wapiti (Cervus canadensis sibiricus), also known as the Altai maral.[5]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the etymology of the word "elk" is "of obscure history". In Classical Antiquity, the European Alces alces was known as Ancient Greek: ἄλκη, romanized: álkē and Latin: alces, words probably borrowed from a Germanic language or another language of northern Europe. By the 8th century, during the Early Middle Ages, the moose was known as Old English: elch, elh, eolh, derived from the Proto-Germanic: *elho-, *elhon- and possibly connected with the Old Norse: elgr.[6] Later, the species became known in Middle English as elk, elcke, or elke, appearing in the Latinized form alke, with the spelling alce borrowed directly from Latin: alces.[6][7] Noting that elk "is not the normal phonetic representative" of the Old English elch, the Oxford English Dictionary derives elk from Middle High German: elch, itself from Old High German: elaho.[6][3]

The American Cervus canadensis was recognized as a relative of the red deer (Cervus elaphus) of Europe, and so Cervus canadensis were referred to as "red deer". Richard Hakluyt refers to North America as a "lande ... full of many beastes, as redd dere"[8] in his 1584 Discourse Concerning Western Planting. Similarly, John Smith's 1616 A Description of New England referred to red deer. Sir William Talbot's 1672 English translation of John Lederer's Latin Discoveries likewise called the species "red deer", but noted in parentheses that they were "for their unusual largeness improperly termed Elks by ignorant people". Both Thomas Jefferson's 1785 Notes on the State of Virginia and David Bailie Warden's 1816 Statistical, Political, and Historical Account of the United States used "red deer" to refer to Cervus canadensis.[9]

Taxonomy

[edit]
Photograph of elk in the snow
Male elk in snow at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA
Photograph of elk crossing Opal Terrace
Elk crossing Opal Terrace at Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone
Photograph of a bull elk in grassland
Bull elk in late autumn, Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada
Photograph of two bull elk sparring
Sparring bull elk in Banff National Park, Canada

Members of the genus Cervus (and hence early relatives or possible ancestors of the elk) first appear in the fossil record 25 million years ago, during the Oligocene in Eurasia, but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the early Miocene.[10] The extinct Irish elk (Megaloceros) was not a member of the genus Cervus but rather the largest member of the wider deer family (Cervidae) known from the fossil record.[11]

Until recently, red deer and elk were considered to be one species, Cervus elaphus,[5][12] with over a dozen subspecies. But mitochondrial DNA studies conducted in 2004 on hundreds of samples from red deer and elk subspecies and other species of the Cervus deer family, strongly indicate that elk, or wapiti, should be a distinct species, namely Cervus canadensis.[13] DNA evidence validates that elk are more closely related to Thorold's deer (C. albirostris) and even sika deer (C. nippon) than they are to the red deer.[13]

Elk and red deer produce fertile offspring in captivity, and the two species have freely inter-bred in New Zealand's Fiordland National Park. The cross-bred animals have resulted in the disappearance of virtually all pure elk blood from the area.[14] Key morphological differences that distinguish C. canadensis from C. elaphus are the former's wider rump patch and paler-hued antlers.[15]

Subspecies

[edit]

There are numerous subspecies of elk described, with six from North America and four from Asia, although some taxonomists consider them different ecotypes or races of the same species (adapted to local environments through minor changes in appearance and behavior). Populations vary in antler shape and size, body size, coloration and mating behavior. DNA investigations of the Eurasian subspecies revealed that phenotypic variation in antlers, mane and rump patch development are based on "climatic-related lifestyle factors".[15] Of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times, four remain, including the Roosevelt (C. canadensis roosevelti), Tule (C. c. nannodes), Manitoban (C. c. manitobensis) and Rocky Mountain elk (C. c. nelsoni).[16] The eastern elk (C. c. canadensis) and Merriam's elk (C. c. merriami) subspecies have been extinct for at least a century.[17][18]

Four subspecies described from the Asian continent include the Altai wapiti (C. c. sibiricus) and the Tianshan wapiti (C. c. songaricus). Two distinct subspecies found in China, Mongolia, the Korean Peninsula[19] and Siberia are the Manchurian wapiti (C. c. xanthopygus) and the Alashan wapiti (C. c. alashanicus). The Manchurian subspecies is darker, and more reddish, in coloration than other populations. The Alashan wapiti of northern Central China is the smallest of all the subspecies, has the lightest coloration, and is one of the least-studied.[14]

Recent DNA analyses suggest that there are no more than three or four total subspecies of elk. All American forms, aside from possibly the Tule and the Roosevelt's elk, seem to belong to one subspecies—Cervus c. canadensis; even the Siberian elk (C. c. sibiricus) is, more or less, physically identical to the American forms, and thus may belong to this subspecies, too.[20] However, the Manchurian wapiti (C. c. xanthopygus) is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms, but not distinguishable from the Alashan wapiti. Still, due to the insufficient genetic material that rejects monophyly of C. canadensis, some researchers consider it premature to include the Manchurian wapiti as a true subspecies of wapiti, and that it likely needs to be elevated to its own species, C. xanthopygus.[21] The Chinese forms (the Sichuan deer, Kansu red deer, and Tibetan red deer) also belong to the wapiti, and were not distinguishable from each other by mitochondrial DNA studies.[13] These Chinese subspecies are sometimes treated as a distinct species, namely the Central Asian red deer (Cervus hanglu), which also includes the Kashmir stag.[20]

Characteristics

[edit]
Photograph of a herd of elk
A herd of Roosevelt elk in California

Elk have thick bodies with slender legs and short tails. They have a shoulder height of 0.75–1.5 m (2 ft 6 in – 4 ft 11 in) with a nose-to-tail length of 1.6–2.7 m (5 ft 3 in – 8 ft 10 in). Males are larger and weigh 178–497 kg (392–1,096 lb) while females weigh 171–292 kg (377–644 lb).[22] The largest of the subspecies is the Roosevelt elk (C. c. roosevelti), found west of the Cascade Range in the U.S. states of California, Oregon and Washington, and in the Canadian province of British Columbia. Roosevelt elk have been introduced into Alaska, where the largest males are estimated to weigh up to 600 kg (1,300 lb).[23] More typically, male Roosevelt elk weigh around 318 to 499 kg (701 to 1,100 lb), while females weigh 261 to 283 kg (575 to 624 lb).[24] Male tule elk weigh 204–318 kg (450–701 lb) while females weigh 170–191 kg (375–421 lb).[25] The whole weights of adult male Manitoban elk range from 288 to 478 kilograms (635 to 1,054 lb). Females have a mean weight of 275 kilograms (606 lb).[26] The elk is the second largest extant species of deer, after the moose.[27][page needed]

Antlers are made of bone, which can grow at a rate of 2.5 centimeters (0.98 in) per day. While actively growing, a soft layer of highly vascularized skin known as velvet covers and protects them. This is shed in the summer when the antlers have fully developed.[28] Bull elk typically have around six tines on each antler. The Siberian and North American elk carry the largest antlers while the Altai wapiti has the smallest.[14] Roosevelt bull antlers can weigh 18 kg (40 lb).[28] The formation and retention of antlers are testosterone-driven.[29] In late winter and early spring, the testosterone level drops, which causes the antlers to shed.[30]

Photograph of a Rocky Mountain elk
Rocky Mountain elk

During the fall, elk grow a thicker coat of hair, which helps to insulate them during the winter.[31] Both male and female North American elk grow thin neck manes; females of other subspecies may not.[32]: 37  By early summer, the heavy winter coat has been shed. Elk are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies. All elk have small and clearly defined rump patches with short tails. They have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats, with gray or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish, darker coat in the summer. Subspecies living in arid climates tend to have lighter colored coats than do those living in forests.[31] Most have lighter yellow-brown to orange-brown coats in contrast to dark brown hair on the head, neck, and legs during the summer. Forest-adapted Manchurian and Alaskan wapitis have red or reddish-brown coats with less contrast between the body coat and the rest of the body during the summer months. Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and lose them by the end of summer. Adult Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. This characteristic has also been observed in the forest-adapted European red deer.[14]

Behavior and ecology

[edit]
Elk bulls sparring

Elk are among the most gregarious deer species.[32]: 52  During the summer group size can reach 400 individuals.[22] For most of the year, adult males and females are segregated into different herds. Female herds are larger while bulls form small groups and may even travel alone. Young bulls may associate with older bulls or female groups. Male and female herds come together during the mating season, which may begin in late August.[32]: 75, 82  Males try to intimidate rivals by vocalizing and displaying with their antlers.[32]: 109  If neither bull backs down, they engage in antler wrestling, sometimes sustaining serious injuries.[33]

An American elk bugling
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Bulls have a loud, high-pitched, whistle-like vocalization known as bugling, which advertise the male's fitness over great distances. Unusual for a vocalization produced by a large animal, buglings can reach a frequency of 4000 Hz. This is achieved by blowing air from the glottis through the nasal cavities. Elk can produce deeper pitched (150 Hz) sounds using the larynx.[34] Cows produce an alarm bark to alert other members of the herd to danger, while calves will produce a high-pitched scream when attacked.[35]

Reproduction and life cycle

[edit]

Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two, and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. By the autumn of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring. Reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least 200 kilograms (440 lb).[36] Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut from August into early winter. A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators.[37][32]: 92  Bulls also dig holes in the ground called wallows, in which they urinate and roll their bodies.[38][33] A male elk's urethra points upward so that urine is sprayed almost at a right angle to the penis.[39] The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows.[33]

Photograph of male elk with his snout touching the female's backside
Elk bull inspecting a female

A bull interacts with cows in his harem in two ways: herding and courtship. When a female wanders too far away from the harem's range, the male will rush ahead of her, block her path and aggressively rush her back to the harem. Herding behavior is accompanied by a stretched out and lowered neck and the antlers laid back. A bull may get violent and hit the cow with his antlers. During courtship, the bull is more peaceful and approaches her with his head and antlers raised. The male signals his intention to test the female for sexual receptivity by flicking his tongue. If not ready, a cow will lower her head and weave from side to side while opening and closing her mouth. The bull will stop in response in order not to scare her.[32]: 100–101  Otherwise, the bull will copiously lick the female and then mount her.[32]: 115 

Younger, less dominant bulls, known as "spike bulls", because their antlers have not yet forked, will harass unguarded cows. These bulls are impatient and will not perform any courtship rituals and will continue to pursue a female even when she signals him to stop. As such, they are less reproductively successful, and a cow may stay close to the big bull to avoid harassment. Dominant bulls are intolerant of spike bulls and will chase them away from their harems.[32]: 100–105 

Photograph of a female elk nursing her calf
A female nursing her calf

The gestation period is eight to nine months and the offspring weigh around 16 kilograms (35 lb). When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators.[33] Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd, and are fully weaned at two months of age.[22] Elk calves are as large as an adult white-tailed deer by the time they are six months old.[40] Elk will leave their natal (birth) ranges before they are three years old. Males disperse more often than females, as adult cows are more tolerant of female offspring from previous years.[41] Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in the wild. In some subspecies that suffer less predation, they may live an average of 15 years in the wild.[42]

Migration

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Photograph of an elk herd in winter
Elk wintering at the National Elk Refuge in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, after migrating there during the fall

As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regions, elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. Hunting pressure impacts migration and movement.[43] During the winter, they favor wooded areas for the greater availability of food to eat. Elk do not appear to benefit from thermal cover.[44] The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herds comprise as many as 40,000 individuals.[45] During the spring and fall, they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S., traveling as much as 168 mi (270 km) between summer and winter ranges. The Teton herd consists of between 9,000 and 13,000 elk and they spend winters on the National Elk Refuge, having migrated south from the southern portions of Yellowstone National Park and west from the Shoshone and Bridger–Teton National Forests.[46]

Diet

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Photograph of a number of elk pellets
Elk pellet group

Elk are ruminants and therefore have four-chambered stomachs. Unlike white-tailed deer and moose, which are chiefly browsers, elk are similar to cattle in that they are primarily grazers. But like other deer, they also browse.[47][48] Elk have a tendency to do most of their feeding in the mornings and evenings, seeking sheltered areas in between feedings to digest. Their diets vary somewhat depending on the season, with native grasses being a year-round supplement, tree bark (e.g. cedar, wintergreen, eastern hemlock, sumac, jack pine, red maple, staghorn, and basswood) being consumed in winter, and sedges, forbs, and tree sprouts during the summer.[49] Favorites of the elk include dandelions, aster, hawkweed, violets, clover, and the occasional mushroom.[49] Elk consume an average of 9.1 kilograms (20 lb) of vegetation daily.[50] Particularly fond of aspen sprouts which rise in the spring, elk have had some impact on aspen groves which have been declining in some regions where elk exist.[51] Range and wildlife managers conduct surveys of elk pellet groups to monitor populations and resource use.[52][53]

Research in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has found that supplemental feeding of concentrated alfalfa pellets leads to significant alterations in the elks' microbiome.[54] The elk gut microbiome is typically characterized by a diverse community of bacteria specialized in breaking down complex plant fibers and cellulose, whereas the supplementally fed gut microbiome may have less fiber-digesting bacteria.[55] Therefore, transitioning from natural foraging to concentrated alfalfa pellets can cause changes in the gut microbiome that might affect the elk's ability to efficiently digest their natural diet or could potentially lead to imbalances that affect overall health.[54]

Predators and defensive tactics

[edit]
Aerial photograph a bull elk in winter being pursued by four wolves
Single bull elk in winter are vulnerable to predation by wolves

Predators of elk include wolves, coyotes, brown and black bears, cougars, and Siberian tigers.[56][57] Coyote packs mostly prey on elk calves, though they can sometimes take a winter- or disease-weakened adult.[58] In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, which includes Yellowstone National Park, bears are the most significant predators of calves[59] while healthy bulls have never been recorded to be killed by bears and such encounters can be fatal for bears.[60] The killing of cows in their prime is more likely to affect population growth than the killing of bulls or calves.[61]

Elk may avoid predation by switching from grazing to browsing. Grazing puts an elk in the compromising situation of being in an open area with its head down, leaving it unable to see what is going on in the surrounding area.[62] Living in groups also lessens the risk of an individual falling to predation. Large bull elk are less vulnerable and can afford to wander alone, while cows stay in larger groups for protection for their calves.[32]: 75  Bulls are more vulnerable to predation by wolves in late winter, after they have been weakened by months of chasing females and fighting.[61] Males that have recently lost their antlers are more likely to be preyed upon.[63]

Parasites and disease

[edit]

At least 53 species of protist and animal parasites have been identified in elk.[64] Most of these parasites seldom lead to significant mortality among wild or captive elk. Parelaphostrongylus tenuis (brainworm or meningeal worm) is a parasitic nematode known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk and other species, leading to death.[65] The definitive host is the white-tailed deer, in which it normally has no ill effects. Snails and slugs, the intermediate hosts, can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing.[66] The liver fluke Fascioloides magna and the nematode Dictyocaulus viviparus are also commonly found parasites that can be fatal to elk.[67]

A bull elk in spring, shedding its winter coat and with its antlers covered in velvet

Chronic wasting disease, transmitted by a misfolded protein known as a prion, affects the brain tissue in elk, and has been detected throughout their range in North America. First documented in the late 1960s in mule deer, the disease has affected elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions. Elk that have contracted the disease begin to show weight loss, changes in behavior, increased watering needs, excessive salivation and urinating and difficulty swallowing, and at an advanced stage, the disease leads to death. No risks to humans have been documented, nor has the disease been demonstrated to pose a threat to domesticated cattle.[68] In 2002, South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about chronic wasting disease.[69]

The Gram-negative bacterial disease brucellosis occasionally affects elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the only place in the U.S. where the disease is still known to exist,[70] though this can extend out to the Bighorn Mountains.[71] In domesticated cattle, brucellosis causes infertility, abortions, and reduced milk production. It is transmitted to humans as undulant fever, producing influenza-like symptoms that may last for years. Though bison are more likely to transmit the disease to other animals, elk inadvertently transmitted brucellosis to horses in Wyoming and cattle in Idaho. Researchers are attempting to eradicate the disease through vaccinations and herd-management measures, which are expected to be successful.[70] Nevertheless, research has been ongoing since 2002, and a successful vaccine has yet to be developed as of 2016.[72]

A recent necropsy study of captive elk in Pennsylvania attributed the cause of death in 33 of 65 cases to either gastrointestinal parasites (21 cases, primarily Eimeria sp. and Ostertagia sp.) or bacterial infections (12 cases, mostly pneumonia).[73]

Elk hoof disease was first noticed in the state of Washington in the late 1990s in the Cowlitz River basin, with sporadic reports of deformed hooves. Since then, the disease has spread rapidly with increased sightings throughout southwest Washington and into Oregon. The disease is characterised by deformed, broken, or missing hooves and leads to severe lameness in elk. The primary cause is not known, but it is associated with treponeme bacteria, which are known to cause digital dermatitis in commercial livestock. The mode of transmission is also not known, but it appears to be highly contagious among elk. Studies are being undertaken by government departments to determine how to halt or eliminate the disease.[74][75][76]

Distribution and status

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Bull elk bugling during the rut

The elk ranges from central Asia through to Siberia and east Asia and in North America. They can be found in open deciduous woodlands, boreal forests, upland moors, mountainous areas and grasslands. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) list the species as least-concern species.[1] The habitat of Siberian elk in Asia is similar to that of the Rocky Mountain subspecies in North America. During the Late Pleistocene their range was much more extensive, being distributed across Eurasia, with remains being found as far west as France. These populations are most closely related to modern Asian populations of the elk. Their range collapsed at the start of the Holocene, possibly because they were specialized to cold periglacial tundra-steppe habitat. When this environment was replaced largely by closed forest the red deer might have outcompeted the elk. Relictual populations survived into the early Holocene (until around 3000 years ago) in southern Sweden and the Alps, where the environment remained favorable.[77] Elk were also present in the early Holocene of central Alaska, where it was the main hunted animal along with bison, and survived in Yukon until around 1400 BP (550 AD).[78]

Introductions and reintroductions

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Photograph of three bull elk on a range
Bull elk on a captive range in Nebraska. These elk, originally from Rocky Mountain herds, exhibit modified behavior due to having been held in captivity, under less selective pressure

As of 2014, population figures for all North American elk subspecies were around one million. Prior to the European colonization of North America, there were an estimated 10 million on the continent.[79]

There are many past and ongoing examples of reintroduction into areas of the US. Elk were reintroduced in Michigan in 1918 after going extinct there in 1875.[80] The Rocky Mountain elk subspecies was reintroduced by hunter-conservation organizations into the Appalachian region of the U.S. where the now extinct eastern elk once lived.[81] They were reintroduced to Pennsylvania beginning in 1913 and throughout the mid-20th Century, and now remain at a stable population of approximately 1,400 individuals.[82][83][84] Since the late 1990s, they were reintroduced and recolonized in the states of Wisconsin,[85] Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, Virginia and West Virginia.[86] In the state of Kentucky, the elk population in 2022 had increased to over 15,000 animals.[87] In 2016, a male elk, likely from the Smoky Mountains population in western North Carolina, was sighted in South Carolina for the first time in nearly 300 years.[88] Once locally extinct, dispersing elk are now regularly spotted in Iowa, although a wild population has not yet established.[89] Since 2015, elk have also been reintroduced in a number of other states, including Missouri,[90] and introduced to the islands of Etolin and Afognak in Alaska.[91] Reintroduction of the elk into Ontario began in the early 20th century and is ongoing with limited success.[92]

Elk and red deer were introduced to Argentina in the early 20th century.[93] There they are now considered an invasive species, encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with the indigenous Chilean huemul and other herbivores.[94] This negative impact on native animal species has led the IUCN to identify the elk as one of the world's 100 worst invaders.[95]

The introduction of deer to New Zealand began in the middle of the 19th century, and current populations are primarily European red deer, with only 15 percent being elk.[96] In 1905 18 American wapiti were released in George Sound in the Fiordland National Park.[97] In 1949 the New Zealand American Fiordland Expedition was undertaken to study the descendants of this release.[97] There is significant hybridization of elk with red deer.[98] These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species, as they consume more palatable species, which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk. The long-term impact will be an alteration of the types of plants and trees found, and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them.[99] As in Chile and Argentina, the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species.[95]

U.S. states by estimated elk population

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State Estimated Number of Elk
Colorado 280,000 [100]
Montana 141,785 [101]
Oregon 133,000 [102][103]
Idaho 120,000 [104]
Wyoming 110,200 [105]
Utah 81,000 [106]
New Mexico 70,000 – 90,000 [107]
Washington 60,000 [108]
Arizona 35,000[109]
Kentucky 15,876 [110]
California 12,500 [111]
Nevada 12,500 [112]
South Dakota 6,000 [113]
Oklahoma 5,000 [114]
Texas 1,600[115]
Pennsylvania 1,400 [116]
Michigan 1,196 [117]
North Dakota 700 [118][119]
Arkansas 450 [120]
Tennessee 400 [121]
Wisconsin 400 [122]
Virginia 250 [123]
Missouri 200 [124]
Kansas 175 – 350 [125]
North Carolina 150 – 200 [126]
West Virginia 140 – 150 [127]
Minnesota 126 [128]

Cultural references

[edit]

Commercial uses

[edit]
A cut of elk meat, showing the low fat content

Although the 2006 National Survey from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service does not provide breakdown figures for each game species, hunting of wild elk is most likely the primary economic impact.[136]

While elk are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale, some restaurants offer the meat as a specialty item and it is also available in some grocery stores. The meat is higher in protein and lower in fat and cholesterol than beef, pork, and chicken.[137] Elk meat is a good source of iron, phosphorus and zinc.[138]

A male elk can produce 10 to 11 kilograms (22 to 24 lb) of antler velvet annually and on ranches in the United States, Canada and New Zealand, it is collected and sold to markets in East Asia, where it is used in medicine. Some cultures consider antler velvet to be an aphrodisiac.[69] However, consuming velvet from elk in North America may be risky since velvet from animals infected with chronic wasting disease may contain prions that could result in a human getting variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.[139]

Antlers are also used in artwork, furniture and other novelty items. All Asian subspecies, along with other deer, have been raised for their antlers in central and eastern Asia by Han Chinese, Turkic peoples, Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Koreans. Elk farms are relatively common in North America and New Zealand.[96] Native Americans have used elk hides for tepee covering, clothing and footwear.[140][141]

Since 1967, the Boy Scouts of America have assisted employees at the National Elk Refuge in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter. They are then auctioned, with 80% of the proceeds returned to the refuge. In 2010, 2,520 kilograms (5,560 lb) of antlers were auctioned, which brought in over $46,000.[142]

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Elk

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The elk (Cervus canadensis), also known as wapiti, is one of the largest in the (Cervidae) and the second-largest deer in the world, with adult weighing 600 to 1,000 pounds (270–450 kg) and standing up to 60 inches (150 cm) at the shoulder, while cows average 350 to 600 pounds (160–270 kg). Native to and parts of eastern , elk are distinguished by the bulls' massive, branching antlers—which can span 6 feet (1.8 m) and weigh up to 30 pounds (14 kg) per set—and their tawny coat that darkens in winter. The exhibits a debated , with some classifications subsuming North American populations under (), though C. canadensis is widely used to reflect genetic and morphological distinctions from Eurasian . Elk are generalists, occupying diverse environments from coniferous forests and alpine meadows to grasslands and shrublands, often preferring areas with ample and cover near sources. As intermediate feeders, their diet varies seasonally but primarily includes grasses, forbs, shrubs, and woody browse such as willows and aspen, with nutritional needs driving migrations to lower elevations in winter. Socially, they form matriarchal herds outside the breeding season, with bulls gathering harems during the fall rut, marked by bugling calls and sparring to establish dominance. Reproduction peaks in September–October, with cows giving birth to single calves in , timed to coincide with peak vegetation growth. Historically overhunted to near-extirpation in much of their range by the early , elk populations have rebounded through reintroductions and management, now numbering over a million in across several including Rocky Mountain (C. c. nelsoni) and Roosevelt (C. c. roosevelti) elk. Classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to stable or increasing populations, elk serve as keystone herbivores influencing plant succession, soil nutrient cycling, and as primary prey for predators like wolves, grizzly bears, and mountain lions. Conservation efforts focus on balancing quotas, predator-prey dynamics, and connectivity amid challenges like climate-driven droughts and transmission.

Nomenclature

Etymology and common names

The English word elk originates from the Old English eolh, derived from Proto-Germanic *elgô, which historically denoted the (Alces alces) across much of ; this usage persists in , where Alces alces is called an elk and Cervus canadensis is termed a wapiti to avoid . In , European settlers repurposed "elk" for canadensis upon encountering the species, as its large size and antlers evoked superficial similarities to the European , despite distinct morphologies and phylogenies. This nomenclature shift left ""—borrowed from Eastern moz or a related Algonquian term—for Alces alces in . The alternative common name wapiti, preferred in scientific and international contexts for Cervus canadensis, stems from the and indigenous term waapiti (or wapiti), translating to "white rump" or "white deer," alluding to the species' conspicuous pale fur patch on the hindquarters and tail base, which contrasts with its darker brown coat. Early European explorers, including Lewis and Clark in 1804, adopted wapiti from Native American languages after finding "elk" inadequate or misleading for the deer. Regionally, subspecies may carry qualifiers like or , but "elk" and "wapiti" remain the primary vernacular and binomial descriptors globally.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Subspecies

The elk (Cervus canadensis) encompasses multiple , with taxonomic classifications differing based on morphological, genetic, and geographic criteria, though North American forms are most commonly delineated into four extant groups. These exhibit variations in size, antler configuration, and habitat preferences adapted to regional environments. Asian populations, often termed wapiti, are sometimes classified as additional under C. canadensis, reflecting historical migrations across .
SubspeciesScientific NamePrimary RangeConservation Status
Rocky Mountain elkC. c. nelsoni, intermountain West, parts of and U.S.Extant, managed populations
Roosevelt elkC. c. roosevelti, coastal to northern Extant, stable herds
Tule elkC. c. nannodes grasslands and marshesExtant, reintroduced
Manitoban elkC. c. manitobensis, regionExtant, increasing
The represents the most widespread North American , with bulls averaging 300-500 kg and inhabiting diverse terrains from alpine meadows to shrublands; populations have rebounded from near-extirpation in the early through conservation efforts. , the largest , occupy temperate rainforests and reach weights up to 500 kg for mature bulls, distinguished by darker pelage and robust builds suited to forested coastal areas. , the smallest at around 200-250 kg, were reduced to fewer than 30 individuals by 1870 due to overhunting and habitat loss but have been successfully reintroduced to , numbering over 5,000 by recent counts. thrive in open prairies, exhibiting lighter builds adapted to foraging. Two North American subspecies are extinct: the eastern elk (C. c. canadensis), last reported in Pennsylvania in 1877 and declared extinct by 1880, formerly ranging across the eastern U.S. and ; and (C. c. merriami), confined to the southwestern U.S. and eliminated by 1906. Asian subspecies include the (C. c. sibiricus), inhabiting mountainous regions of and , noted for maral antler harvesting in . The overall species is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN, though subspecies face localized threats from and disease.

Genetic variation and hybridization

Genetic variation in elk (Cervus canadensis) populations is shaped by historical bottlenecks, translocations, and isolation, with subspecies displaying distinct levels of diversity. Tule elk (C. c. nannodes), for instance, exhibit reduced heterozygosity (e.g., 0.23 ± 0.05 in some herds) due to a severe in the that reduced numbers to near before reintroductions from small founder groups. Roosevelt elk (C. c. roosevelti) similarly show lower relative to continental populations, as evidenced by and analyses revealing reduced allelic richness and heterozygosity in isolated island and coastal herds. Rocky Mountain elk (C. c. nelsoni) generally maintain higher diversity, though translocated herds like those in display structured subpopulations with moderate heterozygosity influenced by geospatial barriers. Bayesian clustering of microsatellite loci often identifies discrete genetic clusters aligning with subspecies boundaries and reintroduction histories, such as five clusters among populations in corresponding to primary herds and subareas. Overall, elk heterozygosity is lower than in related species like ( virginianus), with elk showing polymorphism in only one allozyme system out of multiple tested. Reintroduced populations derive from limited western sources, perpetuating low variation and highlighting risks from small founder effects rather than novel mutations. Hybridization occurs between elk and the closely related (Cervus elaphus), producing fertile offspring, as documented in controlled breeding and feral introductions. divergence between wapiti (elk) and red deer measures approximately 5.60%, indicating sufficient genetic proximity for viable crosses despite taxonomic separation as distinct . In , introduced wapiti hybridized with established red deer populations, forming hybrid herds with intermediate traits, as confirmed by morphological and genetic assessments of farmed stocks. Wild hybridization remains limited due to geographic separation but has been observed where ranges overlap post-introduction, with hybrids like male elk-red deer crosses termed "red stags" exhibiting blended antler and body characteristics. Such events underscore the shallow phylogenetic divide, though they pose conservation concerns for pure integrity in managed populations.

Evolutionary history

Fossil record

The fossil record of Cervus canadensis (elk or wapiti) is predominantly associated with the epoch, with the earliest confirmed remains from dated to at least 100,000 years ago, indicating presence in Beringian refugia during glacial maxima. These early fossils suggest migration southward via ice-free corridors into central as climates warmed. The species' lineage traces to the genus , which first appeared in during the approximately 25 million years ago, though C. canadensis itself likely differentiated in during the Pleistocene through isolation and adaptation to grassland-steppe environments. In eastern , the record is sparse and poorly dated prior to the terminal Pleistocene, with few directly dated specimens; indirect dating from bog sediments in places partial skeletons around 12,000–11,000 years ago, representing some of the earliest evidence for post-glacial expansion into the region. Fossils from western sites, such as , yield radiocarbon dates of approximately 11,630 years before present, aligning with the onset of conditions and bison displacement. deposits contain remains exceeding 10,000 years in age, supporting widespread distribution across mid-continental prairies by the late glacial period. Eurasian records, though limited, include Late Pleistocene postcranial elements from and an antlered braincase from (Saint-Hippolyte site), classified as C. canadensis and indicative of trans-Beringian dispersal or vicariance events. These European finds challenge stricter modern distributions, suggesting broader ranges before isolation. fossils, often from archaeological contexts, become more abundant but reflect anthropogenic influences rather than paleoenvironmental baselines; for instance, antlers appear in sediments post-10,000 years ago. Overall, pre-1492 fossil scarcity in some regions may stem from taphonomic biases favoring open s, with abundance increasing in post-colonial records due to heightened human collection rather than population surges. Extinct subspecies, such as the eastern elk (C. c. canadensis), are documented in eastern U.S. sites, underscoring range contraction linked to habitat alteration and overhunting.

Phylogenetic relationships

The elk (Cervus canadensis) is classified within the family Cervidae (deer), subfamily (Old World deer), tribe Cervini, and genus . Phylogenetic analyses consistently support the of Cervus, with the genus diverging from other lineages during the to early , approximately 5–3 million years ago based on fossil-calibrated molecular clocks. Within , the phylogenetic position of C. canadensis relative to C. elaphus () and C. nippon () remains contentious, reflecting discordance between mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Complete mitochondrial genome sequences resolve into Western and Eastern , with C. canadensis in the Eastern clade as sister to C. nippon, and their common ancestor diverging from C. albirostris (shou) about 1.7 million years ago; the C. canadensis–C. nippon split dates to roughly 1.6 million years ago, while the Western–Eastern divide occurred around 2.5 million years ago. Earlier studies, including control region and cytochrome b analyses, similarly indicate C. canadensis shares greater similarity with C. nippon (sequence divergence ~5%) than with European C. elaphus, challenging traditional morphology-based groupings. Conversely, whole-genome phylogenomics using nuclear single-copy orthologs groups C. canadensis closely with C. elaphus, with their divergence estimated at 1.9 million years ago from a common around 3.35 million years ago; in this , certain Asian C. elaphus (e.g., Tarim red ) align nearer to C. nippon. Such conflicts may arise from incomplete lineage sorting, sex-biased dispersal, or ancient events during Pleistocene range expansions, as C. canadensis mtDNA haplotypes show affinities to both Eurasian Cervus lineages. These findings underscore C. canadensis as a distinct , with North American populations reflecting a Beringian from Asian ancestors rather than direct derivation from European red .

Physical characteristics

Morphology and size

Elk (Cervus canadensis) exhibit a robust build characterized by a thick body, long slender legs suited for rapid traversal of varied terrains, and a short measuring about 10-15 cm in length. Their pelage is predominantly tawny or light brown, with darker shades on the head, , and legs, and features a prominent cream-colored rump patch that is larger and lighter than in related deer species. Males develop a shaggy mane around the during the autumn rut, enhancing their imposing . Adult bulls typically stand 1.3-1.5 m at the shoulder, with body lengths from nose to tail reaching 2.1-2.7 m, and weights ranging from 300-500 kg, though exceptional individuals in prime habitats can exceed 500 kg. Cows are notably smaller, averaging 1.2-1.4 m in shoulder height, 1.8-2.1 m in length, and 200-300 kg in weight. These measurements vary by subspecies, nutrition, and age; for instance, average around 315 kg for bulls, while , the largest subspecies, can attain 400-500 kg for mature bulls. Males bear antlers that branch into multiple tines, growing anew each year and reaching lengths of up to 1.2 m with spreads exceeding 1 m in mature bulls; these structures can weigh up to 18 kg when fully developed. size correlates with age and health, peaking in bulls aged 6-12 years. Females lack antlers, contributing to pronounced sexual size dimorphism where bulls are 25-40% heavier than cows. Subspecies like the are smaller overall, with bulls averaging under 200 kg, reflecting adaptations to insular or resource-limited environments.
Subspecies ExampleBull Shoulder Height (m)Bull Weight (kg)Cow Weight (kg)
Rocky Mountain1.5300-400200-275
Roosevelt1.5-1.6400-500260-300
Tule1.2-1.4150-200150-180
Data averaged from field observations; actual sizes influenced by habitat quality.

Adaptations and sexual dimorphism

Elk (Cervus canadensis) exhibit pronounced , with adult (bulls) significantly larger than females (cows). Bulls typically weigh 300–500 kg (up to 408 kg in some populations) and measure 1.3–1.5 m at the , whereas cows weigh 225–275 kg and are correspondingly smaller in stature. Bulls alone develop large, branching antlers that can span 1.1–1.5 m from tip to tip, regrown annually after shedding; these structures facilitate intrasexual competition for mates and defense during the breeding season, while cows lack antlers entirely. This size disparity, approximately 38% greater body mass in , extends to fetal stages, where male fetuses show larger neck girths indicative of accelerated growth rates. Key physical adaptations enhance survival in varied habitats from open plains to forests and during harsh winters. The pelage shifts seasonally: reddish-tan in summer for blending with grassy environments, lightening to brown in winter with a dark neck mane, complemented by a buff-colored rump patch that aids visual signaling in herds. A dense woolly undercoat overlaid with thick, long guard hairs provides insulation, enabling tolerance of temperatures as low as -40°F through retained body heat and reduced . Neonatal calves bear indistinct light spots along the dorsal stripe, offering in shaded woodlands against predators during their vulnerable early months. Sensory and locomotor traits further support environmental adaptation. Acute olfaction and hearing, facilitated by large nostrils and ears, allow early detection of threats, prompting herd flight at speeds up to 64 km/h over long distances. Long, slender legs and broad hooves distribute weight effectively on snow and uneven terrain, aiding migration and foraging in seasonal ranges. The antlers, beyond dimorphic display, serve males in sparring contests that determine dominance without lethal injury, optimizing reproductive success in polygynous mating systems.

Behavior

Social structure and communication

Elk exhibit a characterized by sexual segregation for most of the year, with adult females and their calves forming matriarchal herds led by dominant cows, while mature and young males congregate in bachelor groups. These cow-calf herds typically range from 15 to 200 individuals, though summer aggregations can reach up to 400, providing protection and foraging efficiency. Bachelor groups consist of subadult and non-breeding bulls, which engage in playful to establish hierarchies based on size and body condition, with larger-antlered bulls achieving higher status. During the autumn rut, from early September to late October, dominant bulls leave bachelor groups to follow and defend harems of 20 or more cows, forming temporary polygynous units through aggressive defense against rivals. Harem formation involves bulls herding receptive females, with tenure lasting variably based on the bull's ability to repel challengers via vocal and physical displays, after which segregation resumes as cows calve in spring. Communication among elk relies on a combination of vocalizations, body postures, and olfactory cues. Bulls produce bugles—high-pitched calls with on-glide, , and off-glide segments—primarily during the rut to advertise dominance, challenge intruders, and attract cows, with mature males emitting longer and more frequent bugles than females or subadults. Additional vocal signals include grunts for or , mews from calves to solicit , and alarm barks or snorts in response to threats. Body language conveys intent and status; alarmed elk raise heads high, widen eyes, and move stiffly while rotating ears to scan for danger. Agonistic interactions feature parallel walks, antler sparring, and pushing contests among bulls to resolve dominance without severe injury, often preceding or accompanying bugling. Scent marking via and reinforces territorial claims during the rut, integrating multimodal signals for effective coordination within herds.

Reproduction and life history

The elk (Cervus canadensis) exhibits a polygynous during the annual rut, which peaks from early to mid-October. Dominant bulls, typically those aged 5 years or older with large , vocalize with characteristic bugling calls audible up to a mile away to attract cows and challenge rivals, while gathering and defending of up to 20 females against intruders through displays, charges, and antler wrestling that rarely result in serious injury. Adolescent males often form bachelor groups or patrol harem edges but rarely successfully until maturity. Gestation lasts 240–262 days, with cows typically giving birth to a single calf—rarely twins—in late May or early , coinciding with peak vegetation growth for nutritional benefits to the neonate. Newborn calves weigh approximately 30 pounds (14 kg), stand and walk within 20–30 minutes of birth, and possess a spotted coat for while the hides them in isolation, returning periodically to nurse. Breeding ceases by mid-October, after which bulls depart harems, often emaciated from minimal feeding during rut defense. Cows reach at 1.5–2.5 years and typically breed annually thereafter, while bulls achieve physical maturity around age 3 but prime breeding dominance between 6–12 years due to size and competitive ability. Calves nurse for 2–4 months before , remaining with their mothers in cow-calf groups that prioritize calf survival through vigilant protection; yearlings may assist in rearing subsequent offspring. In the wild, elk lifespan averages 12–15 years, though individuals on protected ranges like Yellowstone's northern can reach 18 years, limited primarily by predation, disease, and winter harshness rather than ; captive elk may exceed 25 years. Females generally outlive males due to less energy expenditure during rut and lower predation risk.

Daily routines and activity patterns

Elk exhibit primarily crepuscular activity patterns, with peaks in movement and occurring at dawn and , as documented in GPS-collared individuals across North American populations. These rhythms align with transitions between light and dark, facilitating efficient while minimizing exposure to and certain predators. Foraging bouts dominate crepuscular hours, involving on grasses, forbs, and on shrubs, often interrupted by short relocations to new patches. and late-night periods are characterized by inactivity, primarily resting in shaded or secure habitats while ruminating to process ingested . In undisturbed settings, such as low-human-activity zones, elk may extend morning feeding until late morning before down nearby. Activity levels vary seasonally, with daily totals increasing from approximately 7 hours in winter to 15 hours in summer due to longer daylight and nutritional demands, though elk-specific data confirm similar trends in Rocky Mountain populations. Human disturbance, such as or , can shift patterns toward , reducing diurnal and increasing avoidance of open areas. In high-disturbance scenarios, elk activity may synchronize more nocturnally, with over 70% of daily movement confined to crepuscular windows comprising just one-third of the day.

Ecology

Habitat and diet

Elk (Cervus canadensis), also known as wapiti, are habitat generalists adaptable to a wide variety of environments, including , wetlands, shrublands, and forests across different successional stages. In , preferred habitats encompass open , shrublands, and both open- and closed-canopy coniferous, hardwood, and mixed forests, often featuring meadows, river flats, aspen parklands, and . Essential components include security cover from predators, thermal shelter for regulation, and proximate forage production, with summer preferences leaning toward moist sites for cooling and vegetation abundance. Historically, populations in the wintered in plains regions before migrating to higher-elevation, open-forested areas during summer. In mountainous regions like , elk frequent meadows and for while utilizing surrounding forests for cover. As herbivores, elk exhibit flexible behaviors, consuming a mix of grasses, forbs, shrubs, and occasionally bark or lichens depending on seasonal availability and nutritional needs. Summer diets are typically dominated by forbs (59–78% composition) and grasses, prioritizing nutrient-dense herbaceous in open areas. Spring shows the highest dietary diversity, incorporating varied forbs and emerging greens to meet and growth demands. In winter, when limits access to grasses, elk shift to woody shrubs and twigs, though they maintain grass-dominated diets where possible and selectively target higher-quality like post-fire regrowth forbs. selection emphasizes digestible energy, with early successional habitats providing diets meeting maintenance requirements of approximately 2.7 kcal/g . Diet composition influences body condition, with overlaps in resource use noted among elk, deer, and on shared rangelands, where elk favor forbs over shrubs compared to deer.

Migration and movement

Elk populations exhibit partial migratory , with a spectrum of strategies including residency, short-distance migration, elevational migration, and long-distance migration; in one study of , 53.7% were short-distance migrants, 21.9% elevational migrants, 19.6% long-distance migrants, and 4.8% residents. Migratory individuals typically shift between high-elevation summer ranges in subalpine forests and meadows—where quality peaks during green-up—and lower-elevation winter ranges in valleys and to evade deep that impedes . These altitudinal movements, common in North American subspecies like the (C. c. nelsoni), average 20–60 km but can exceed 100 km, as observed in the Jackson herd of northwestern . Autumn migration initiates with the onset of snowfall, often in or , prompting elk to descend rapidly—sometimes within days—to areas with shallower and accessible browse like shrubs and grasses. Spring migrations, conversely, align with and vegetation , allowing ascent to summer ranges by May or ; elk adjust timing flexibly based on local , onset, and persistence, optimizing intake over migration costs. In the , thousands of elk from 6–8 populations converge on high-elevation summer habitats near the park core after wintering in dispersed lowlands across , , and . Non-migratory movements occur within seasonal home ranges, averaging 50–200 km² for females and larger for males, involving daily circuits of 1–5 km to sources, licks, and high-quality patches; composition influences patterns, with cow-calf groups maintaining tighter cohesion outside the rut, while bulls roam more solitarily or in bachelor groups. Barriers such as roads, rivers, and fences can disrupt corridors, reducing migration success and survival, particularly for calves. Asian subspecies, like the (C. c. sibiricus), show similar but often shorter-distance elevational shifts tied to seasonal forage in mountainous terrain, though data remain sparser than for North American populations.

Predators and defenses

Elk (Cervus canadensis) primarily face predation from gray wolves (Canis lupus), grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), black bears (Ursus americanus), and mountain lions (Puma concolor). Calves are especially susceptible to coyotes (Canis latrans) and bobcats (Lynx rufus). In Yellowstone National Park, elk constitute about 85% of winter wolf kills, underscoring wolves' role as a key predator following their 1995 reintroduction. Grizzly bears predominantly target elk calves, with studies documenting significant predation during calving seasons. Mountain lions prey on elk of all ages, with evidence showing they influence elk movement patterns more than wolves in some contexts, particularly at night. Healthy adult elk are rarely successfully predated due to their size and defenses, with predators often selecting vulnerable individuals such as the young, old, or infirm. Elk's primary defense is flight, leveraging long, legs for speeds up to 45 in short bursts and strong endurance to evade pursuit. enhances vigilance, allowing early detection of threats through collective sensory input, including acute olfaction to identify predators downwind. Safety in numbers reduces individual risk, particularly for cows and calves forming nursery groups. Additional tactics include fleeing to water bodies or using strikes against close-range assailants. Bull elk may rarely employ antlers for defense, though these structures primarily serve rather than antipredator roles.

Diseases and parasites

Elk are susceptible to several infectious diseases, including the disease (CWD), which causes progressive neurodegeneration and is invariably fatal, with clinical signs such as , abnormal behavior, and excessive salivation appearing months after . in free-ranging elk remains generally low, often below 1%, though it has reached over 37% in some high-density captive herds and 14% among tested elk and deer in during 2024 surveillance. The disease spreads via direct contact or environmental contamination with infected tissues, saliva, urine, or feces, posing challenges for management in endemic areas like parts of the . Bacterial infections such as , caused by , are prevalent in elk populations of the , where seroprevalence has been documented at approximately 31% in surveyed Wyoming herds. The pathogen leads to reproductive failure, including first-calf abortions in infected females, though overall population impacts are minimal as it slightly reduces rates without limiting herd sizes. Transmission occurs through contact with aborted tissues or contaminated environments, facilitating spillover to and , which has prompted ongoing surveillance and feedground management in . Parasitic infections significantly affect elk health, with endoparasites like the meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) causing severe neurological damage in aberrant hosts such as elk, leading to symptoms including weakness, ataxia, head tilting, and death when larvae migrate aberrantly to the brain or spinal cord. This nematode, whose definitive host is the white-tailed deer, has contributed to elk mortality in reintroduced populations, such as in Kentucky and Missouri, where infections were first linked to fatalities in 2011. Gastrointestinal parasites, including Ostertagia species, are implicated in fading elk syndrome, a chronic condition characterized by progressive emaciation, hypoproteinemia, and abomasal damage, often fatal in young or stressed individuals. Hepatic parasites such as the giant liver fluke (Fascioloides magna) induce extensive fibrosis and necrosis in the liver, impairing nutrient processing and contributing to debilitation in infected elk. External parasites like ticks and lice, along with respiratory nematodes such as Dictyocaulus viviparus, can exacerbate morbidity through anemia, irritation, or secondary infections, particularly in dense herds or nutritionally compromised animals. Treponeme-associated hoof disease, linked to spirochete bacteria, causes progressive lameness and hoof deformity in Pacific Northwest elk, reducing mobility and foraging efficiency.

Distribution and population dynamics

Historical and current range

Prior to European settlement, elk (Cervus canadensis) occupied a vast expanse across , extending from the Atlantic seaboard westward to the , and northward into and southward to , though absent from large areas and portions of the . Six inhabited the historically, including the now-extinct (C. c. canadensis), which ranged through eastern forests up to the mid-Atlantic states, and Merriam's elk (C. c. merriami), found in the southwestern deserts and mountains. Overhunting, combined with habitat loss from and settlement, resulted in the extirpation of elk from over 90% of their eastern and midwestern range by the late 19th century; the eastern subspecies disappeared entirely around 1877, with the last confirmed individuals reported in and . In Asia, ancestral wapiti populations—encompassing the eastern phylogenetic clade—have persisted since the Pleistocene in disjunct regions of , , the Korean Peninsula, , and central Asian mountains like the Altai and ranges. Today, elk in are confined primarily to the western portions of the continent, including the , , and intermountain basins from and southward through the to , representing roughly 20-25% of their historical range. Reintroduction efforts since the early have restored populations to select eastern and midwestern locales, such as the in (established 1997 with over 10,000 animals by 2020), Michigan's northern Lower Peninsula, and Wisconsin's forests, though these herds remain isolated and vulnerable to hybridization with . North American elk numbers have rebounded to approximately 1 million individuals, concentrated in states like (over 280,000) and . In Asia, current distributions mirror historical patterns but are fragmented due to and ; subspecies such as the (C. c. xanthopygus) occupy taiga forests in and the , while the Alashan wapiti (C. c. alashanicus) inhabits arid steppes in and , with total Asian populations estimated in the tens of thousands across protected areas like nature reserves in and .

Introduced and reintroduced populations

Elk (Cervus canadensis) were extirpated from much of their historical range in the by the mid-19th century due to overhunting and conversion, leading to reintroduction efforts using non-native such as (C. c. nelsoni) from western populations. These restorations began in the late 20th century, with state and federal agencies translocating elk to suitable habitats in and the Midwest to restore ecological roles and support opportunities. Success has varied based on predation, risks like , and quality, with some populations expanding naturally while others require ongoing management. In Kentucky, the Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources translocated 1,541 elk from western states including , , , and between 1997 and 2002, establishing herds in eastern counties where annual harvests now exceed 1,000 animals from a breeding population of over 15,000. Similarly, the released 52 elk into in 2001 and 2002, sourcing them from and ; this experimental reintroduction has grown to approximately 200 individuals, aiding forest regeneration through browsing and grazing. Arkansas initiated modern restoration in 1981, releasing 112 elk from and other western areas through 1985, building on earlier failed attempts from the 1930s and 1950s that peaked at around 200 animals before declining due to and . Wisconsin's reintroduction began in 1995 with 25 elk from , expanding to over 400 by 2020 through natural reproduction and additional translocations, concentrated in the northern counties. Tennessee has received over 200 elk since the 2000s, primarily from , with populations doubling in the eastern region and prompting land acquisitions for habitat protection. In Canada, Ontario's restoration efforts since 2001 have reestablished small herds using elk from , though numbers remain limited by black bear predation and . Beyond , elk have been introduced to non-native ranges, notably , where 18 arrived from the in 1905, forming the basis of the managed wapiti herd that persists despite competition from introduced (Cervus elaphus). These populations have not widely dispersed and are maintained for commercial production and rather than free-ranging ecology. Introductions to and in the early established limited herds in Patagonia, adapted to habitats but facing challenges from local predators and overhunting. Such non-native populations raise concerns about hybridization with native deer and potential impacts on endemic , though empirical data on ecological effects remain sparse.

Regional population estimates

In the United States, elk populations are concentrated in western states, with maintaining the largest herd at an estimated 290,000 individuals as of 2024. supports approximately 135,000 elk, while , , and each host over 100,000, with figures of 133,000, 120,000, and 112,900 respectively. These estimates derive from state wildlife agency surveys, including aerial counts and hunter harvest data, though variability arises from migration and habitat factors.
StateEstimated Population (circa 2024)
290,000
135,000
133,000
120,000
112,900
Smaller or reintroduced populations exist elsewhere, such as 240 in the as of 2022 via DNA-based sampling, and 1,146 in from 2024 aerial surveys. In , the total elk population is estimated at around 72,000, predominantly Roosevelt and Rocky Mountain subspecies. holds the bulk, with provincial estimates ranging from 35,000 to 71,500 as of 2022 based on habitat modeling and observation data. populations are more fragmented, with localized counts such as approximately 400 near in 2023 and 2,500 in specific military areas as of 2023. Asian subspecies populations, including the Altai and , are generally small and declining due to habitat loss, with robust estimates lacking but densities typically under 10 individuals per km² where present. Overall North American totals exceed one million, reflecting successful conservation since near-extirpation in the .

Conservation and management

Status and threats

The elk (Cervus canadensis) is classified as Least Concern on the , owing to its broad distribution spanning and eastern , with total global populations estimated at over one million individuals, predominantly in . North American elk numbers recovered from lows of fewer than 50,000 in the early 1900s to approximately one million by the late through regulated , protection, and reintroductions, with many regional herds remaining stable or slightly increasing as of 2025. Asian populations, by contrast, are smaller and more fragmented, totaling tens of thousands, with limited data on precise trends but evidence of localized declines in subspecies such as the Alashan wapiti (C. c. alashanicus) due to isolation in arid s. Primary threats include from urban expansion, agriculture, and infrastructure, which restricts migration corridors and elevates risks of vehicle collisions and predation exposure. exacerbates these pressures by shifting vegetation patterns, reducing winter forage availability, and intensifying wildfires, potentially disrupting seasonal movements in ecosystems like the Greater Yellowstone area. (CWD), a fatal disorder endemic to cervids, poses an escalating risk, having spread to free-ranging elk in over 30 U.S. states and Canadian provinces by 2024, with infected animals exhibiting neurological decline and higher mortality; unchecked spread could precipitate significant herd reductions, as prions persist in soil and concentrate in high-density populations. Elevated predation from reintroduced gray wolves (Canis lupus) and recovering grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) has contributed to localized declines, particularly in multi-predator systems where elk calf survival drops below replacement levels. In confined or high-density management areas, overbrowsing leads to vegetation degradation, , and increased disease susceptibility, necessitating active via to prevent boom-bust cycles. Poaching, illegal harvest, and disease spillover from livestock (e.g., in shared ranges) further compound vulnerabilities, though regulated sport sustains most North American populations below for ecological balance. For Asian subspecies, additional risks stem from and human encroachment in oases, where winter forage scarcity heightens starvation threats absent in more temperate North American ranges.

Hunting practices and sustainable harvest

Hunting practices for elk (Cervus canadensis) in primarily involve regulated seasons designed to align with the species' while preventing overharvest, typically occurring from late summer through early winter to target the rutting period when bulls are more vocal and visible. Common methods include , , and hunts, with spot-and-stalk techniques predominant in open terrains and calling used to mimic bugles during the September-October rut; these approaches emphasize ethical shots within 300-400 yards to minimize wounding loss. Bag limits are generally one elk per license, often restricted to antlered bulls with minimum point requirements (e.g., 6 points) in units to preserve mature , though antlerless harvests are permitted in overpopulated areas to adjust ratios toward 20-30 females per 100 males for reproductive balance. Sustainable harvest is achieved through science-based quotas derived from annual population surveys, including aerial classifications and hunter effort data, aiming for harvest rates of 10-25% of the to maintain stability without decline. State agencies like Game and Fish set objectives for 109,000 elk statewide as of 2024, adjusting licenses annually; for instance, reported 20,996 elk harvested in 2024 from an estimated population supporting a 24% hunter success rate, with harvests split between 12,610 antlered and 8,390 antlerless to control growth amid predation pressures. In , 106 hunting districts have population goals with harvest allocations calibrated via models incorporating recruitment rates and capacity, ensuring long-term viability even as predator densities rise, as evidenced by sustained or increasing populations in despite wolves. The North American model of wildlife conservation underpins these practices, where user-pay systems via license fees and excise taxes fund 80% of management budgets, enabling habitat improvements that support sustainable yields; overharvest is averted by capping tags below biological carrying capacity, with post-season reporting mandatory to refine models. Controversial shifts, such as quota-based antlerless hunts in response to crop damage, prioritize empirical population metrics over fixed traditions, though efficacy relies on accurate density estimates from ground and aerial counts conducted yearly. In reintroduced ranges like , quota permits limit takes to 100-200 annually against growing herds, preserving restoration gains while allowing controlled public hunts.

Management controversies

Management of elk populations has frequently involved contentious debates over culling methods, regulatory authority, and the integration of natural predation versus human intervention, often pitting wildlife agencies against landowners, hunters, and conservation groups. In areas of , such as parts of the , elk herds exceeding habitat have led to vegetation degradation, increased vehicle collisions, and forage competition with , prompting aggressive reduction strategies that draw opposition from those favoring minimal human interference or alternative approaches like fertility control. A primary controversy centers on practices in protected areas, where methods like sharpshooting by agency personnel—rather than public —have been criticized for their efficiency and perceived cruelty, though proponents argue they target specific demographics (e.g., cows to curb reproduction) without disrupting migration patterns. In , the National Park Service's 2007 elk management plan, which included sharpshooting up to 1,000 elk annually to address overbrowsing of aspen and willow, faced lawsuits from groups like WildEarth Guardians, who contended it violated park policies favoring natural regulation; courts upheld the plan, emphasizing empirical evidence of habitat damage from herd sizes reaching 3,500 by the early 2000s. Similar debates arose in , where state officials culled 170 elk via sharpshooting on private ranch land in 2024 without prior public disclosure, justified as necessary to prevent further but decried by some as secretive and bypassing hunter opportunities. Landowner-agency conflicts have escalated in states like and , where elk depredation on private haystacks and rangelands—estimated at thousands of tons annually—fuels demands for liberalized kill permits, clashing with state wildlife agencies' emphasis on sustainable quotas to maintain public hunting access. In , a 2022 by the Montana Landowners Association challenged Fish, Wildlife & Parks' restrictions on landowner elk killings, alleging violations of property rights; a district court ruled against the plaintiffs in July 2024, affirming agency authority under state to prioritize population-wide management over individual compensation. Wyoming's 2025 compensation program for elk-grazed grasslands saw near-zero uptake due to bureaucratic hurdles, highlighting tensions between rancher losses and agency reluctance to expand amid hunter opposition to reduced tags. The role of reintroduced predators, particularly , in elk management remains divisive, especially in , where elk numbers plummeted from approximately 20,000 in the mid-1990s to under 6,000 by the 2010s following 1995 , attributed by hunters and some biologists to predation pressure altering migration and calf recruitment, though park officials cite multifactorial causes including bears, drought, and human harvest outside park boundaries. Critics of non-interventionist policies argue this "natural regulation" has failed to stabilize ecosystems, leading to calls for to bolster elk recovery, while defenders highlight behavioral changes in elk (e.g., avoidance of high-risk valleys) that purportedly aid vegetation rebound, despite empirical studies showing limited effects. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) management adds further contention, with debates over proactive versus surveillance-only approaches, as the fatal disease spreads via and , potentially depressing herd productivity by 20-30% in infected areas without visible symptoms until late stages. In Wyoming's Jackson Valley, models predict unchecked CWD could reduce elk numbers by half within decades absent intensified testing and targeted removals, yet hunter surveys reveal resistance to broad due to reduced bag limits, underscoring tensions between disease eradication and recreational access; agencies like those in advocate mandatory testing and quarantine but face pushback from captive elk operations concerned over economic losses. These disputes often reflect broader ideological divides, with empirical data favoring interventionist strategies in high-density scenarios, though media and sources may amplify anti- narratives without addressing verified impacts.

Human-elk interactions

Cultural significance

In many Native American traditions, the elk (Cervus canadensis) symbolizes strength, endurance, bravery, and stamina, often serving as a spiritual guide or protector in oral stories and ceremonies. Tribes such as the Lakota view the elk as embodying speed, courage, beauty, gallantry, and protective qualities, with "Elk Medicine" conferring powers like attracting partners or warding off harm, particularly through visions experienced by Elk Dreamers. Plains Indian groups associated elk with and valued their eyeteeth as adornments symbolizing endurance and status. Elk feature prominently in Native American mythology as creators of romantic and musical elements, with legends across tribes crediting them with inventing the first to woo partners, linking the animal to , passion, and rituals. Some narratives depict elk leading captured women back to safety or acting as survivors and teachers in tales of resilience against adversity. These stories, preserved through , highlight the elk's role as a relative and survivor, though interpretations vary by tribe and lack uniform documentation due to the diversity of indigenous cultures. Beyond indigenous contexts, elk hold symbolic value in broader North American as emblems of nobility and regeneration, tied to their annual cycles representing renewal and inner power. In Scandinavian traditions, the (often conflated with elk in older texts) appears in as a forest king symbolizing continuity and survival since prehistoric times, though this pertains more to Alces alces than C. canadensis. Germanic legends, such as the of Elgfróði—a half-man, half-elk figure—portray hybrid elk-human traits in heroic narratives, underscoring themes of strength and otherworldliness. These European associations, while culturally distinct, reflect convergent symbolism of large cervids as potent, enduring beings across continents.

Economic uses and conflicts

Elk provide substantial economic value through regulated , which generates revenue for conservation, , and local economies. In the United States, , including elk, contributes to an annual economic input of approximately $55.4 billion from hunters alone, supporting jobs, taxes, and programs. The reported $61 million in program expenditures in 2022, funding across 8.6 million acres. In states like , elk sustains rural communities by attracting out-of-state hunters and generating millions in fees and related spending. Farmed elk contribute to meat and byproduct markets. The U.S. elk meat market was valued at $1.25 billion in 2024, with projections to reach $2.15 billion by 2033, driven by demand for venison as a lean protein alternative. Antler velvet, harvested from farmed bulls, commands high prices—around $50 per pound—with typical yields of 14-16 pounds per animal, supporting an industry where North American production meets growing domestic and export demand for traditional medicine uses. In New York State, deer and elk farms generate at least $14 million annually, including $217,600 from antler products. Elk also create economic conflicts, particularly through damage to agriculture and infrastructure. In areas like Rocky Mountain National Park, annual crop and fence damage exceeds $240,000, with elk competing with livestock for forage and depredating stored feed. Such conflicts impose labor and financial burdens on farmers, including crop consumption and infrastructure repairs, leading to calls for enhanced mitigation strategies like fencing and targeted culls. Vehicle collisions with elk result in significant costs. Each elk-vehicle crash incurs average injury-related expenses of $5,403, contributing to broader collision impacts that represent up to 20% of reported crashes in rural states like . In the Canadian Rockies, these incidents correlate with population demographics and road proximity, exacerbating insurance and repair burdens. Forestry impacts include on regeneration sites, though quantified economic losses remain less documented compared to agricultural damage.

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  182. https://www.tridge.com/news/damage-to-agricultural-and-forest-crops-the--ebzwuo
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