Valencian language

The Valencian language is usually assumed to have spread in the Kingdom of Valencia when Catalan and Aragonese colonists settled the territory after the conquests carried out by James the Conqueror.^[20] A new resettlement in the 17th century, after the expulsion of the Moriscos, largely led by Castilians, defined the Spanish language varieties of inland Valencia. However, Valencian has historically been the predominant and administrative language in the kingdom.

The first documental reference to the usage of the term valencià to refer to the spoken language of the Valencians is found in a judicial process of Minorca against Gil de Lozano, dated between 1343 and 1346, in which it is said that the mother of the indicted, Sibila, speaks valencianesch because she was from Orihuela (formerly Oriola).^[21]

The concept of Valencian language appeared in the second half of the 14th century and it was progressively consolidated at the same time that its meaning changed due to events of a diverse nature (political, social, economic).^[22] In the previous centuries the Catalan spoken in the territory of the Kingdom of Valencia was called in different ways: romanç (13th century) and catalanesch (during the 14th century, for the medieval concept of nation as a linguistic community). The concept of the Valencian language appeared with a particularistic character due to the reinforced nature of the legal entity of the Kingdom of Valencia for being the Mediterranean commercial power during the 14th and 15th centuries, becoming in the cultural and literary centre of the Crown of Aragon. Thus, the Valencians, together with the Majorcans, presented themselves to other peoples as Catalans while they referred to themselves as Valencians and Majorcans to themselves to emphasise the different legal citizenship of each kingdom.^[23]

In the 15th century, the so-called Valencian Golden Age, the name "Valencian" was already the usual name of the predominant language of the Kingdom of Valencia, and the names of vulgar, romanç or catalanesch had fallen into disuse. Joanot Martorell, author of the novel Tirant lo Blanch, said: "lit. 'Me atrevire expondre: no solament de lengua anglesa en portuguesa. Mas encara de portuguesa en vulgar valenciana: per ço que la nacio d·on yo so natural se·n puxa alegrar'." ("I dare to express myself: not only in English in Portuguese. But even so from Portuguese to vulgar Valencian: for that the nation I am from born can rejoice").

Since the Spanish democratic transition, the autonomy or heteronomy of Valencian with respect to the rest of the Valencian-Catalan linguistic system has been the subject of debate and controversy among Valencians, usually with a political background. Although in the academic field (universities and institutions of recognised prestige) of linguists the unity of the language has never been questioned since studies of the Romance languages, part of Valencian public opinion believes and affirms that Valencian and Catalan are different languages, an idea that began to spread during the turbulent Valencian transition by sectors of the regionalist right and by the so-called blaverisme (Blaverism). There is an alternative secessionist linguistic regulation, the Normes del Puig (Norms of El Puig), drawn up by the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), an institution founded in 1915 by the Deputation of Valencia, but its use is very marginal.

The official status of Valencian is regulated by the Spanish Constitution and the Valencian Statute of Autonomy, together with the Law on the Use and Teaching of Valencian (ca).

Article 6 of the Valencian Statute of Autonomy sets the legal status of Valencian, establishing that:^[24]

• The native language^[h] of the Valencian Community is Valencian.
• Valencian is the official language in the Valencian Community, along with Spanish, which is the official language of Spain. Everyone shall have the right to know and use them, and to receive education on Valencian and in Valencian.
• No one can be discriminated against by reason of their language.
• Special protection and respect shall be given to the recuperation of Valencian.
• The Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua shall be the normative institution of the Valencian language.

Passed in 1983, the Law on the Use and Teaching of Valencian develops this framework, providing for the implementation of a bilingual educational system, regulating the use of Valencian in the public administration and judiciary system, where citizens can freely use it when acting before both, or establishing the right to be informed by media in Valencian among others.

Valencian is also protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, ratified by Spain. However, the Committee of Experts of the Charter has pointed out a considerable number of deficiencies in the application of the Charter by the Spanish and Valencian governments.^[25]

Unlike in other bilingual autonomous communities, Valencian has not historically been spoken to the same extent throughout the Valencian Community. Slightly more than a quarter of its territory, equivalent to 10-15% of the population (its inland and southernmost areas), is Spanish-speaking since the Middle Ages. Additionally, it is also spoken by a small number of people in the Carche comarca, a rural area in the Region of Murcia adjoining the Valencian Community.^[26][27][28] Nevertheless, Valencian does not have any official recognition in this area. Nowadays about 600 people are able to speak Valencian in Carche.^[29]

The Valencian language is traditionally spoken along the coast and in some inland areas in the provinces of Alicante and Castellón, from Vinaròs (northernmost point of the extension of Valencian on the coast of the Valencian Community) to Guardamar (southernmost point of Valencian).

In 2010 the Generalitat Valenciana, or Valencian government, published a study, Coneixement i ús social del valencià (Knowledge and Social Use of Valencian),^[30] which included a survey sampling more than 6,600 people in the provinces of Castellón, Valencia, and Alicante. The survey simply collected the answers of respondents and did not include any testing or verification. The results were:

• Valencian was the language "always, generally, or most commonly used":
  • at home: 31.6%
  • with friends: 28.0%
  • in internal business relations: 24.7%
• For ability:
  • 48.5% answered they can speak Valencian "perfectly" or "quite well" (54.3% in the Valencian-speaking areas and 10% in the Spanish-speaking areas)
  • 26.2% answered they can write Valencian "perfectly" or "quite well" (29.5% in the Valencian-speaking areas and 5.8% in the Spanish-speaking areas)

The survey shows that, although Valencian is still the common language in many areas in the Valencian Community, where slightly more than half of the Valencian population are able to speak it, most Valencians do not usually use Valencian in their social relations.

Moreover, according to the most recent survey in 2021,^[31] there is a downward trend in everyday Valencian users. The lowest numbers are in the major cities of Valencia and Alicante, where the percentage of everyday speakers is at single-digit numbers. However, the percentage of residents who claim to be able to understand and read Valencian seems to have increased since 2015.

Due to a number of political and social factors, including repression, immigration and lack of formal instruction in Valencian, the number of speakers has severely decreased, and the influence of Spanish has led to the appearance of a number of barbarisms.^[33]

This is a list of features of the main forms of Valencian. There is a great deal of variety within the Valencian Community, and by no means do the features below apply to every local version. For more general information about other linguistic varieties, see Catalan language.

The Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (AVL) specifies Standard Valencian as having some specific syntax, vocabulary, verb conjugations and accent marks compared to Standard Catalan.

• The stressed vowel system of Valencian (V) is the same as that of Eastern Catalan (EC):
  • /a/, /e/, /ɛ/, /i/, /o/, /ɔ/, and /u/ (with /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ being considerably lower than in EC).^[41]

Close (and close-mid) vowels

• The vowels /i/ and /u/ are more open and centralised than in Spanish.
  • This effect is more pronounced in unstressed syllables, where the phones are best transcribed [ɪ, ʊ]^[42] (e.g. xiquet [t͡ʃɪˈket] 'boy'). As the process is completely predictable, the latter symbols are not used elsewhere in the article.
    • (Due to the proximity of unstressed close and/or close-mid/mid vowels, non-standard colloquial Valencian may feature further lowerings producing vowel alterations or metathesis, e.g. piscina → *pescina 'pool').^[43]
• The vowel /e/ is somewhat retracted [e̠] and /o/ is somewhat advanced [o̟] both in stressed and unstressed syllables (e.g. metro [ˈme̠tɾo̟] 'metro').
  • /e/ and /o/ can be realised as mid vowels [e̞, o̞] in some cases. This occurs more often with /o/ (e.g. amor [aˈmo̞ɾ] 'love').^[44]

Open vowels

• The so-called "open vowels", /ɛ/ and /ɔ/, are generally as low as /a/ in most Valencian dialects. The phonetic realisations of /ɛ/ approaches [æ] and /ɔ/ is as open as [ɒ] (as in traditional RP dog). This feature is also found in Balearic.^[45] For a list showing the frequency of these vowels, see cases where /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ are found in Valencian.
  • /ɛ/ is slightly more open and centralised before liquids /l, ɾ, r/ (e.g. verdes [ˈvæɾðes] 'greens') and in monosyllabics (set [ˈsæt] 'seven').^[46]
  • /ɔ/ is most often a back vowel (soc [ˈsɒk] 'clog', bou [ˈbɒw] 'bull').
    • In some dialects (including Balearic) /ɔ/ can be unrounded ([ˈsɑk], [ˈbɑw]).^[47]
• The vowel /a/ is slightly more fronted and closed than in Central EC (but less fronted and closed than in Majorcan). The precise phonetic realisation of the vowel /a/ in Valencian is [ɐ ~ ä], this vowel is subject to assimilation in many instances.^[48]
  • Stressed /a/ can be retracted to [ɑ] in contact with velar consonants (including the velarised [ɫ]):^[48] pal [ˈpɑl] ('stick'); and fronted to [a] in contact with palatals:^[48] nyap [ˈɲap] ('botched job'). This is not transcribed in the article.
    • The palatal pronunciation of /a/ may merge with /ɛ/ by some speakers: raig [ˈræt͡ʃ] ('ray').^[49]

Vowel reduction

• There are five general unstressed vowels /a, e, i, o, u/ (rare instances of /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ are found through compounding and vowel harmony). Although unstressed vowels are more stable than in EC dialects, there are many cases where they merge:^[50]
  • /a/: final unstressed /a/ may have the following values: [ɛ̈ ~ ɔ̈ ~ ä̝] (phonetically [ɜ ~ ɞ ~ ɐ], and traditionally transcribed without diacritics and/or atypical characters: /ɛ, ɔ, a/ for simplicity), depending on the preceding sounds and/or dialect (see vowel harmony below).
    • In some regions of the Valencian Community (especially Southern Valencian) unstressed /a/ followed by stressed /i/ becomes [ə]: raïm [rəˈim] ('grape'). Beltran i Calvo (2000) states,^[51] that final /a/ is close to [ə] in some towns of Marina Alta: xica [ˈt͡ʃikə] ('girl').
  • /e/: unstressed /e/ and /ɛ/ may be realised as /a/ (phonetically [a], [ɐ̃], [ɑ̃], etc.) in initial position in contact with sibilants, nasals and certain approximants and liquids (e.g. eixam [ajˈʃam] 'swarm').
    • Similarly (although not recommended by the AVL), unstressed /e/ and /ɛ/ merges with /i/ (phonetically [ɪ]) in contact with palatal consonants (e.g. genoll [d͡ʒiˈnoʎ] 'knee'), and especially (in this case it is accepted) in lexical derivation with the suffix -ixement (e.g. coneixement [konejʃiˈment] 'knowledge').
      • In the standard (/e/ → /i/ [ɪ]) is only accepted in words with the suffix -ixement).^[52]
  • /i/: it is more open and centralised [ɪ] in unstressed position.
  • /o/: unstressed /o/ and /ɔ/ may be realised as /u/ (phonetically [ʊ]) before labial consonants (e.g. coberts [kuˈbɛɾ(t)s] 'cutlery'), before a stressed syllable with a high vowel (e.g. sospira [susˈpiɾa] 'they [s.] sighs') and in some given names (e.g. Josep [d͡ʒuˈzɛp] 'Joseph').
    • (Note in some colloquial speeches initial unstressed /o/ can diphthongise to [aw], olor [awˈloɾ]) 'smell (n.)'). This is regarded as non-standard.
  • /u/: it is more open and centralised [ʊ] in unstressed position.

Elision and diphthongisation

• In certain cases, unstressed /a/ and /e/ become silent when followed or preceded by a stressed vowel:
  • Unstressed /a/: quina hora és? [ˌkin‿ˈɔɾɔ ˈes] or [ˌkin‿ˈɔɾa ˈes] ('what time is it?')
  • Unstressed /e/: este home [ˌest‿ˈɔme] ('this man').
• In some accents, vowels occurring at the end of a prosodic unit may be realised as centring diphthongs for special emphasis, so that Eh tu! Vine ací 'Hey you (s.)! Come here!' may be pronounced [ˈe ˈtuə̯ ˈvine a̯ˈsiə̯]. The non-syllabic [a̯] (phonetically [ɐ̯]) is unrelated to this phenomenon as it is an unstressed non-syllabic allophone of /a/ that occurs after vowels, much like in Spanish.

Vowel harmony

• Many Valencian dialects feature some sort of vowel harmony (harmonia vocàlica). This process is normally progressive (i.e. preceding vowels affect those pronounced afterwards) over the last unstressed vowel of a word; e.g. tela /ˈtɛla/ > [ˈtɛlɛ] 'fabric, cloth', hora /ˈɔɾa/ > [ˈɔɾɔ] 'hour'. However (although regarded as non-standard), there are cases where regressive metaphony occurs over pretonic vowels; e.g. afecta /aˈfɛkta/ > [ɛˈfɛktɛ] 'affects', tovallola /tovaˈʎɔla/ > [tɔvɔˈʎɔlɔ] 'towel'.
  • Vowel harmony differs greatly from dialect to dialect, while many varieties assimilate both to the height and the quality of the preceding stressed vowel (e.g. terra [ˈtɛrɛ] 'Earth, land' and dona [ˈdɔnɔ] 'woman'); in other varieties, it is just the height that assimilates, so that terra and dona can be realised with either /ɛ/ ([ˈtɛrɛ] and/or [ˈdɔnɛ]) or with /ɔ/ ([ˈtɛrɔ] and/or [ˈdɔnɔ]), depending on the region and speaker.^[53]
    • In some subvarieties the unstressed vowels produced by vowel harmony may actually be higher than the stressed ones (e.g. porta [ˈpɔɾtɔ̝] 'door').
• In a wider sense, vowel assimilations can occur in further instances (that is all or most instances of final unstressed /а/, regardless of the preceding sounds and involving palatalisation and/or velarisation): xica [ˈt͡ʃikɛ] or [ˈt͡ʃikɔ] ('girl'). This is considered non-standard.

Other sound changes

Vowel nasalisation and lengthening

• All vowels are phonetically nasalised between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal (e.g. diumenge [diwˈmẽɲd͡ʒe], colloquial [duˈmẽɲd͡ʒe] 'Sunday').^[50]
• Vowels can be lengthened in some contexts^[50] (e.g. coordinació [koːɾðinasiˈo] 'coordination').

Nasals

• /m/ is bilabial, except before /v/ and /f/ where it becomes labiodental [ɱ].
• /n/ is apical front alveolar [n̺], and laminal denti-alveolar [n̪] before /t/ and /d/.
  • In addition, /n/ is postalveolar [n̠] or alveolo-palatal [ɲ̟] before /d͡ʒ/, /t͡ʃ/, and /ʃ/; velar [ŋ] before /ɡ/ and /k/; and labiodental [ɱ] before /v/ and /f/, where it merges with /m/. It also merges with /m/ (to [m]) before /b/ and /p/.
• /ɲ/ is laminal front alveolo-palatal [ɲ̟].
• /ŋ/ is velar and is only found in the coda.

Obstruents

• Obstruents assimilate to the voicing of the following consonant and vowel: els amics [elz‿aˈmiks] ('the friends').
  • Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing so that fred ('cold' [m., s.]) is pronounced with [t] (or [d̥]) [ˈfɾet] while fredes ('cold' [f., pl.]) is pronounced with [ð] [ˈfɾeðes]. (See also "plosives" and "affricates and fricatives").

Plosives

• /b/ and /p/ are bilabial.
  • /b/ is lenited to the approximant (or fricative) [β̞] (or [β]) in betacist dialects, after a continuant, i.e. a vowel or any type of consonant other than a stop or nasal (e.g. cabut [kaˈβ̞ut] 'big head, stubborn' vs. canvi [ˈkambi] 'change', Standard without betacism: [kaˈbut] and [ˈkaɱvi]).
  • Voiced contrast is lost word finally, so cub ('cube') and cup ('winepress') are both pronounced with final [p] (also represented as [b̥]).
    • Final /p/ may be lenited before a vowel: cap estret [ˈkab‿esˈtɾet] or [ˈkaβ̞‿esˈtɾet] ('narrow head').^[61]
    • Final /p/ after nasals is preserved in most dialects: camp [ˈkamp] ('field').
• /d/ and /t/ are laminal denti-alveolar [t̪] and [d̪]. After /s/ and /z/, they are laminal alveolar [t̻] and [d̻].
  • /d/ is lenited to the approximant (or fricative) [ð̞] (or [ð]), after a continuant, i.e. a vowel or any type of consonant other than a stop or nasal (exceptions include /d/ after lateral consonants): fades [ˈfað̞es] 'fairies' vs. faldes [ˈfal̪des] ('skirts').
    • /d/ [ð] is often elided between vowels following a stressed syllable (found notably in feminine participles, /ada/ → [aː], and in the suffix -dor); e.g. fideuà [fiðeˈwaː] ( < fideuada) 'fideuà', mocador [mokaˈoɾ] 'tissue' (note this feature, although widely spread in south Valencia, is not recommended in Standard Valencian,^[40] except for reborrowed terms such as Albà, Roà, the previously mentioned fideuà, etc.).
  • Voiced contrast is lost word finally, so sord ('deaf') and sort ('luck') are both pronounced with final [t] (also represented as [d̥]).
    • Final /t/ may be lenited before a vowel: tot açò [ˈtoð‿aˈsɔ] ('all this').^[61]
    • Final /t/ after nasals and laterals is preserved in most dialects: cent [ˈsen̪t] ('hundred') and molt [ˈmol̪t] ('very').
• /ɡ/ and /k/ are velar.
  • /ɡ/ and /k/ are fronted to pre-velar position [ɟ̠, c̠] before front vowels: qui [ˈc̠i] ('who'). This is not transcribed in broader transcriptions of Valencian.
  • /ɡ/ is lenited to the approximant (or fricative) [ɣ̞] (or [ɣ]) after a continuant, i.e. a vowel or any type of consonant other than a stop or nasal.
    • In some dialects, /ɡ/ may lenite [ɣ] in all environments (e.g. gat [ˈɣ̞at]), except after nasal (angoixa [aŋˈɡojʃa] 'anguish').^[62]
  • Voiced contrast is lost word finally, so reg ('irrigation') and rec ('irrigation ditch') are both pronounced with final [k] (also represented as [ɡ̥]).
    • Final /k/ may be lenited before a vowel: poc alt [ˈpɔɣ‿ˈal̪t] ('not very tall').^[61]
    • Final /k/ after nasals is preserved in most dialects: banc [ˈbaŋk] ('bank').

Affricates and fricatives

•  /d͡z/ and /t͡s/ are apical alveolar [d͡z̺] and [t͡s̺]. They may be somewhat fronted, so that the stop component is laminal denti-alveolar, while the fricative component is apical post-dental. /t͡s/ is rare and may not be phonemic.
  • In the Standard, intervocalic /d͡z/, e.g. setze ('sixteen'), and /t͡s/, e.g. potser ('maybe'), are recommended to be pronounced with a gemination of the stop element ([dd͡z] and [tt͡s], respectively. However this is not transcribed in standard transcriptions.
    • Note /d͡z/ is deaffricated to [z] in verbs ending in -itzar and derivatives: analitzar [analiˈzaɾ] ('to analyse'), organització [oɾɣanizasiˈo] ('organisation'). Also in words like botzina [boˈzina] ('horn'), horitzó [oɾiˈzo] ('horizon') and magatzem [maɣaˈzem] ('storehouse') (cf. guitza [ˈɡid͡za], 'kick' (from an animal)).
• /d͡ʒ/, /t͡ʃ/, ([ʒ]), and /ʃ/ are described as back alveolo-palatal, or postalveolar.
  • Valencian has preserved in most of its varieties the mediaeval voiced pre-palatal affricate /d͡ʒ/ (similar to the j in English "jeep") in contexts where other modern dialects have developed fricative consonants /ʒ/ (like the si in English "vision"), e.g. dijous [diˈd͡ʒɔws] ('Thursday').
  • Note the fricative [ʒ] (and [jʒ]) appears only as a voiced allophone of /ʃ/ (and /jʃ/) before vowels and voiced consonants; e.g. peix al forn [ˈpejʒ al ˈfoɾn] ('oven fish').
  • Unlike other Catalan dialects, /d͡ʒ/ and /t͡ʃ/ do not geminate (in most accents): metge [ˈmed͡ʒe] ('medic'), and cotxe [ˈkot͡ʃe] ('car'). Exceptions may include learned terms like pidgin [ˈpidd͡ʒin] ('pidgin').
  • Final etymological /d͡ʒ/ is devoiced to [t͡ʃ]: lleig [ˈʎet͡ʃ] ('ugly').
• /z/ and /s/ are apical back alveolar [z̺] and [s̺], also described as postalveolar.
  • In some dialects, /s/ is pronounced [sʲ] or [ʃ] after /i, j, ʎ, ɲ/. In the Standard only is accepted after /i/ (in the inchoative form with /sk/ → [ʃk]), and after /ʎ, ɲ/: ells [ˈeʎʃ] ('they' [pl.]). In some variants the result may be an affricate.^[63]
  • Final /z/ is devoiced to [s] (also represented as [z̥]): brunz [ˈbɾuns] ('they [s.] buzzes').
• /v/ and /f/ are labiodental.
  • /v/ occurs in Balearic,^[64] Alguerese, Standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia (e.g. viu [ˈviw], 'they [s.] lives').^[65] It has merged with /b/ elsewhere.^[66]
    • /v/ is realised as an approximant [ʋ] after continuants: avanç [aˈʋans] ('advance'). This is not transcribed in this article.
    • Final /v/ is devoiced to [f] (also represented as [v̥]): salv [ˈsalf] ('save, except').

Liquids (rhotics and laterals)

• /l/ is apical front alveolar [l̺], and laminal denti-alveolar [l̪] before /t/ and /d/. (In addition, /l/ is postalveolar [l̠] or alveolo-palatal [ʎ̟] before /d͡ʒ/, /t͡ʃ/, and /ʃ/).
  • /l/ is normally velarised ([ɫ]), especially in the coda.
    • /l/ is generally dropped in the word altre [ˈatɾe] ('other'), as well as in derived terms.^[40]
• /ʎ/ is laminal front alveolo-palatal [ʎ̟].
• /ɾ/ is apical front alveolar [ɾ̺] and /r/ is apical back alveolar [r̺], also described as postalveolar.
  • Between vowels, the two rhotics contrast (e.g. mira [ˈmiɾa] 'they [s.] looks' vs. mirra [ˈmira] 'myrrh'), but they are otherwise in complementary distribution. [ɾ] appears in the onset, except in word-initial position (ruc 'donkey'), after /l/, /n/, and /s/ (folre 'lining', honra 'honour', and Israel 'Israel'), and in compounds (infraroig 'infrared'), where [r] is used.
  • /ɾ/ is mostly retained in the coda (e.g. anar [aˈnaɾ], 'to go'), except for some cases where it can be dropped: prendre [ˈpendɾe] ('to take'), arbre [ˈabɾe] ('tree'), and diners [diˈnes] ('money').^[40]
    • In some dialects /ɾ/ can be further dropped in combinatory forms with infinitives and pronouns (anar-me'n [aˈna.men] 'to go away, to leave' [myself]).
    • In other dialects, further instances of final /ɾ/ (like nouns and/or infinitives, regardless of combinatory forms with pronouns) are lost: anar [aˈna] ('to go').

Semivowels

• The vowels /i/ and /u/ have as non-vocalic correlates the semivowels [j] and [w], respectively, which form a diphthong with the preceding or following vowel (e.g. hiena [ˈjena] 'hyena', feia [ˈfeja] 'I / they [s.] was doing', meua [ˈmewa] 'mine', pasqua [ˈpaskwa] 'Easter').
  • According Wheeler (2005),^[67] the sequences [ɡw] or [kw] are regarded as labiovelar phonemes /ɡʷ/ and /kʷ/.

Metathesis

• In some places, some terms can undergo sound changes (such as metathesis), like cridar → *crid(r)ar or quid(r)ar ('to call'). This is heard frequently in the term aigua (standard) → àuia (colloquial) ('water').

• The present first-person singular of verbs differs from Central Catalan. All those forms without final -o are more akin to mediaeval Catalan and contemporary Balearic Catalan.

• Present subjunctive is more akin to medieval Catalan and Spanish; -ar infinitives end ⟨e⟩, -re, -er and -ir verbs end in ⟨a⟩ (in contemporary Central Catalan present subjunctive ends in ⟨i⟩).
• An exclusive feature of Valencian is the subjunctive imperfect morpheme -ra: que ell vinguera ('that he might come').
• Valencian has -i- as theme vowel for inchoative verbs of the third conjugation; e.g. servix ('they [s.] serves'), like North-Western Catalan. Although, again, this cannot be generalised since there are Valencian dialects that utilise -ei-, e.g. serveix.
• In Valencian the simple past tense (e.g. cantà 'he sang') is more frequently used in speech than in Central Catalan, where the periphrastic past (e.g. va cantar 'he sang') is prevailing and the simple past mostly appears in written language. The same, however, may be said of the Balearic dialects.^[68]
• The second-person singular of the present tense of the verb ser ('to be'), ets ('you [s.] are'), has been replaced by eres in colloquial speech.
• The infinitive veure ('to see') has the variant vore, which belongs to more informal and spontaneous registers.
• The usage of the periphrasis of obligation tindre + que + infinitive is widely spread in colloquial Valencian, instead of the Standard haver + de (equivalent to English "have to").

Clitics

• In general, use of modern forms of the determinate article (el, els 'the') and the third-person unstressed object pronouns (el, els 'him, them'), though some dialects (for instance the one spoken in Vinaròs area) preserve etymological forms lo, los as in Lleida. For the other unstressed object pronouns, etymological old forms (me, te, se, ne, mos, vos...) can be found, depending on places, in conjunction with the more modern reinforced ones (em, et, es, en, ens, us...).
  • Several local variations for nosaltres ('we'), vosaltres ('you [pl.]'): mosatros, moatros, matros, etc. and vosatros, voatros, vatros, etc.; also for the weak form mos/-mos instead of standard ens/'ns/-nos ('us') and vos/-vos instead of us/-vos ('you pl.'), the latter (vos, instead of us) is considered standard.
• The adverbial pronoun hi ('there') is almost never used in speech and is replaced by other pronouns. The adverbial pronoun en ('him/her/them/it') is used less than in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.^[68]
• Combined weak clitics with li ('him/her/it') preserve the li, whereas in Central Catalan it is replaced by hi. For example, the combination li + el gives li'l in Valencian (l'hi in Central Catalan).
• The weak pronoun ho ('it') is pronounced as:
  • [ew], when it forms syllable with a pronoun: m'ho dona [mew ˈðona], dona-m'ho [ˈdonamew] ('they [s.] gives it to me')
  • [ew] or [u], when it comes before a verb starting with consonant: ho dona [ew ˈðona] (or [u ˈðona]) ('they [s.] gives it')
  • [w], when precedes a vowel or when coming after a vowel: li ho dona [liw ˈðona] ('they [s.] gives it to her/him'), dona-ho [ˈdonaw] ('you [s.] give it')
  • [o], when it comes after a consonant or a semivowel: donar-ho [doˈnaɾo] ('to give it').
• The personal pronoun jo ('I') and the adverb ja ('already') are not pronounced according to the spelling, but to the etymology ([ˈjɔ] and [ˈja], instead of /ˈ(d)ʒɔ/ and /ˈ(d)ʒa/). Similar pronunciations can be heard in North-Western Catalan and Ibizan.
• The preposition amb ('with') merges with en ('in') in most Valencian dialects.
• The compound preposition per a ('for') is usually reduced to p'a in colloquial Valencian.
• Valencian preserves the mediaeval system of demonstratives with three different levels of demonstrative precision (este or aquest/açò/ací, eixe or aqueix/això/ahí, aquell/allò/allí or allà, where aquest and aqueix are almost never used) (feature shared with modern Ribagorçan and Tortosan).
  • The colloquial variant of açò ('this'), astò, is heard frequently in Alicante's Valencian.

Valencian vocabulary contains words both restricted to the Valencian-speaking domain, as well as words shared with other Catalan varieties, especially with North-Western ones. Words are rarely spread evenly over the Valencian Community, but are usually contained to parts of it, or spread out into other dialectal areas. Examples include hui 'today' (found in all of Valencia except transitional dialects, in Northern dialects avui) and espill 'mirror' (shared with North-Western dialects, Central Catalan mirall). There is also variation within Valencia, such as 'corn', which is dacsa in Central and Southern Valencian, but panís in Alicante and Northern Valencian (as well as in North-Western Catalan). Since Standard Valencian is based on the Southern dialect, words from this dialect are often used as primary forms in the standard language, despite other words traditionally being used in other Valencian dialects. Examples of this are tomaca 'tomato' (which is tomata outside of Southern Valencian) and matalaf 'mattress' (which is matalap in parts of Valencia, including the Southern Valencian area).

Below are a selection of words which differ or have different forms in Standard Valencian and Catalan. In many cases, both standards include this variation in their respective dictionaries, but differ as to what form is considered primary. In other cases, Valencian includes colloquial forms not present in the IEC standard. Primary forms in each standard are shown in bold (and may be more than one form). Words in brackets are present in the standard in question, but differ in meaning from how the cognate is used in the other standard.

Standard Valencian (AVL)[69]	Standard Catalan (IEC)[70]	English
ací, aquí	aquí, ací	here
avi, iaio, uelo	avi, iaio	grandpa
així, aixina	així	like this
artista; artiste, -a	artista	artist
bou, brau, toro	toro, bou, brau	bull
brull, brossat, mató	mató, brull, brossat	curd cheese
bresquilla, préssec	préssec, bresquilla	peach
festa, comboi	festa	fest
corder, xai, anyell	xai, corder, anyell	lamb
creïlla, patata	patata, creïlla	potato
dacsa, panís	blat de moro, panís	corn
dènou, dèneu, dinou	dinou, dènou	nineteen
dos, dues	dues, dos	two (f.)
eixe, aqueix	aqueix, eixe	that
eixir, sortir	sortir, eixir	to exit, leave
engrunsador(a), gronxador(a)	gronxador(a)	swing
espill, mirall	mirall, espill	mirror
este, aquest	aquest, este	this
fraula, maduixa	maduixa, fraula	strawberry
germà, tete	germà	brother
granera, escombra	escombra, granera	broom
hui, avui	avui, hui	today
llaurador, pagés	pagès, laurador	farmer
lluny, llunt	lluny	far
matalaf, matalap, matalàs	matalàs, matalaf	mattress
melic	llombrígol, melic	belly button
meló d'Alger, meló d'aigua, síndria	síndria, meló d'Alger, meló d'aigua	watermelon
mitat, meitat	meitat, mitat	half
palometa, papallona	papallona, palometa	butterfly
paréixer, semblar	semblar, parèixer	to seem
per favor	si us plau, per favor	please
poal	galleda	bucket
quint, cinqué	cinquè, quint	fifth
rabosa, guineu	guineu, rabosa	fox
roí(n), dolent	dolent, roí	bad, evil
roig, vermell	vermell, roig	red
safanòria, carlota	pastanaga, safanòria, carrota	carrot
sext, sisé	sisè, sext	sixth
tindre, tenir	tenir, tindre	to have
tomaca, tomàquet, tomata	tomàquet, tomaca, tomata	tomato
vacacions, vacances	vacances, vacacions	holidays
vesprada	tarda	afternoon
veure, vore	veure	to see
vindre, venir	venir, vindre	to come
xicotet, petit	petit, xicotet	small
xiquet, nen	nen, nin, xiquet	boy
xic	noi, xic

Valencian and Catalan use the Latin script, with some added symbols and digraphs.^[71] The Catalan-Valencian orthographies are systematic and largely phonologically based.^[71] Standardisation of Catalan was among the topics discussed during the First International Congress of the Catalan Language, held in Barcelona October 1906. Subsequently, the Philological Section of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (IEC), founded in 1911, published the Normes ortogràfiques in 1913 under the direction of Antoni Maria Alcover and Pompeu Fabra. In 1932, Valencian writers and intellectuals gathered in Castelló de la Plana to make a formal adoption of the so-called Normes de Castelló (Castelló Norms), a set of guidelines following Pompeu Fabra's Catalan language norms.^[72]

The letters k, y and w only appear in loanwords. In the case of y it also appears in the digraph ny. Most of the letters are pronounced the same in both standards (Valencian and Catalan). The letters c and g have a soft and hard pronunciation similar to English and other Romance languages, ç (found also in Portuguese and French) always has a soft pronunciation and may appear in word final position. The only differences between the main standards are the contrast of b /b/ and v /v/ (also found in Insular Catalan), the treatment of long consonants with a tendency to simplification in Valencian (see table with main digraphs and letter combinations), the affrication (/d͡ʒ/) of both soft g (after front vowels) and j (in most cases), the affrication (/t͡ʃ/) of initial and postconsonantal x (except in some cases)^[x] and the lenition (deaffrication) of tz /d͡z/ in most instances (especially the -itzar suffix).

The Academy of Valencian Studies (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL), established by law in 1998 by the Valencian autonomous government and constituted in 2001, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian.^[73] Currently, the majority of people who write in Valencian use this standard.^[74]

Standard Valencian is based on the standard of the Institute of Catalan Studies (Institut d'Estudis Catalans, IEC), used in Catalonia, with a few adaptations.^[75] This standard roughly follows the Castelló Norms (Normes de Castelló) from 1932,^[76] a set of othographic guidelines regarded as a compromise between the essence and style of Pompeu Fabra's guidelines, but also allowing the use of Valencian idiosyncrasies.

• Northern area:
  • Transitional Valencian (valencià de transició) or Tortosan (tortosí), also ambiguously termed Northern Valencian: spoken in the comarques situated between Castellon and the border, including towns like Benicarló, Vinaròs and Morella, as well as the contiguous areas to the north of the border: the Matarranya area in Aragon (province of Teruel) and a strip of southern Catalonia surrounding Tortosa.
    • Word-initial and postconsonantal /d͡ʒ/ (Catalan /ʒ/ and /d͡ʒ/~/ʒ/) alternates with [(j)ʒ] intervocalically; e.g. joc [ˈd͡ʒɔk] ('game'), but pitjor [piˈʒo] ('worse'), boja [ˈbɔjʒa] ('crazy') (Standard Valencian /ˈd͡ʒɔk/, /piˈd͡ʒoɾ/; /ˈbɔd͡ʒa/; Standard Catalan /ˈʒɔk/, /piˈd͡ʒo/ and /ˈbɔʒə/).
    • Final ⟨r⟩ [ɾ] is not pronounced in infinitives; e.g. cantar [kanˈta] (Standard /kanˈtaɾ/) ('to sing').
    • Archaic articles lo, los ('the') are used instead of el, els; e.g. lo xic ('the boy'), los hòmens ('the men').
  • Northern Valencian (valencià septentrional) or Castellon Valencian (valencià castellonenc): spoken in an area surrounding the city of Castellón de la Plana.
    • Use of [e] sound instead of standard ⟨a⟩ /a/ in the third person singular of most verbs; e.g. (ell) cantava [kanˈtave] (Standard /kanˈtava/) 'he sang'. Thus, Northern Valencian dialects contrast forms like (jo) cantava [kanˈtava] ('I sang') with (ell) cantava [kanˈtave] ('he sang'), but merges (jo) cante [ˈkante] ('I sing') with (ell) canta [ˈkante] ('he sings').
    • Palatalisation of ⟨ts⟩ /t͡s/ > [t͡ʃ] and ⟨tz⟩ /d͡z/ > [d͡ʒ] or [dd͡ʒ]; e.g. pots /ˈpot͡s/ > [ˈpot͡ʃ] ('cans, jars, you [s.] can'), dotze /ˈdod͡ze/ > [ˈdodd͡ʒe] ('twelve'). Thus, this dialect may merge passeig ('walk') and passets ('little steps').
    • Depalatalization of /jʃ/ to [jsʲ] by some speakers; e.g. caixa /ˈkajʃa/ > [ˈkajsʲa] ('box').
• Central area:
  • Central Valencian (valencià central), or Apitxat, spoken in Valencia city and its area. One of the two most widely spoken dialects of Valencian, it is not however used as the main model for the oral standard in Valencian media and education,^[77] and is sometimes connated negatively.^[78][79][80]
    • Sibilant merger: all voiced sibilants are devoiced (/d͡ʒ/ > [t͡ʃ], /d͡z/ > [t͡s], /z/ > [s]); that is, apitxat pronounces casa [ˈkasa] ('house') and joc [ˈt͡ʃɔk] ('game'), where other Valencians would pronounce /ˈkaza/ and /ˈd͡ʒɔk/ (a feature shared with Ribagorçan). The names apitxat, parlar apitxat^[81] and the verb apitxar all refer to this specific pronunciation pattern^[82][81] - as well as itself representing a prime example of devoicing, since devoiced apitxar is also a synonym of voiced pitjar.^[82]
    • Betacism, that is the merge of /v/ into /b/; e.g. viu [ˈbiw] (instead of /ˈviw/) ('he lives').
    • Fortition (gemination) and vocalisation of final consonants; nit [ˈnitː(ə)] (instead of /ˈnit/) ('night').
    • It preserves the strong simple past, which has been substituted by an analytic past (periphrastic past) with vadere + infinitive in the rest of modern Catalan and Valencian variants. For example, aní instead of vaig anar ('I went').
• Southern area:
  • Southern Valencian (valencià meridional) or Upper Southern Valencian: spoken in the contiguous comarques located south of Valencia and north of Alicante, respectively, for example in the cities of Dénia, Gandia, Xàtiva and Alcoi, among others. This is the dialect which includes the largest number of general phonetic features considered proper to Standard Valencian,^[77] as well as being the second most widely spoken and located in the geographic centre of the country; it is therefore considered by some Valencians as a reference point for Valencian Catalan as a whole.^[80]
    • Vowel harmony: the final syllable of a disyllabic word adopts a preceding open ⟨e⟩ (/ɛ/) and/or ⟨o⟩ (/ɔ/) if the final vowel is an unstressed -⟨a⟩; e.g. terra [ˈtɛrɛ] ('Earth, land'), dona [ˈdɔnɔ] ('woman'). Further merges (such as [ˈtɛrɔ] and [ˈdɔnɛ]) depends on the town and speaker.
    • This dialect retains geminate consonants (⟨tl⟩ /lː/ and ⟨tn⟩ /nː/); e.g. guatla [ˈɡwalːa] ('quail'), cotna [ˈkonːa] ('rind').
    • Weak pronouns are "reinforced" in front of the verb (em, en, et, es, etc.) contrary to other dialects which maintains "full form" (me, ne, te, se, etc.).
  • Alicante Valencian (valencià alacantí) or Lower Southern Valencian: spoken in and around the cities of Alicante, Elche and the area of Carche in Murcia.
    • Vowel harmony like in the central Southern areas.
    • Intervocalic /d/ elision in most instances; e.g. roda [ˈrɔa] ('wheel'), nadal [naˈal] ('Christmas').
    • Yod is not pronounced in ⟨ix⟩ /jʃ/ > [ʃ]; e.g. caixa [ˈkaʃa] ('box').
    • Final ⟨r⟩ is not pronounced in infinitives in some areas and/or contexts; e.g. cantar [kanˈta] ('to sing').
    • There are some archaisms like: ans instead of abans ('before'), manco instead of menys ('less'), dintre instead of dins ('into') or devers instead of cap a ('towards').
    • There are more interferences with Spanish than other dialects: assul (from azul) instead of blau (or atzur) ('azure'), llimpiar (from limpiar) instead of netejar ('to clean') or sacar (from sacar) instead of traure ('take out').

• Misteri d'Elx (c. 1350). Liturgical drama. Listed as Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.
• Curial e Güelfa (15th century), humanistic chivalric romance
• Ausiàs March (Gandia, 1400 – Valencia, 3 March 1459). Poet, widely read in renaissance Europe.
• Joanot Martorell (Gandia, 1413–1468). Knight and the author of the novel Tirant lo Blanch.
• Isabel de Villena (Valencia, 1430–1490). Religious poet.
• Joan Roís de Corella (Gandia or Valencia, 1435 – Valencia, 1497). Knight and poet.
• Obres e trobes en lahors de la Verge Maria (1474) The first book printed in Spain. It is the compendium of a religious poetry contest held that year in the town of Valencia.^[19]

Until its dissolution in November 2013, the public-service Ràdio Televisió Valenciana (RTVV) was the main broadcaster of radio and television in Valencian language. The Generalitat Valenciana constituted it in 1984 in order to guarantee the freedom of information of the Valencian people in their own language.^[83] It was reopened again in 2018 in the same location but under a different name, À Punt, and it is owned by À Punt Media, a group owned by the Generalitat Valenciana. The new television channel claims to be plural, informative and neutral for all of the Valencian population. It is bilingual, with a focus on the Valencian language. It is recognised as a regional TV channel.^[84]

Prior to its dissolution, the administration of RTVV under the People's Party (PP) had been controversial due to accusations of ideological manipulation and lack of plurality. The news broadcast was accused of giving marginal coverage of the Valencia Metro derailment in 2006 and the indictment of President de la Generalitat Francisco Camps in the Gürtel scandal in 2009.^[85] Supervisors appointed by the PP were accused of sexual harassment.^[86]

In face of an increasing debt due to excessive expenditure by the PP, RTVV announced in 2012 a plan to shed 70% of its labour. The plan was nullified on 5 November 2013 by the National Court after trade unions appealed against it. On that same day, the President de la Generalitat Alberto Fabra (also from PP) announced RTVV would be closed, claiming that reinstating the employees was untenable.^[87] On 27 November, the legislative assembly passed the dissolution of RTVV and employees organised to take control of the broadcast, starting a campaign against the PP. Nou TV's last broadcast ended abruptly when Spanish police pulled the plug at 12:19 on 29 November 2013.^[88]

Having lost all revenues from advertisements and facing high costs from the termination of hundreds of contracts, critics question whether the closure of RTVV has improved the financial situation of the Generalitat, and point out to plans to benefit private-owned media.^[89] Currently, the availability of media in the Valencian language is extremely limited. All the other autonomous communities in Spain, including the monolingual ones, have public-service broadcasters, with the Valencian Community being the only exception despite being the fourth most populated.

In July 2016 a new public corporation, Valencian Media Corporation, was launched in substitution of RTVV. It manages and controls several public media in the Valencian Community, including the television channel À Punt, which started broadcasting in June 2018.

Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian community, the Valencian Language Academy (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) considers Valencian and Catalan to be two names for the same language.^[90]

English Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià

[T]he historical patrimonial language of the Valencian people, from a philological standpoint, is the same shared by the autonomous communities of Catalonia and Balearic Islands, and Principality of Andorra. Additionally, it is the patrimonial historical language of other territories of the ancient Crown of Aragon [...] The different varieties of these territories constitute a language, that is, a "linguistic system" [...] From this group of varieties, Valencian has the same hierarchy and dignity as any other dialectal modality of that linguistic system [...]

The AVL was established in 1998 by the PP-UV government of Eduardo Zaplana. According to El País, Jordi Pujol, then president of Catalonia and of the CiU, negotiated with Zaplana in 1996 to ensure the linguistic unity of Catalan in exchange for CiU support of the appointment of José María Aznar as Prime Minister of Spain.^[91] Zaplana has denied this, claiming that "[n]ever, never, was I able to negotiate that which is not negotiable, neither that which is not in the negotiating scope of a politician. That is, the unity of the language".^[j] The AVL orthography is based on the Normes de Castelló, a set of rules for writing Valencian established in 1932.

A rival set of rules, called Normes del Puig, were established in 1979 by the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which considers itself a rival language academy to the AVL, and promotes an alternative orthography, treating Valencian as an independent language, as opposed to a variety of Catalan. Compared to Standard Valencian, this orthography excludes many words not traditionally used in the Valencian Community, and also prefers spellings such as ⟨ch⟩ for /t͡ʃ/ and ⟨y⟩ for /j/ (as in Spanish). Besides, these alternative Norms are also promoted and taught by the cultural association Lo Rat Penat.

Valencian is classified as a Western dialect, along with the North-Western varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (Province of Lleida and most of the Province of Tarragona).^[92][93] The various forms of Catalan and Valencian are mutually intelligible (ranging from 90% to 95%)^[94]

Despite the position of the official organisations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004^[15] showed that the majority (65%) of the Valencian people (both Valencian and Spanish speakers) consider Valencian different from Catalan: this position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.^[95] Furthermore, the data indicate that younger people educated in Valencian speaking areas are considerably less likely to hold these views. According to an official poll in 2014,^[14] 54% of Valencians considered Valencian to be a language different from Catalan, while 41% considered the languages to be the same. Different opinions about the unity of the language are different between people with certain levels of studies and the opinion also differs between each of the Valencian provinces. The opinion agreeing on the unity of Valencian and Catalan has significant differences regarding age, level of education and province of residence, with a majority of those aged 18–24 (51%) and those with a higher education (58%) considering Valencian to be the same language as Catalan. This can be compared to those aged 65 and above (29%) and those with only primary education (32%), where the same view has its lowest support. People living in the province of Castellón are more prone to be in favor of the unity of the language, while people living in the province of Alicante are more prone to be against the unity of the language, especially in the areas where Valencian is not a mandatory language at schools. By applying a binary logistic regression to the same data, it was found that, among all these variables, the relevant ones are political ideology, educational level, geographical origin and identity: negative views on the unity of Catalan/Valencian were much more likely to be held among right-wing partisans, people with lower studies, people from the Alicante provice (the one with percentually the fewest Valencian speakers, especially in the areas where Valencian is not a mandatory language at schools) and people who do not self-identify as Valencian.^[96]

Later studies showed that the results differ significantly depending on the way the question is posed;^[97] the findings of the most recent work on polling indicate that Valencians today do widely agree that Valencian and Catalan belong to the same language, but that the wording of the question significantly alters the result, even more so than other statistically significant factors - which are the respondent's ideology, language skill and use, and ethnic self-identification: thus, references to Catalonia produce a measurable downturn in support and mentioning diversity within the same language strengthens their agreement.^[98]

The ambiguity regarding the term Valencian and its relation to Catalan has sometimes led to confusion and controversy. In 2004, during the drafting of the European Constitution, the regional governments of Spain where a language other than Spanish is co-official were asked to submit translations into the relevant language in question. Since different names are used in Catalonia ("Catalan") and in the Valencian Community ("Valencian"), the two regions each provided one version, which were identical to each other.^[99]

• Pluricentric language
• Valencian Sign Language
• Che (interjection) § Other uses (spelled xe in Modern Valencian)
• Valencian linguistic conflict
• Similar linguistic controversies:
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  • Names given to the Spanish language
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