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The history of the Jews in Turkey (Turkish: Türk Yahudileri or Türk Musevileri; Hebrew: יהודים טורקים, romanized: Yehudim Turkim; (Ladino: Djudios Turkos) covers the 2400 years that Jews have lived in what is now Turkey.

There have been Jewish communities in Anatolia since at least the beginning of the common era. Anatolia's Jewish population before Ottoman times primarily consisted of Greek-speaking Romaniote Jews, with a handful of dispersed Karaite communities. In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, many Sephardic Jews from Spain, Portugal and South Italy expelled by the Alhambra Decree found refuge across the Ottoman Empire, including in regions now part of Turkey. This influx played a pivotal role in shaping the predominant identity of Ottoman Jews.[6]

By the end of the sixteenth century, the Jewish population in the Ottoman Empire was double (150,000) that of Jews in Poland and Ukraine combined (75,000), far surpassing other Jewish communities to be the largest in the world.[7][8] Turkey's Jewish community was large, diverse and vibrant, forming the core of Ottoman Jewry until World War I. Early signs of change included education reforms and the rise of Zionism. The community declined sharply after World War I, with many emigrating to Israel, France and the Americas. Turkish Jews in Israel became leaders of the Sephardic community, and their Ladino language was a prominent characteristic.[9]

Today, the vast majority of Turkish Jews live in Israel, though Turkey itself still has a modest Jewish population, where the vast majority live in Istanbul, and the remainder in İzmir. Jews are one of the four ethnic minorities officially recognized in Turkey, together with Armenians, Greeks,[10][11][12] and Bulgarians.[13][14][15]

History

[edit]

Roman and Byzantine rule

[edit]
Main articles: History of the Jews in Greece, History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, and History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire

According to the Hebrew Bible, Noah's Ark landed on the top of Mount Ararat, a mountain in eastern Anatolia, in the Armenian Highlands, near the present-day borders of Turkey, Armenia, and Iran.[16]

In the 1st century AD, Jewish historian Josephus cited records confirming the presence of diaspora Jews in Lydia and Phrygia by the late 3rd century BC, a community established through the relocation of 2000 families by Seleucid king Antiochus III.[17] Josephus notes Jewish origins for many of the cities in Anatolia, though much of his sourcing for these passages is traditional.[18] Descendants in Sardis and other centers gained civic privileges by the Late Republican Rome.[17]

The New Testament has many mentions of Jewish populations in Anatolia: Iconium (now Konya) is said to have a synagogue in Acts of the Apostles 14:1, and Ephesus is mentioned as having a synagogue in Acts 19:1 and in Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians. The Epistle to the Galatians is likewise directed at Galatia, which once held an established Jewish population.[19][20][21]

Based on physical evidence, there has been a Jewish community in Anatolia since the fourth century BCE, most notably in the city of Sardis. The subsequent Roman and Byzantine Empires included sizable Greek-speaking Jewish communities in their Anatolian domains which seem to have been relatively well-integrated and enjoyed certain legal immunities.[20]

Sardis Synagogue was a section of a large bath-gymnasium complex that was in use for about 450–500 years.

The size of the Jewish community was not greatly affected by the attempts of some Byzantine emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.[22] The exact picture of the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule is still being researched by historians.[23] Although there is some evidence of occasional hostility by the Byzantine populations and authorities, no systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass expulsions, etc.) is believed to have occurred in Byzantium.[24]

Jews arrived in Anatolia between the sixth century BCE and 133 BCE, when the Romans arrived. They were Romaniote Jews and first settled in Phrygia and Lydia.[25] In 2020, a seventh-century synagogue was uncovered in Side.[20]

Ottoman era

[edit]
Main article: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire
See also: Romaniote Jews, Alhambra Decree, and Sabbateans

The first synagogue linked to Ottoman rule is "Tree of Life" (Hebrew: עץ החיים) in Bursa, which passed to Ottoman authority in 1324. The synagogue is still in use, although the modern Jewish population of Bursa has shrunk to about 140 people.[26]

The status of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire often hinged on the whims of the sultan. So, for example, while Murad III ordered that the attitude of all non-Muslims should be one of "humility and abjection" and that they should not "live near Mosques or tall buildings" or own slaves, others were more tolerant.[27]

The first major event in Jewish history under Turkish rule took place after the Empire gained control over Constantinople. After Mehmed the Conqueror's conquest of Constantinople he found the city in a state of disarray. After suffering many sieges, the devastating sack of Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204 and the arrival of the Black Death pandemic in 1347,[28] the city was a shadow of its former glory. Since Mehmed wanted the city as his new capital, he decreed its rebuilding.[29]

In order to revivify Constantinople he ordered that Muslims, Christians and Jews from all over his empire be resettled in the new capital.[29] Within months, most of the Empire's Romaniote Jews, from the Balkans and Anatolia, were concentrated in Constantinople, where they made up 10% of the city's population.[30] At the same time, the forced resettlement, though not intended as an anti-Jewish measure, was perceived as an "expulsion" by the Jews.[31] Despite this interpretation, Romaniotes would be the most influential community in the Empire for a few decades, until that position would be lost to a wave of Sephardi immigrants.

The number of Romaniotes was soon bolstered by small groups of Ashkenazi Jews that immigrated to the Ottoman Empire between 1421 and 1453.[30] Among these immigrants was Rabbi Yitzhak Sarfati, a German-born Jew of French descent[32] (צרפתי Sarfati, meaning "French"), who became Chief Rabbi of Edirne and wrote a letter inviting European Jewry to settle in the Ottoman Empire, in which he stated, "Turkey is a land wherein nothing is lacking," and asking, "Is it not better for you to live under Muslims than under Christians?"[32][33]

The greatest influx of Jews into Anatolia Eyalet and the Ottoman Empire occurred during the reign of Mehmed the Conqueror's successor, Bayezid II (1481–1512), after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, the Kingdom of Portugal, the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily. The Sultan issued a formal invitation and refugees started arriving in the empire in great numbers. A key moment occurred in 1492, when more than 40,000 Spanish Jews fled the Spanish Inquisition.[34] At that point in time, Constantinople's population was a mere 70,000 due to the various sieges of the city during the Crusades and the Black Death, so this historical event was also significant for repopulation of the city. These Sephardi Jews settled in Constantinople, as well as Thessaloniki.

A Jewish physician and another Jewish man, Constantinople, 1574

The Jews satisfied various needs in the Ottoman Empire: the Muslim Turks were largely uninterested in business enterprises and accordingly left commercial occupations to members of minority religions. They also distrusted the Christian subjects whose countries had only recently been conquered by the Ottomans and therefore it was natural to prefer Jewish subjects to which this consideration did not apply.[35]

The Sephardi Jews were allowed to settle in the wealthier cities of the empire, especially in Rumelia (the European provinces, cities such as Constantinople, Sarajevo, Thessaloniki, Adrianople and Nicopolis), western and northern Anatolia (Bursa, Aydın, Tokat, Tire, Manisa and Amasya),[6] but also in the Mediterranean coastal regions (Jerusalem, Safed, Damascus, and Egypt). İzmir was not settled by Spanish Jews until later.

The Jewish population in Jerusalem increased from 70 families in 1488 to 1500 at the beginning of the 16th century. That of Safed increased from 300 to 2000 families and almost surpassed Jerusalem in importance. Damascus had a Sephardic congregation of 500 families. Constantinople had a Jewish community of 30,000 individuals with 44 synagogues. Bayezid allowed the Jews to live on the banks of the Golden Horn. Egypt Eyalet, especially Cairo, received a large number of the exiles, who soon outnumbered Musta'arabi Jews. Gradually, the chief center of the Sephardi Jews became Thessaloniki, where the Spanish Jews soon outnumbered coreligionists of other nationalities and, at one time, the original native inhabitants.

Although the status of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire may have often been exaggerated,[36] it is undeniable that they enjoyed tolerance. Under the millet system they were organized as a community on the basis of religion alongside the other millets (e.g. Eastern Orthodox millet, Armenian Apostolic millet, etc.). In the framework of the millet, they had a considerable amount of administrative autonomy and were represented by the Hakham Bashi, the Chief Rabbi. There were no restrictions in the professions Jews could practice analogous to those common in Western Christian countries.[37] There were restrictions in the areas Jews could live or work, but such restrictions were imposed on Ottoman subjects of other religions as well.[35]

Like all non-Muslims, Jews had to pay the haraç "head tax" and faced other restrictions in clothing, horse riding, army service etc., but they could occasionally be waived or circumvented.[38] Jews who reached high positions in the Ottoman court and administration include Mehmed the Conqueror's Minister of Finance (Defterdar) Hekim Yakup Paşa, his Portuguese physician Moses Hamon, Murad II's physician İshak Paşa and Abraham de Castro, master of the mint in Egypt.

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the millets, the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of Joseph Nasi to sanjak-bey (governor, a rank usually only bestowed upon Muslims) of Naxos.[39] Also in the first half of the 17th century the Jews were distinct in winning tax farms, Haim Gerber describes it: "My impression is that no pressure existed, that it was merely performance that counted."[40]

Zarina, a Jewish woman from Smyrna, 19th-century painting by Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann

Friction between Jews and Turks was less common than in the Arab territories. Some examples: During the reign of Murad IV (1623–1640), the Jews of Jerusalem were persecuted by an Arab who had purchased the governorship of that city from the governor of the province.[citation needed] Under Mehmed IV (1649–1687), the 1660 destruction of Safed occurred.[41][42][43]

An additional problem was Jewish ethnic divisions. They had come to the Ottoman Empire from many lands, bringing with them their own customs and opinions, to which they clung tenaciously, and had founded separate congregations. Another tremendous upheaval was caused when Sabbatai Zevi claimed to be the Messiah. He was eventually caught by the Ottoman authorities and when given the choice between death and conversion, he opted for the latter. His remaining disciples converted to Islam too. Their descendants are today known as Dönmeh.

The history of the Jews in Turkey in the 18th and 19th century is principally a chronicle of decline in influence and power; they lost their influential positions in trade mainly to the Greeks, who were able to "capitalize on their religio-cultural ties with the West and their trading diaspora".[40] An exception to this is Daniel de Fonseca, who was chief court physician and played a certain political role. He is mentioned by Voltaire, who speaks of him as an acquaintance whom he esteemed highly. Fonseca was involved in negotiations with Charles XII of Sweden.

Ottoman Jews held a variety of views on the role of Jews in the Ottoman Empire, from loyal Ottomanism to Zionism.[44] Emmanuel Carasso, for example, was a founding member of the Young Turks, and believed that the Jews of the Empire should be Turks first, and Jews second.

As mentioned before, the overwhelming majority of the Ottoman Jews lived in Rumelia. As the Empire declined however, the Jews of these region found themselves under Christian rule. The Bosnian Jews for example came under Austro-Hungarian rule after the occupation of the region in 1878, the independence of Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia further lowered the number of Jews within the borders of the Ottoman Empire.

Early republic

[edit]
See also: Single-party period of the Republic of Turkey
A 1902 Issue of La Epoca, a Ladino newspaper from Salonica (Thessaloniki) during the Ottoman Empire
Morris Schinasi, Ottoman Jewish businessman, who immigrated to the United States in 1890

The Jewish population of Ottoman Empire had reached nearly 200,000 at the start of the 20th century.[45] The territories lost between 1829 and 1913 to the new Christian Balkan states significantly lowered this number.

The troubled history of Turkey during the 20th century and the process of transforming the old Ottoman Empire into a secular nation state after 1923, however, had a negative effect on the size of all remaining minorities, including the Jews.

After 1933, a new law put into effect in Nazi Germany for mandatory retirement of officials from non-Aryan race. Thus, the law required all the Jewish scientists in Germany to be fired. Unemployed scientists led by Albert Einstein formed an association in Switzerland. Professor Schwartz, the general secretary of the association, met with the Turkish Minister of Education in order to provide jobs for 34 Jewish scientists in Turkish universities especially in Istanbul University.[46]

In 1933, Turkey accepted more than 1000 jews, most of whom were intellectuals and scientists, into Istanbul, contributing to the modernisation of the Turkish state spearheaded by Ataturk. They restructured the newly established Istanbul University, introducing European-style academic standards, research methods, and pedagogical practices. These émigrés trained a new generation of Turkish academics, doctors, lawyers, and engineers, significantly raising the quality of education and professional expertise. Beyond the sciences, they influenced cultural life, helping to modernize arts, architecture, and music education, and brought international intellectual perspectives that shaped public administration and social sciences.[47] Ernst Hirsch, an exiled jewish scholar and lawyer, helped the Turkish authorities in modernising Turkish contemporary law, which still carried some substantial remnants from the Ottoman code. He authored several textbooks that were used for years after the second world war.[48] The acceptance of these intellectuals wasn't so much a humanitarian effort as it was the Turkish government's efforts to modernize and westernize.[49]

However, the planned deportation of Jews from East Thrace and the associated anti-Jewish pogrom in 1934 was one of the events that caused insecurity among the Turkish Jews.[50] Before the start of the pogroms, Ibrahim Tali Öngören, the Inspectorate General of the Trakya Inspectorate General, suggested to remove the Jews from the region as they presented an economic threat to the Muslim population.[51] In 1934, the Turkish government expelled all the Jews from Edirne and the Straits.[52]

The effect of the 1942 Varlık Vergisi ("Wealth Tax") was solely on non-Muslims – who still controlled the largest portion of the young republic's wealth – even though in principle it was directed against all wealthy Turkish citizens, it most intensely affected non-Muslims. The "wealth tax" is still remembered as a "catastrophe" among the non-Muslims of Turkey and it had one of the most detrimental effects on the population of Turkish Jews. Many people unable to pay the exorbitant taxes were sent to labor camps and in consequence about 30,000 Jews emigrated.[53] The tax was seen as a racist attempt to diminish the economic power of religious minorities in Turkey.[54]

World War II

[edit]
Main article: Turkey and the Holocaust
Grand Synagogue of Edirne
Administrative entrance to the Grand Synagogue of Edirne

During World War II, Turkey was officially neutral although it maintained strong diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany.[55] During the war, Turkey denaturalized 3,000 to 5,000 Jews living abroad; 2,500 Turkish Jews were deported to Nazi concentration camps such as Auschwitz, Sobibor and other extermination camps. When Nazi Germany encouraged neutral countries to repatriate their Jewish citizens, Turkish diplomats received instructions to avoid repatriating Jews even if they could prove their Turkish nationality.[56] Turkey was also the only neutral country to implement anti-Jewish laws during the war.[57] More Turkish Jews suffered as a result of discriminatory policies during the war than were saved by Turkey.[58] Although Turkey has promoted the idea that it was a rescuer of Jews during the Holocaust, this is considered a myth by historians.[59] This myth has been used to promote Armenian genocide denial.[60]

Turkey served as a transit for European Jews fleeing Nazi persecution during the 1930s and 1940s.[61][62]

A memorial stone with a bronze epitaph was inaugurated in 2012, as the third of individual country memorials (after Poland and the Netherlands) at the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp for eight Turkish citizens killed during the Nazi regime in the said camp. The Turkish Ambassador to Berlin, Hüseyin Avni Karslıoğlu stated in an inauguration speech that Germany set free 105 Turkish citizens, held in camps, after a mutual agreement between the two countries, and these citizens returned to Turkey in April 1945, although there is no known official record for other Turkish Jews who died during the Holocaust in Nazi Germany.

According to Rıfat Bali, Turkish authorities bear some responsibility for the Struma disaster, killing about 781 Jewish refugees and 10 crew, due to their refusal to allow the Jewish refugees on board to disembark in Turkey.[63][64] William Rubinstein goes further, citing British pressure on Turkey not to let Struma's passengers disembark, in accordance with Britain's White Paper of 1939 to prevent further Jewish immigration to Israel then-Palestine.[65]

Important Turkish diplomats during the Holocaust

Emigration from Turkey to Israel

[edit]
Bet Israel Synagogue (İzmir)
Hemdat Israel Synagogue

When the Republic of Turkey was established in 1923, Aliyah was not particularly popular amongst Turkish Jewry; migration from Turkey to Palestine was minimal in the 1920s.[66]

Between 1923 and 1948, approximately 7,300 Jews emigrated from Turkey to Mandatory Palestine.[67] After the 1934 Thrace pogroms following the 1934 Turkish Resettlement Law, it is estimated that 521 Jews left for Palestine from Turkey in 1934 and 1,445 left in 1935.[67] However, although the Law on Settlement may well have actually provoked the incidents’ outbreak, the national authorities did not side with the attackers but immediately intervened in the incidents. After order was restored, the governors and mayors of the provinces involved were removed from office.[68]

Immigration to Palestine was organized by the Jewish Agency and the Palestine Aliya Anoar Organization. The Varlık Vergisi, a capital tax which occurred in 1942, was also significant in encouraging emigration from Turkey to Palestine; between 1943 and 1944, 4,000 Jews emigrated.[69]

The Jews of Turkey reacted very favorably to the creation of the State of Israel. Between 1948 and 1951, 34,547 Jews immigrated to Israel, nearly 40% of the Turkish Jewish population at the time.[70] Immigration was stunted for several months in November 1948, when Turkey suspended migration permits as a result of pressure from Arab countries.[71]

In 1949, Turkey officially recognized Israel, becoming the first Muslim-majority country to do so.[72] Migration permits were reinstated and emigration continued, with 26,000 emigrating within the same year. The migration was entirely voluntary, and was primary driven by economic factors given the majority of emigrants were from the lower classes.[73] In fact, the migration of Jews to Israel is the second largest mass emigration wave out of Turkey, the first being the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[74]

After 1951, emigration of Jews from Turkey to Israel slowed perceptibly.[75]

In the mid-1950s, 10% of those who had moved to Israel returned to Turkey. A new synagogue, the Neve Şalom, was constructed in Istanbul in 1951. Generally, Turkish Jews in Israel have integrated well into society and are not distinguishable from other Israelis.[76] However, they maintain their Turkish culture and connection to Turkey, and are strong supporters of close relations between Israel and Turkey.[77]

Democratic Party period

[edit]
See also: Antisemitism in Turkey

On the night of 6/7 September 1955, the Istanbul Pogrom was unleashed. Although primarily aimed at the city's Greek population, the Jewish and Armenian communities of Istanbul were also targeted to a degree. The damage caused was mainly material (over 4,000 shops and 1,000 houses belonging to Greeks, Armenians and Jews were destroyed) it deeply shocked minorities throughout the country.[78][79]

21st century

[edit]
Neve Shalom Synagogue, completed in 1951 in the Galata district of Istanbul, Turkey
Yeniköy Synagogue in Istanbul

The present size of the Jewish community was estimated at 17,400 in 2012 according to the Jewish Virtual Library.[80] The vast majority, approximately 95%, live in Istanbul, with a community of about 2,500 in İzmir, and until the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, much smaller communities in Antakya and İskenderun. Sephardi Jews make up approximately 96% of Turkey's Jewish population, while the rest are primarily Ashkenazi Jews and Jews from Italian extraction. There is also a small community of Romaniote Jews and the community of the Constantinopolitan Karaites who are related to each other.

The city of Antakya, was home to ten Jewish families, numbering 20 members in 2014, many of whom were Syrian Jews of Mizrahi Jewish extraction, having originally come from Aleppo, Syria, 2,500 years ago. Figures were once higher but families have left for Istanbul, Israel and other countries.[81]

Turkish Jews are still legally represented by the Hakham Bashi, the Chief Rabbi. Rabbi Ishak Haleva is assisted by a religious council made up of a Rosh Bet Din and three Hahamim. 35 lay counselors look after the secular affairs of the community and an executive committee of fourteen, the president of which must be elected from among the lay counselors, runs the daily affairs. The Istanbul community also has 16 synagogues and well kept and guarded cemetery.[82]

In 2001, the Jewish Museum of Turkey was founded by the Quincentennial Foundation, an organisation established in 1982 consisting of 113 Turkish citizens, both Jews and Muslims, to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the arrival of the Sephardic Jews to the Ottoman Empire.[83]

The Turkish-Jewish population is experiencing a population decline, due to both large-scale immigration to Israel out of fear of antisemitism, but also because of natural population decline. Intermarriage with Turkish Muslims and assimilation have become common, and the community's death rate is more than twice that of its birth rate.[84][85]

As of 2022, the Jewish population in Turkey is around 14,500.[86]

In the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, the leaders of the Jewish community of Antakya were killed, the Antakya Synagogue was badly damaged, and the entire Jewish community, numbering 14 members, was evacuated from Antakya.[87][88][89]

Languages

[edit]
Late 20th – early 21st century language distribution.
• Turkish  
• Arabic speakers   are shown by religious affiliation: Alawite (circle), Christian (triangle), Sunni (square), Bedouin Sunni (rectangle), Jewish (rhombus).[90][a]

The Jewish community in Turkey was linguistically diverse. Sephardic Jews spoke Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) and French was used as a prestige language in the community. Sephardic Jews completely shifted to Turkish after the foundation of the Republic of Turkey. Ashkenazi Jews spoke Yiddish or French and similarly shifted to Turkish. In Istanbul, many Jews would also speak Greek or Armenian until the mid 20th century given the city's ethnic diversity.[91] Jews in Hatay spoke Levantine Arabic.[5] The 11 Jewish communities in Turkish Kurdistan spoke Kurdish but the community doesn't exist anymore.[92]

Jews and their linguistic rights are officially recognized as a minority in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.[10][11][13][12] According to this Treaty, officially recognized minorities (Armenians, Greeks and Jews) can use their mother tongue freely, especially for education purposes. At the time, the mother tongue of the majority of Turkish Jews was Ladino. French was also the medium of instruction in most Jewish schools run by the Alliance Israélite Universelle in the Ottoman Empire. However, the Turkish government considered that, for the purpose of the Treaty of Lausanne, the mother tongue of Jews was Hebrew, and therefore only allowed teaching in Hebrew.[93][94] The Ministry of National Education refused to change its decision despite requests from the Jewish community. For that reason, Jewish schools switched from French to Turkish.[93]

Antisemitism

[edit]
Main article: Antisemitism in Turkey
See also: Conspiracy theories in Turkey

According to researchers at Tel Aviv University, antisemitism in the media and books was creating a situation in which young, educated Turks formed negative opinions against Jews and Israel.[95] Moreover, violence against Jews has also occurred. In 2003, an Istanbul dentist was murdered in his clinic by a man who admitted that he committed the crime out of antisemitic sentiment. In 2009, a number of Jewish students suffered verbal abuse and physical attacks, and a Jewish soldier in the Turkish Army was assaulted.

Bet Yaakov Synagogue was built in 1878 at the Kuzguncuk district of Istanbul.

The Neve Shalom Synagogue in Istanbul has been attacked three times.[96] First on 6 September 1986, Arab terrorists gunned down 22 Jewish worshippers and wounded 6 during Shabbat services at Neve Shalom. This attacked was blamed on the Palestinian militant Abu Nidal.[97][98][99] The Synagogue was hit again during the 2003 Istanbul bombings alongside the Beth Israel Synagogue, killing 20 and injuring over 300 people, both Jews and Muslims alike. Even though a local Turkish militant group, the Great Eastern Islamic Raiders' Front, claimed responsibility for the attacks, police claimed the bombings were "too sophisticated to have been carried out by that group",[97] with a senior Israeli government source saying: "the attack must have been at least coordinated with international terror organizations".[99]

Traditionally, aliyah from Turkey to Israel has been low since the 1950s. Despite the antisemitism and occasional violence, Jews felt generally safe in Turkey. In the 2000s, despite surging antisemitism, including antisemitic incidents, aliyah remained low. In 2008, only 112 Turkish Jews emigrated, and in 2009, that number only rose to 250.[100] However, in the aftermath of the 2010 Gaza flotilla raid, antisemitism in Turkey increased and became more open, and it was reported that the community was also subjected to economic pressure. A boycott of Jewish businesses, especially textile businesses, took place, and Israeli tourists who had frequented the businesses of Turkish Jewish merchants largely stopped visiting Turkey. As a result, the number of Turkish Jews immigrating to Israel increased.[101] In addition to safety concerns, some Turkish Jews also immigrated to Israel to find a Jewish spouse due to the increasing difficulty of finding one in the small Turkish Jewish community. In 2012, it was reported that the number of Jews expressing interest in moving to Israel rose by 100%, a large number of Jewish business owners were seeking to relocate their businesses to Israel, and that hundreds were moving every year.[102]

In October 2013, it was reported that a mass exodus of Turkish Jews was underway. Reportedly, Turkish Jewish families are immigrating to Israel at the rate of one family per week on average, and hundreds of young Turkish Jews are also relocating to the United States and Europe.[103] In 2022 the Jewish population in Turkey was 14,500 [104] In 2024 the Jewish population in Turkey was 14,300 [105]

Turkey and Israel

[edit]
Arkadaş Association in Yehud, Israel
See also: Israel–Turkey relations

Turkey was among the first countries to formally recognize the State of Israel.[106] Turkey and Israel have closely cooperated militarily and economically. Israel and Turkey have signed a multibillion-dollar project to build a series of pipelines from Turkey to Israel to supply gas, oil and other essentials to Israel.[107] In 2003 the Arkadaş Association was established in Israel. The Arkadaş Association is a Turkish–Jewish cultural center in Yehud, aiming to preserve the Turkish-Jewish heritage and promote friendship (Arkadaş being the Turkish word for Friend) between the Israeli and Turkish people. In 2004, the Ülkümen-Sarfati Society was established by Jews and Turks in Germany. The society, named after Selahattin Ülkümen and Yitzhak Sarfati, aims to promote intercultural and interreligious dialogue and wants to inform the public of the centuries of peaceful coexistence between Turks and Jews.[108][109]

Diaspora

[edit]
Main article: Turkish Jews in Israel

The various migrations outside of Turkey has produced descendants of Turkish Jews in Europe, Israel, United States, and Canada. Today, there are still various synagogues that maintain Jewish-Turkish traditions.

The Sephardic Synagogue Sephardic Bikur Holim in Seattle, Washington, was formed by Jews from Turkey, and still uses Ladino in some portions of the Shabbat services. They created a siddur called Zehut Yosef, written by Hazzan Isaac Azose, to preserve their unique traditions.

In recent years, several hundred Turkish Jews, who have been able to prove that they are descended from Jews expelled from Portugal in 1497, have emigrated to Portugal and acquired Portuguese citizenship.[110][111][112]

Notable Turkish Jews

[edit]
Yitzhak Navon
Silvio Santos
Isaac Carasso
Berry Sakharof
Elias Canetti
Gracia Mendes Nasi
See also: List of Turkish Jews and Category:Turkish Jews

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]

External sources

[edit]
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History of the Jews in Turkey

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The history of the Jews in Turkey traces a continuous presence from ancient Jewish settlements in Anatolia during the Hellenistic era, through periods of prosperity and restriction under Byzantine and Ottoman rule, to a modern community shaped by 20th-century nationalism, emigration, and geopolitical shifts, with the Ottoman acceptance of Sephardic exiles from Spain in 1492 representing a pivotal expansion that integrated skilled migrants into the empire's economy and administration. Jewish communities first appeared in Asia Minor around the BCE, with archaeological evidence of synagogues like that in dating to the late 3rd century CE, indicating established populations in cities such as and that engaged in trade and local governance under successive Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine administrations. Byzantine policies imposed sporadic expulsions, such as Emperor Theodosius II's 422 CE decree banning Jews from residing in the capital, yet pockets of endured, often facing forced conversions or economic marginalization. The Ottoman era began favorably with Mehmed II's 1453 conquest of Constantinople, where he actively recruited Jews to rebuild the city, granting them privileges to foster commerce; this policy intensified under , who dispatched naval vessels to ferry fleeing the Spanish Inquisition's 1492 edict, resettling them in key ports like , , and Smyrna, where they outnumbered locals and revitalized textile, banking, and maritime sectors. These immigrants introduced innovations including the first in 1493, bypassing Ottoman hesitancy toward the technology, and produced influential figures such as Doña Gracia Nasi, whose philanthropy and diplomatic maneuvers aided coreligionists during inquisitorial pursuits. Governed via the millet system, Jews administered internal affairs, courts, and education autonomously, paying taxes in exchange for protection and exemption from military service, which enabled demographic growth to over 100,000 by the despite intermittent local violence or economic resentments. The empire's pragmatic tolerance—rooted in fiscal utility rather than —contrasted with European expulsions, allowing Ladino-speaking Sephardim to dominate cultural life in hubs like Salonica until the . Transition to the Turkish Republic under Atatürk's initially preserved , but rising prompted the 1934 Thrace expulsions and 1942 disproportionately burdening Jews, accelerating flight; post-1948, over half emigrated to amid events like the 1955 riots, reducing the population from wartime peaks near 80,000 to today's approximately 14,200, primarily in and Izmir, where they sustain synagogues and schools under ongoing security concerns.

Early Periods

Ancient and Hellenistic Settlements

The earliest documented Jewish presence in dates to the BCE, coinciding with migrations or deportations following the Babylonian conquest of in 587 BCE. An inscription from Daskyleion, an ancient site in northwestern , represents the oldest epigraphic evidence of in the region, attesting to a small community under Achaemenid Persian administration. These initial settlements likely occurred in western , including areas such as and , where integrated into local economies while preserving religious practices. During the Hellenistic period, initiated by the Great's conquest of the region in 333 BCE, Jewish communities expanded under Seleucid rule, which encouraged settlement in newly founded cities and colonies. Inscriptions from this era, primarily in Greek, indicate established Jewish populations across Asia Minor, particularly in , , , , and , with evidence of s and communal organizations. The in , with roots traceable to at least the 3rd century BCE, exemplifies this development, serving as a center for worship amid Hellenistic cultural influences, though communities maintained distinct identity through adherence to observance and separation from pagan cults. Archaeological finds, such as synagogue ruins in , , and , alongside manumission records and tomb inscriptions, reveal a prosperous adapting to Greek civic life while resisting full assimilation. By the late , prior to Roman annexation in 133 BCE, Jews numbered significantly in urban centers, contributing to and contributing to the region's multicultural fabric without evidence of widespread conflict.

Roman and Byzantine Rule

Jewish communities in Asia Minor, the core of modern , were well-established by the Roman period, with evidence from epigraphic inscriptions indicating settlements across regions including , , , , , , , and . These communities, rooted in Hellenistic migrations following the Great's conquests, benefited from Roman legal protections such as exemptions from emperor worship and , allowing religious practice and communal organization. Literary sources like and reference active Jewish populations in cities such as and , engaged in trade, crafts, and . The at exemplifies the prominence of these communities during the late Roman era, constructed around 270 CE as part of a bath-gymnasium complex and expanded in the to seat over 1,000, featuring furnishings, mosaics, and over 80 Greek inscriptions alongside Hebrew ones. This structure, the largest ancient synagogue discovered, underscores Jewish integration into urban civic life while maintaining distinct , with artifacts revealing dietary adherence and ritual purity practices. Similar synagogues and manumission inscriptions at and Acmonia highlight organized associations (synagogai) that functioned as religious, social, and economic hubs, often petitioning Roman authorities for rights. With the empire's Christianization after Constantine's in 313 CE, Byzantine policies shifted toward restriction, culminating in the Theodosian Code of 438 CE, which banned synagogue construction, public , and Jewish office-holding while enforcing separation from Christians. Justinian's Code in the further curtailed rights, prohibiting from serving as judges or advocates and mandating conversion for slaves owned by . Despite these measures, Anatolian communities persisted, as archaeological remains and texts indicate continuity in centers like , where the operated into the Byzantine period. Severe persecutions intensified in the under , who in 632 CE ordered forced baptisms empire-wide following Jewish alliances with Persian invaders during the Byzantine-Sasanian War, leading to mass conversions, exiles, or superficial compliance in Asia Minor. Later emperors like Leo III (717–741 CE) imposed additional taxes and iconoclastic edicts affecting Jewish practices, yet communities reemerged, serving as trade links between and the Islamic world, with evidence of Karaite and Rabbanite presence by the . Overall, while Byzantine rule imposed legal disabilities and sporadic violence, demographic and economic factors sustained Jewish populations in until the Seljuk incursions of the .

Ottoman Era

Initial Presence and Expansion

Jewish communities existed in and prior to the full consolidation of Ottoman rule, with settlements dating back to Byzantine and earlier periods; these groups, primarily , often welcomed Ottoman expansion as a respite from discriminatory Byzantine policies. For example, when Gazi captured in 1326, local Jews received the Ottomans favorably, viewing them as protectors against prior oppression. Similar dynamics played out in subsequent conquests across Anatolian emirates and Byzantine territories, where Jews, numbering in small communities of artisans, merchants, and physicians, integrated into the emerging Ottoman polity under status, paying taxes in exchange for communal autonomy and legal protections. This initial presence was sparse and decentralized, concentrated in cities like , , and , with estimates suggesting only a few thousand individuals across these regions by the mid-15th century, though precise figures remain elusive due to limited records. The pivotal expansion began after Mehmed II's conquest of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, which drastically depopulated the city; to revitalize its economy and diversity, the sultan issued proclamations inviting Jews from across his domains and beyond to resettle, granting them explicit protections and commercial privileges unavailable under Byzantine rule. Mehmed designated specific quarters for Jewish habitation, including Balat and areas near the , while appointing Moses Capsali as the first hahambaşı () to oversee communal affairs, signaling institutional recognition. The Hakham Bashi served as the supreme spiritual and legal authority for all Jews in the Ottoman Empire, with powers akin to an Exilarch, including the establishment of courts, legislation for communities, and enforcement of rulings. The chief rabbi advised the Sultan, often representing the community in the divan, and gained broader influence, extending beyond the empire, especially after the Sephardic influx following the 1492 Spanish expulsion. Emissaries were dispatched to Jewish centers in , , and the , encouraging migration; this pragmatic policy, driven by the need for skilled labor in trade, finance, and crafts, drew Romaniote remnants and Ashkenazi elements, fostering rapid community growth in (formerly ) and extending to port cities like Salonika (conquered in 1430). By the late , these efforts had solidified Jewish expansion, with communities proliferating in urban centers through state-sanctioned settlements and economic incentives; filled niches in international via the Mediterranean and routes, production, and court service as interpreters and advisors, contributing to Ottoman administrative efficiency without the forced conversions or expulsions seen in contemporary Christian . This phase marked a causal shift from marginal Byzantine existence to integral minority status, predicated on mutual utility rather than ideological tolerance, though periodic local tensions arose over taxation and competition. The framework of millet-like , formalized later, originated here, enabling self-governance in religious and civil matters while subordinating to Islamic sovereignty.

Sephardic Immigration and Golden Age


Following the Alhambra Decree of March 31, 1492, which expelled approximately 100,000 to 300,000 Jews from Spain by July 31 of that year, many Sephardic Jews sought refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512) actively welcomed them, dispatching the Ottoman navy to transport refugees safely and instructing provincial governors to provide settlement opportunities, viewing the influx as an economic boon that enriched his domains at Spain's expense. Tens of thousands arrived, with estimates suggesting around 60,000 in 1492 alone, augmenting the existing small Romaniote Jewish population and establishing vibrant communities in ports like Istanbul, Thessaloniki, and Izmir. Elijah Mizrahi succeeded Moses Capsali as Hakham Bashi around 1497, a renowned Talmudist and mathematician whose legal opinions guided the community during the massive influx and integration of Spanish exiles. Under the Ottoman millet system, Sephardic Jews received communal autonomy, protection as dhimmis paying the tax, and freedom to practice their faith, fostering rapid integration into the empire's . Their expertise in Mediterranean , and craftsmanship—honed in Iberia—filled critical niches, as Ottoman authorities granted trading privileges and exempted some from certain taxes to stimulate . By the mid-16th century, Jews constituted a significant portion of the empire's merchant class, forming international networks that linked to , , and beyond, with Sephardim comprising about 90 percent of Ottoman Jewry. This era marked a golden age of Sephardic prosperity in the 16th and early 17th centuries, characterized by cultural flourishing and economic influence amid relative tolerance compared to contemporary Europe. Jews advanced textile production, tax farming, and imperial finances, while introducing innovations like early printing presses in Ladino, enhancing literacy and scholarship. Notable Sephardic scholars contributing during this phase included Rabbi Yosef Caro (1488–1575), though he later moved to Safed, the influential Sephardic codifier who lived and worked in the Ottoman Empire, including Constantinople, significantly impacting Turkish Jewish scholarship by authoring the Shulchan Aruch, the standard code of Jewish law used worldwide. Rabbi Yaakov Culi (c. 1689–1732) initiated the Me'am Lo'ez, a multi-volume Ladino commentary on the Tanakh that became the most popular and influential work among Ottoman Jews for centuries. Prominent figures exemplified this ascent: Doña Gracia Mendes Nasi (c. 1510–1569), a financier who fled Portugal and settled in Istanbul around 1553, used her wealth from spice and textile trades to ransom captives, fund synagogues, and aid refugees, wielding informal diplomatic influence. Her nephew, Joseph Nasi (1524–1579), rose to become Duke of Naxos under Sultan Selim II, advising on foreign policy and monopolizing trades like wheat, underscoring Sephardic elevation to elite advisory roles. Despite occasional local tensions or blood libels, the period's stability enabled demographic growth and cultural preservation, with Ladino becoming a lingua franca among Ottoman Jews.

19th-Century Reforms and Challenges

The reforms, commencing with the 1839 , extended protections for life, honor, and property to all Ottoman subjects regardless of , while establishing uniform taxation and liability to punishment, thereby challenging the privileges of the Jewish millet system. The 1856 Imperial Reform Edict reinforced these principles by guaranteeing non-Muslims equality in education, justice, and access to government positions, explicitly including Jews among the beneficiaries. These measures aimed to centralize authority and integrate minorities into the state apparatus, though implementation faced resistance from traditional religious leaders who lost fiscal control. Jewish communities experienced expanded opportunities in secular education and professions, particularly through the , founded in 1860, which opened dozens of schools across Ottoman territories by the late 19th century, educating over 100,000 Jewish students in French-language curricula emphasizing modern subjects alongside moral and vocational training. In urban centers like and Izmir, where Jews numbered tens of thousands, these institutions produced a cadre of professionals fluent in European languages, facilitating entry into trade, journalism, and limited bureaucratic roles. laws introduced in 1843 required Jewish males to serve or pay an exemption tax, ending prior blanket exemptions and prompting communal debates over modernization. Despite reforms, Jews encountered persistent antisemitic incidents, such as the 1840 Rhodes blood libel, where local authorities and Greek Orthodox residents accused Jews of ritually murdering a Christian boy, resulting in arrests, torture, and mob violence before European diplomatic pressure secured releases. Economic frictions arose from tax-farming disputes, exemplified by the 1846–1847 Izmir gabela crisis, in which poor Jews and Muslims protested against wealthy Jewish tax collectors enforcing meat duties, exposing class divides within the community and sparking riots quelled by Ottoman troops. Social challenges included resistance to eroded rabbinical authority and competition from European merchants under capitulatory privileges, which undercut Jewish artisans and traders amid the empire's fiscal strains. These events underscored uneven reform application, with legal equality often undermined by local prejudices and administrative inconsistencies.

Chief Rabbis of Turkey

The Haham Başı (Chief Rabbi) served as the spiritual and administrative leader of the Jewish community, overseeing religious, educational, and communal affairs under the millet system and its successors.

Under Ottoman Rule

NameTenure
Moshe Capsali1454–1497
Elia Mizrahi1497–1526
Mordekhai Comitano1526–1542
Tam ben Yahia1542–1543
Eli Rosanes haLevi1543
Eli ben Haim1543–1602
Yehiel Bashan1602–1625
Yosef Mitrani1625–1639
Yom-Tov Benyaes1639–1642
Yom-Tov Hanania Benyakar1642–1677
Haim Kamhi1677–1715
Yehuda Benrey1715–1717
Shemuel Levi1717–1720
Abraham Rosanes1720–1745
Shelomo Haim Alfandari1745–1762
Meir Yitshaki1762–1780
Eli Palombo1780–1800
Haim Yaakob Benyakar1800–1835
Abraham (Pasha) Levi1835–1839
Shemuel Haim1839–1841
Moshe Fresko1841–1854
Yaakob Avigdor1854–1870
Yakir Geron1870–1872
Moshe Levi1872–1909
Haim (Effendi) Nahum1909–1920
Shabetay Levi1920–1922
Rabbi Hayyim Palachi (1788–1868): A highly prolific Chief Rabbi of Izmir, he wrote over 70 works covering all aspects of Jewish life. His most famous include Mo'ed Kol Hai and Kaf HaHayyim, which are still widely consulted for Sephardic custom and law.

Under the Turkish Republic

NameTenure
Isak Ariel1922–1926
Haim Bejerano1926–1931
Haim Isak Saki1931–1940
Rafael David Saban1940–1960
David Asseo1961–2002
Isak Haleva2003–2025
David Sevi2025–

Republican Transition

Late Ottoman Decline and Young Turk Reforms

In the late , the Ottoman Empire's and territorial losses exacerbated hardships for the Jewish community, which had numbered around 250,000 by 1880, concentrated in urban centers like , , and Salonika. The erosion of the Jews' relatively privileged position under the millet —once granting communal —left them increasingly marginalized as one of the empire's least economically vital minorities amid fiscal crises and European capitulations that favored Christian traders. In , a key Sephardic hub, nearly one-third of the Jewish population relied on charity by the 1880s, reflecting widespread poverty driven by competition from Greek and Armenian merchants and the decline of traditional Jewish occupations like dyeing and textile production. The of July 1908, led by the (), restored the 1876 constitution and parliament, eliciting widespread enthusiasm from Ottoman who anticipated equal citizenship under the banner of . Scenes of intercommunal embrace between Muslims, Christians, and marked the revolution's early days in cities like , as the 's initial platform promised civic equality, self-administration for minorities, and an end to II's , which had fostered sporadic antisemitic incidents. Prominent like , a Salonika-born lawyer and affiliate, played roles in mobilizing support in Macedonia, while Abraham Galante (1873–1961), a Jewish educator and active CUP member who joined the Young Turk Movement, supported the reforms through advocacy for Turkish integration; the community's press and schools viewed the reforms as a bulwark against both Hamidian repression and rising European-style . Later, Galante contributed as a historian, authoring works such as "Sixième Recueil de Documents Concernant les Juifs de Turquie" that document Turkish Jewish history. The ensuing reforms advanced of the legal system and expanded education access, benefiting Jewish integration; Haim Nahum (1872–1960), an Alliance-educated intellectual who served as the final Hakham Bashi (Chief Rabbi) of the Ottoman Empire from his appointment in 1909 until 1920, acted as a key political figure during the transition period, with his correspondence and documents featured in Esther Benbassa's "Haim Nahum: A Sephardic Chief Rabbi in Politics, 1892-1923" offering valuable insights into the era, symbolizing the regime's outreach to Jewish elites. However, the CUP's pivot toward Turkish linguistic and by 1910 strained minority relations, though faced fewer immediate repercussions than or due to their smaller numbers and urban, non-agricultural profile. Parliamentary representation increased modestly, with 7 Jewish deputies elected in , advocating for communal rights amid the empire's Balkan defeats and fiscal woes. This period marked a tentative for Ottoman , contrasting with the decline's poverty, yet foreshadowing ethnic tensions as yielded to ethnic .

Atatürk Era and Secularization

The founding of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923, under initiated a program of radical secularization that dismantled the Ottoman Empire's religious-based millet , granting and other non-Muslims formal equality as citizens under a unified national framework. This transition elevated from their previous status as a protected but subordinate community to equal participants in the state, with the 1923 recognizing non-Muslim minorities' rights to maintain cultural and educational institutions while emphasizing national loyalty over confessional autonomy. The Jewish population stood at approximately 79,454 in the 1927 census, concentrated primarily in and Izmir, where they comprised significant urban minorities. Key reforms included the on March 3, 1924, which removed Islam's formal supremacy, and the of the Swiss-inspired on February 17, 1926, which secularized , , and , applying uniformly across religious lines and eroding traditional Jewish communal jurisdictions. These changes facilitated Jewish access to public , , and professions; literacy rates rose amid broader educational expansions, enabling younger generations to enter fields like , , and previously dominated by . Jewish schools, while permitted under provisions, underwent , with Hebrew and Ladino instruction curtailed in favor of mandatory Turkish-language curricula by the late 1920s, and religious education banned in all state-supervised institutions via the 1924 Law on the Unification of Instruction. The shift toward secular leadership within the Jewish community mirrored national trends, as rabbinical authority waned in favor of lay figures aligned with republican ideals, though the Chief Rabbinate remained a nominal without appointment until later decades. With the end of the Ottoman Empire and establishment of the Turkish Republic, the centralized Hakham Bashi system evolved; the position of Chief Rabbi (Hahambaşı) continued in modern Turkey, representing the Jewish community, though the structure of leadership became more representative with elected lay councils. policies, aimed at forging a homogeneous , pressured assimilation through name changes, adoption of Western attire under the 1925 Hat Law, and suppression of minority languages in print and speech, affecting alongside and . In response, many demonstrated allegiance by relinquishing enhanced minority protections and contributing to modernization, with some honored by Atatürk for advancements in science and industry. Despite these gains, non-Muslims, including , faced informal exclusion from sensitive military and bureaucratic roles due to lingering suspicions of divided loyalties, a dynamic rooted in the republic's emphasis on ethnic over Atatürk's stated . The era's relative stability for —contrasted with population exchanges and pressures on Christian minorities—stemmed from their historical loyalty and economic utility, though subtle economic targeted non-Muslim capital in banking and trade during the 1920s and 1930s. Overall, fostered integration but at the cost of cultural erosion, setting the stage for later challenges under rising .

Mid-20th Century

Interwar Policies and Minority Status

The , signed on July 24, 1923, formally recognized as one of Turkey's non-Muslim minorities alongside and , granting them protections for life, personal liberty, religious freedoms, and the establishment of charitable, religious, and social institutions, including schools conducted in their native languages. These provisions aimed to ensure and non-discrimination, though enforcement mechanisms were absent, allowing practical deviations under the emerging Turkish nationalist framework. In response, Turkey's Jewish leadership, seeking to demonstrate loyalty to the new Republic and avoid the fate of exchanged Greek Orthodox populations, voluntarily renounced claims to these international minority protections by 1926-1927, aligning instead with the state's unitary model that emphasized assimilation over communal . This decision reflected a broader policy under to forge a homogeneous Turkish identity through secular reforms, including the 1924 , adoption of the Latin alphabet in 1928, and mandates for Turkish-language and media, which pressured Jewish communities to Turkify names, attire, and public practices. The 1934 further compelled Jews to adopt Turkish surnames, symbolizing integration but also erasing ethnic distinctions in official records. Despite these assimilationist measures, ethnic and religious exclusions persisted, with Jews facing barriers to and officer roles, as Turkishness was often implicitly tied to Muslim identity in practice. A pivotal strain on Jewish minority status occurred during the 1934 Thrace incidents, where from June 3-5, mobs in towns like , , and targeted Jewish businesses and homes with boycotts, vandalism, and expulsions, displacing thousands and prompting mass flight to . U.S. diplomatic reports and contemporary analyses suggested tacit government encouragement, linked to economic envy, rumors of Jewish disloyalty, and rising amid European , though official inquiries denied state orchestration and led to some arrests. These events halved Thrace's Jewish population—from around 20,000 in 1927 to under 10,000 by 1935—exposing vulnerabilities despite nominal protections and accelerating urban concentration in and . By the late , Jewish status balanced precarious tolerance with enforced conformity; the community, numbering approximately 81,000 in the 1927 census, maintained synagogues and schools under state oversight but navigated growing demands without the overt seen against other minorities. Atatürk's regime prioritized national unity over , viewing minorities as potential fifth columns, yet benefited relatively from secular policies that curbed Islamist agitation, fostering a conditional minority existence amid interwar European upheavals.

World War II: Neutrality, Refuge, and Varlık Vergisi

Turkey maintained neutrality for most of , signing mutual assistance pacts with Britain and in 1939 but avoiding direct involvement until declaring war on in February 1945 to secure membership. This stance positioned the country as a critical transit route for escaping Nazi-occupied , with Turkish authorities permitting passage despite restrictive policies. From 1940 to 1944, at least 11,469 Jewish refugees transited through toward , often via Istanbul's ports and rail lines, amid broader estimates of over 100,000 passing through with logistical aid from Turkish ships and trucks. Turkish diplomats exploited neutrality to rescue holding Ottoman or Turkish citizenship. Consul General Necdet Kent in , , intervened in by boarding a deportation train and demanding the release of over 80 Turkish destined for Auschwitz, negotiating their exemption after defying German orders to disembark. Similar efforts by envoys like Behçet Saatçigil in and Namık Kemal Yolga in protected hundreds more, issuing protective documents and sheltering individuals from roundups, though these actions risked personal reprisal without formal government endorsement. Neutrality's benefits eroded with the Varlık Vergisi, enacted on November 11, 1942, as a "capital tax" to curb wartime inflation and fund defenses, though assessments were arbitrarily punitive toward non-. Jews faced effective rates of 232% on declared assets—versus 4.94% for —leading to confiscations exceeding 90% of community in cases of non-payment, with valuations often inflated by local committees biased against minorities. Defaulters, primarily , , and comprising over 90% of those taxed at highest brackets, endured forced labor in remote camps like Aşkale from 1942 to 1944, performing grueling infrastructure work under military oversight with high mortality from exposure and . The triggered a surge in Jewish business closures—non-Muslim liquidation rates spiked relative to Muslim firms—and accelerated , halving urban Jewish economic influence by war's end. Abolished in amid Allied victories and U.S. diplomatic pressure, the tax exemplified state efforts to redistribute minority-held commerce, fostering long-term community distrust despite wartime refuge gestures.

Post-War Emigration Waves

The establishment of the State of in May 1948 prompted a major wave of emigration among Turkish Jews, with approximately 34,500 relocating to between 1948 and 1951, representing nearly 40 percent of the community's estimated 80,000-85,000 members at the war's end. This exodus reduced the Turkish Jewish population from 76,965 in 1945 to 45,995 by 1948, as Zionist organizations facilitated legal departures without government interference. The migration was concentrated in 1949-1950, with 26,295 arrivals recorded in during those years alone, primarily from urban centers like and . Key drivers included the pull of national self-determination and religious fulfillment in the new , amplified by decades of Zionist education within Turkish Jewish schools and synagogues. Push factors stemmed from accumulated grievances over unequal treatment as a non-Muslim minority, notably the discriminatory of 1942, which had imposed ruinous capital levies on and other minorities, eroding economic stability and trust in republican equality promises. Unlike forced expulsions elsewhere in the Muslim world, departures were voluntary, though informed by a pragmatic assessment that full integration in secular remained elusive amid periodic nationalist pressures. A secondary wave followed the 1955 Istanbul riots, incited ostensibly against over tensions but resulting in widespread attacks on Jewish properties and synagogues, displacing hundreds and accelerating emigration to , the , and . This event, coupled with the 1960 military coup's political instability, contributed to a further decline from 45,995 in 1955 to 38,267 by 1965, as families sought greater security abroad. Emigrants often leveraged business networks in target countries, with destinations shifting toward for economic prospects beyond ideological motivations. By the mid-1960s, the community had stabilized at a diminished size, reflecting a pattern of attrition rather than abrupt collapse.

Late 20th and Early 21st Century

Multi-Party Democracy and Economic Integration

The transition to multi-party democracy in began with the establishment of opposition parties in 1946, culminating in the Democratic Party's (DP) victory in the 1950 general elections, which marked a shift from single-party rule under the (CHP). Turkish Jews, numbering approximately 77,000 in 1945, participated modestly in this new political framework, with figures such as Salomon Adato serving as a parliamentary representative from 1946 to 1953 and Henry Suriano from 1954 onward, primarily advocating for minority interests within the secular system. Despite this involvement, the community adopted a low-profile stance to mitigate perceptions of amid rising , supporting parties aligned with Kemalist while avoiding overt following Israel's founding in 1948. Economically, Jews who remained in Turkey after integrated into urban commerce and emerging industries, concentrating in and as merchants, bankers, and professionals, with fewer entering public service. The DP era's liberalization facilitated private sector growth, enabling Jewish entrepreneurs like who co-founded Alarko Holding in 1954 specializing in heating systems and later expanding into construction and energy, to contribute to industrial development. By the 1960s, the community's economic base had shifted toward a more affluent profile, as lower- and middle-class Jews emigrated, leaving behind business leaders active in textiles, finance, and trade that bolstered Turkey's import-substitution economy. However, events like the 1955 pogroms, targeting non-Muslim properties, damaged Jewish commercial assets and underscored vulnerabilities despite formal minority protections. Emigration persisted through the 1950s and 1960s, driven by economic incentives in Israel and lingering insecurities, reducing the population from 46,000 in 1955 to 38,000 by 1965, with over 30,000 departing for Israel between 1948 and 1950 alone. Those who stayed demonstrated resilience, maintaining community institutions while aligning with Turkey's NATO-era modernization, though political representation waned after the 1960 military coup, reflecting a broader retreat from public life to preserve economic stability amid intermittent antisemitic rhetoric. This period solidified Jews as a diminutive yet economically functional minority, loyal to the secular republic but increasingly insular.

Rise of Political Islam and Tensions

The Justice and Development Party (AKP), emerging from the Islamist Milli Görüş tradition, secured victory in Turkey's November 2002 general elections, ushering in an era of political Islam that challenged the secular foundations of the Turkish Republic. Under Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, the AKP pursued economic liberalization that initially fostered goodwill among segments of the Jewish community, with some business leaders viewing the party as a counterweight to entrenched Kemalist elites. However, this rapport eroded as the government's foreign policy pivoted toward Islamist solidarity, particularly with Palestinian causes, intertwining with rhetoric that blurred into . Tensions escalated following Islamist-linked terrorist attacks on Istanbul's Neve Shalom and Beth Israel synagogues on November 15, 2003, which killed six and injured dozens in coordinated bombings attributed to al-Qaeda operatives. These incidents, occurring early in the AKP's tenure, heightened Jewish insecurity amid a broader rise in Islamist extremism, though the government condemned them publicly. Further strain emerged from Erdoğan's confrontational stance toward Israel, exemplified by his 2009 Davos clash with President Shimon Peres and the 2010 Mavi Marmara flotilla raid, which killed nine Turkish activists and prompted severed diplomatic ties until 2016. State media and pro-government outlets amplified narratives portraying Jews and Israel as conspiratorial forces, with tropes of global Jewish cabals invoked during domestic scandals, such as Erdoğan's 2013 attribution of corruption probes to a "Jewish diaspora" network. Subsequent Gaza conflicts in 2014 and 2021 fueled mass protests in Turkey, where anti-Israel demonstrations occasionally devolved into explicit antisemitic violence, including vandalism of synagogues and kosher stores. Erdoğan's public statements, such as equating Israeli policies with Nazism and calling for the destruction of "Zionist Israel" in prayers, normalized such sentiments, contributing to a climate where Jewish institutions required enhanced security. The community's response included low-profile advocacy and discreet emigration; Turkey's Jewish population, estimated at around 18,000 in the early 2000s, dwindled to approximately 14,300 by 2023, driven partly by these tensions alongside economic factors. While the AKP maintained formal protections for minorities under the Lausanne Treaty framework, the fusion of populist Islamism with anti-Western and anti-Israeli postures fostered systemic unease, prompting many Turkish Jews to prioritize dual citizenship and overseas ties as safeguards. This period marked a departure from Atatürk-era , where state ideology suppressed overt religious politics, toward a governance model prioritizing Muslim identity that indirectly marginalized non-Muslim groups.

21st-Century Antisemitism and Security Incidents

On November 15, 2003, suicide truck bombings targeted the and Beth Israel synagogues in Istanbul during Sabbath services, killing 28 people, including synagogue congregants and passersby, and injuring over 450 others. The attacks, linked to al-Qaeda operatives, were part of coordinated strikes that day, with subsequent bombings at the British consulate and HSBC headquarters bringing the total death toll to 57. Turkish authorities arrested suspects, including Turkish nationals trained in highlighting Islamist extremist networks operating within the country. The incident prompted enhanced security measures for Jewish sites, including permanent armed guards, as the community of approximately 20,000 at the time expressed heightened vulnerability amid global jihadist threats. In the ensuing decades, physical attacks remained infrequent but persistent threats from Islamist groups necessitated ongoing vigilance. In February 2023, Istanbul police arrested 15 suspects affiliated with ISIS-Khorasan plotting assaults on synagogues and churches. On December 29, 2023, authorities detained three ISIS-K members and 29 additional suspects planning similar strikes against synagogues, churches, and diplomatic targets in Ankara. These foiled plots underscored the enduring risk from transnational jihadist elements, despite Turkish government cooperation with the Jewish community on protective measures, such as deploying extra police during protests. Vandalism and harassment incidents surged amid geopolitical tensions, particularly following the October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel. On October 7, 2023, two assailants attacked a Chabad rabbi in Istanbul, shouting threats, with perpetrators at large as of year-end. That same day in 2024, the La Sinyora and Algazi synagogues in Izmir's Kemeraltı Bazaar were vandalized with graffiti and damage on the anniversary of the Hamas assault. Earlier, on October 28, 2023, "Murderer Israel" was scrawled on Izmir's Etz Hayim Synagogue, leading to the arrest of the perpetrator. In July 2022, dozens of graves in a 600-year-old Jewish cemetery were desecrated, prompting official condemnation and investigation. Such acts, often tied to anti-Israel sentiment, contributed to a climate of insecurity, with Jewish leaders reporting increased harassment and public calls for to emigrate. Government and media rhetoric under President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, including comparisons of Israel to Nazi Germany and endorsements of Hamas, has been cited by community representatives as amplifying ambient antisemitism, blurring lines between policy critique and ethnic targeting. For instance, on October 18, 2023, a Samsun city council member publicly praised in response to a Gaza hospital incident misattributed to Israel. While physical violence against Jews has not reached 2003 levels, these dynamics have accelerated emigration; the community dwindled from around 15,000 in 2010 to under 10,000 by 2023, with many citing safety concerns and dual citizenship options in Israel or elsewhere. Synagogues now operate under constant surveillance, reflecting a normalized state of fortified coexistence amid sporadic threats.

Cultural and Social Dimensions

Languages and Linguistic Evolution

The Jewish communities in Anatolia during the Byzantine period primarily spoke Yevanic, a Judeo-Greek dialect incorporating Hebrew loanwords and written in Hebrew script, which distinguished the from later arrivals. This language persisted among indigenous Greek-speaking Jews in regions like (then ) and coastal Aegean cities even after the Ottoman conquest in 1453, serving as their vernacular alongside liturgical Hebrew and Koine Greek influences. Following the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492, Sephardic immigrants introduced Judeo-Spanish, known as Ladino or Yahudice in the Ottoman Empire, which rapidly became the dominant language among Turkish Jewry due to the numerical superiority of Sephardim over Romaniotes. Ladino evolved as a hybrid vernacular blending medieval Castilian Spanish with Hebrew-Aramaic components for religious terms, alongside lexical borrowings from Turkish, Greek, Arabic, and Slavic languages encountered in Ottoman domains; it was typically written in Rashi script, a semi-cursive Hebrew alphabet. In the Ottoman era, Ladino functioned as the everyday language for commerce, literature, and family life within Jewish millets, while Turkish was adopted for official interactions and business, and Hebrew remained confined to sacred texts and scholarship. The establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923 initiated a sharp linguistic shift, with mandatory Turkish-language education in Jewish schools from 1924 onward accelerating assimilation and eroding Ladino's primacy as families prioritized fluency in the national language for social and economic integration. This decline intensified during the 1930s through Atatürk's language reforms, including the 1928 adoption of the Latin alphabet, which distanced younger generations from Hebrew-script Ladino texts, compounded by World War II-era pressures like the Varlık Vergisi wealth tax that prompted emigration and disrupted language transmission. By the mid-20th century, Ladino speakers dwindled as post-war waves to and elsewhere favored Hebrew or English, leaving Turkish as the unchallenged mother tongue for the remaining community of approximately 14,000-15,000 Jews, concentrated in . In contemporary Turkey, Turkish dominates daily life, education, and media among Jews, with Hebrew retained for religious observance and English or French serving as secondary languages in professional or international contexts due to global diaspora ties. Ladino persists as an endangered heritage language, spoken fluently by fewer than 100 elderly individuals in Turkey as of the early , though revival initiatives—including periodicals, cultural clubs, and digital archives—aim to preserve it through transcription into Latin script and teaching programs. These efforts reflect a causal link between historical assimilation policies and linguistic attrition, yet underscore Ladino's role in maintaining Sephardic identity amid broader Turkish nationalization.

Community Institutions and Education

The Jewish community in Turkey maintains a centralized structure under the Chief Rabbinate, known as Hahambaşı, an institution originating in the Ottoman Empire with the appointment of Moshe Capsali as the first Hakham Bashi in 1454 by Sultan Mehmed II. This office, recognized by the state, oversees religious matters, kosher certification, and communal welfare for the approximately 15,000 Jews, primarily in Istanbul. Communal governance occurs through cemaat foundations, which manage synagogues, cemeteries, and properties; Istanbul's Jewish community foundation, for instance, administers over 20 active synagogues, including historic ones like Ahrida (15th century) and Neve Shalom (1951). Additional institutions include hospitals such as Or-Ahayim, founded in 1898, and social organizations like the Arkadaş Association, which supports youth programs and cultural events. Historically, education within the community evolved from traditional talmudic study in yeshivas to modern schooling influenced by European models. The Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU), established in 1860, played a pivotal role by founding schools across the Ottoman Empire, emphasizing French language, secular subjects, and vocational training; by 1912, it operated 115 schools in Turkey with over 20,000 students, including prominent institutions in and Izmir. These AIU schools facilitated socioeconomic advancement but faced resistance from religious leaders concerned over secularization and language shifts from Ladino to French. Earlier efforts included the Camondo family's Escola school in in 1854, marking the onset of formalized Jewish education. In the Republican era, Jewish education integrated with national systems while preserving religious elements. The Ulus Jewish Schools, founded in 1914-1915 as Midrasha Yavne by the Bene Berit association, now serve around 600 students from preschool through high school, comprising about half of Istanbul's Jewish youth; enrollment has risen 77% since 2004, reflecting community efforts to counter assimilation amid emigration. The curriculum combines Turkish state requirements with Hebrew language, Jewish history, and ethics, supplemented by private religious instruction. AIU schools largely closed post-World War II due to nationalization and demographic decline, leaving Ulus as the primary Jewish educational hub. Community programs, including Chabad centers, further provide supplementary Torah classes and holiday education to sustain cultural continuity.

Economic Contributions and Notable Figures

Jewish merchants and financiers, particularly Sephardim who arrived after the 1492 expulsion from Spain, played a pivotal role in expanding Ottoman commerce and international trade networks during the 16th century, leveraging expertise in banking, textiles, and Mediterranean shipping to integrate the empire into global markets. These immigrants filled economic niches left vacant by the empire's rapid expansion, contributing to fiscal administration, tax collection, and state finances while establishing trading houses that connected Istanbul, Salonika, and Izmir with Europe and the Levant. By the 18th century, Jewish sarrafs (moneylenders) had become key creditors to the Ottoman treasury, providing loans for military campaigns and infrastructure amid growing fiscal pressures. During the Tanzimat reforms (1839–1876), Jewish bankers financed modernization efforts, including railways, telegraphs, and public debt restructuring, with families like the Camondos extending credit to the state and facilitating European investment in Ottoman infrastructure. In the Republican era, despite discriminatory wealth taxes in 1942 that targeted minorities and prompted some emigration, surviving Jewish entrepreneurs adapted to import-substitution industrialization, entering sectors like manufacturing, construction, and consumer goods. By the late 20th century, Turkish Jews operated firms in energy, plastics, and real estate, comprising a disproportionate share of Istanbul's small but influential commercial elite relative to their population of under 20,000. Notable figures exemplify these contributions. Doña Gracia Mendes Nasi (c. 1510–1569), a Sephardic banker who inherited the vast Mendes trading and finance network after fleeing Portugal, wielded economic influence in Istanbul by securing imperial monopolies on silk and spices, using her wealth to ransom Jewish captives and fund settlements in Ottoman territories. Abraham de Camondo (1785–1873), head of the Camondo banking house dubbed the "Rothschilds of the East," loaned millions to the Ottoman government for Tanzimat projects like the Constantinople-Galata bridge and debt consolidation, while advocating for Jewish emancipation and education reforms. In the 20th century, Isaac Carasso (1874–1939), born in Ottoman Salonika to a prominent Sephardic family, pioneered industrialized production in 1919, founding a company that evolved into the global Danone group and commercialized fermented dairy based on Balkan traditions. İshak Alaton (1927–2016), a Turkish-Jewish industrialist who apprenticed as a welder in Sweden before co-founding Alarko Holding in 1954, built a conglomerate employing thousands in construction, HVAC systems, and power plants, amassing a fortune estimated at $1 billion by 2016 and symbolizing minority resilience in Turkey's private sector.

International Relations and Diaspora

Turkey-Israel Diplomatic History

Turkey recognized the State of Israel on March 28, 1949, becoming the first Muslim-majority country to do so, less than a year after Israel's declaration of independence. Diplomatic relations were formalized shortly thereafter, with Turkey opening its first mission in Tel Aviv on January 7, 1950. This early alignment facilitated the emigration of approximately 34,000 Turkish Jews to Israel between 1948 and 1951, as Turkey granted exit visas amid post-World War II pressures and the establishment of the Jewish state. Relations remained cordial during the 1950s, bolstered by shared strategic interests against Soviet influence and Arab nationalism, including a secret 1958 meeting between Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion and Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes to discuss a peripheral alliance. However, tensions emerged with the 1956 Suez Crisis, when Turkey condemned Israel's invasion of Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and downgraded its legation to chargé d'affaires. Further strain followed the 1967 Six-Day War, as Turkey protested Israel's occupation of Arab territories, including , though it upgraded its mission to level in 1963. By 1980, Turkey elevated ties to embassy status but reduced them after Israel's annexation of East . The 1990s marked a peak in cooperation, often termed the "golden years," with full ambassadorial relations restored in 1992 and extensive military, intelligence, and economic agreements signed, including joint defense projects valued at hundreds of millions of dollars. Trade volume grew significantly, and cultural exchanges flourished, benefiting the Turkish Jewish community through enhanced security and reduced domestic pressures. Deterioration began under the Justice and Development Party (AKP) government after 2002; Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan visited Israel in 2005 offering mediation, but relations soured with Turkey's condemnation of Israel's 2008-2009 Operation Cast Lead in Gaza. The 2010 Mavi Marmara , in which Israeli forces killed nine Turkish citizens attempting to breach the Gaza blockade, prompted Turkey to recall its ambassador and suspend military ties. Formal downgrade occurred in 2011. Partial reconciliation followed Israeli Prime Minister 's 2013 apology for the flotilla incident and a 2016 agreement providing $20 million in compensation to victims' families, normalizing ties and resuming ambassador exchanges. Full restoration came in August 2022, with ambassadors appointed amid mutual economic interests—bilateral trade reached $8.91 billion by 2022. However, the October 7, 2023, attacks on Israel and subsequent Gaza war reversed gains; Erdoğan labeled Israel's response "genocide" and supported as a "resistance movement," withdrawing ambassadors and backing South Africa's International Court of Justice case against Israel. Turkey halted direct trade with Israel in May 2024 and, on November 13, 2024, Erdoğan announced the severing of all diplomatic relations, citing Israel's Gaza operations. These fluctuations have directly impacted Turkey's Jewish community of around 15,000-20,000, primarily in Istanbul and Izmir. Stronger ties have historically enabled public Jewish events, such as 2015 Hanukkah celebrations attended by officials, and bolstered security against threats like a 2016 ISIS plot against synagogues. Deterioration, particularly post-2010 and after 2023, has heightened vulnerabilities, with Turkish Jews navigating dual loyalties amid rising antisemitic rhetoric and incidents, though community leaders have occasionally served as economic bridges. Economic ties persisted covertly despite official breaks, mitigating some business disruptions for Jewish entrepreneurs.

Global Turkish Jewish Diaspora

The global diaspora of Turkish Jews emerged primarily from waves of emigration in the 20th century, driven by the founding of Israel in 1948, economic prospects abroad, and episodes of instability in Turkey such as the 1942 Varlık Vergisi wealth tax and later political shifts. These migrants and their descendants have formed communities that preserve elements of Sephardic tradition, including the Ladino language, while adapting to host societies. The largest such group resides in Israel, where approximately 64,299 individuals immigrated directly from Turkey between 1948 and recent years, contributing to a broader population of around 77,000 Israelis of Turkish origin. This community maintains strong institutional ties, including synagogues and cultural associations in cities like Tel Aviv and Bat Yam, and has produced prominent figures in politics, arts, and business. In the United States, Turkish Jews established significant enclaves, particularly in New York City—where early 20th-century arrivals from Ottoman territories integrated into the garment trade and finance—and . Seattle's Sephardic community, numbering about 5,000 as of 2019 and ranking as the third-largest in the U.S., traces much of its origins to Ottoman Jews from , , and Salonika who arrived around 1900-1920 via ; these settlers built institutions like the Sephardic Bikur Holim Congregation, founded in 1902, which serves as a hub for preserving traditions amid assimilation. New York's Turkish Jewish population, though not precisely quantified in recent censuses, supports active synagogues and mutual aid societies, reflecting patterns of chain migration from Istanbul and Izmir. Post-1950s emigration to the U.S. often involved professionals seeking stability, with communities fostering bilingual education and philanthropy linked back to . Smaller but vibrant Turkish Jewish diasporas exist in Latin America, Europe, and Canada. In Argentina and Brazil, early 20th-century settlers from Ottoman Turkey engaged in commerce, forming synagogues and schools in Buenos Aires and São Paulo; notable descendants include media entrepreneur Silvio Santos, whose family originated from Ottoman Jewish stock. European communities, concentrated in France (Paris), Italy (Milan), and the United Kingdom (London), stem from mid-century migrations and number in the low thousands collectively, often blending with broader Sephardic groups while navigating local antisemitism concerns. In Canada, particularly Toronto and Montreal, several hundred Turkish Jewish families maintain synagogues and cultural events, supported by immigration spikes in the 1970s-1980s amid Turkey's coups. These outposts emphasize dual identities, with many diaspora members retaining Turkish passports, visiting ancestral sites, and contributing to Turkey-Israel people-to-people ties despite governmental strains. Overall, the diaspora totals an estimated 100,000-150,000 beyond Turkey's borders, with ongoing aliyah to Israel—1,002 arrivals from 2005-2015 alone—reflecting persistent security and opportunity pulls.

Current Community Demographics and Challenges

As of 2024, the Jewish population in Turkey stands at approximately 14,200, predominantly of Sephardic origin, with the vast majority residing in (around 10,000-12,000 individuals) and smaller communities in Izmir (about 1,500), , and a handful of other cities. The community is notably aging, with only about 20% of members under 25 years old—far below the national average of roughly 50% for that age group—reflecting low birth rates and high intermarriage, which contribute to a shrinking core population. The Jewish community maintains a low public profile amid ongoing challenges, including persistent emigration driven by economic instability, compulsory military service for males, and better opportunities abroad, particularly in Israel, the United States, and Europe. Since the October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel and the ensuing Gaza conflict, antisemitic incidents have surged, including hate speech, vandalism, and verbal harassment, exacerbated by inflammatory rhetoric from political figures and state media that conflate Israeli policies with Turkish Jews. Community members report adopting pseudonyms resembling Muslim names for safety and avoiding visible Jewish symbols, while synagogues operate under heavy police protection due to threats, echoing vulnerabilities exposed by past attacks like the 2003 Istanbul bombings. Economic pressures compound these issues, as Turkey's high inflation (exceeding 60% in 2023-2024) and currency devaluation strain middle-class livelihoods, prompting further outflows among younger professionals in sectors like trade, finance, and textiles where Jews have historically been active. Despite formal government assurances of minority rights under the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, the politicization of anti-Israel sentiment—often amplified by President Erdoğan's administration—has fostered a climate of insecurity, with surveys indicating heightened fear among Jews of being targeted as proxies for foreign policy disputes. This dynamic, rooted in causal links between regional conflicts and domestic minority tensions, underscores the community's efforts to preserve institutions like schools and hospitals while grappling with assimilation and demographic decline.

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  126. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13537121.2024.2295629
  127. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/total-immigration-to-israel-by-country-of-origin
  128. https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/jews-from-around-the-world-come-to-seattle-to-see-the-u-s-3rd-largest-sephardic-community/
  129. https://www.timesofisrael.com/young-turkish-jews-trickling-away-from-shrinking-community/
  130. https://jcpa.org/article/turkish-jewry-today/
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