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Title page of the 1620 edition of Isaac Casaubon's Geographica, whose 840 page numbers prefixed by "C" are now used as a standard text reference.

The Geographica (Ancient Greek: Γεωγραφικά, Geōgraphiká; Latin: Geographica or Strabonis Rerum Geographicarum Libri XVII, "Strabo's 17 Books on Geographical Topics") or Geography, is an encyclopedia of geographical knowledge, consisting of 17 'books', written in Greek in the late first century BC, or early first century AD, and attributed to Strabo, an educated citizen of the Roman Empire of Greek descent. There is a fragmentary palimpsest dating to the fifth century. The earliest manuscripts of books 1–9 date to the tenth century, with a thirteenth-century manuscript containing the entire text.[1]

Title of the work

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Map of the world according to Strabo

Strabo refers to his Geography within it by several names:[2]

  • geōgraphia, "description of the earth"[3]
  • chōrographia, "description of the land"
  • periēgēsis, "an outline"[4]
  • periodos gēs, "circuit of the earth"[5]
  • periodeia tēs chōrās, "circuit of the land"[6]

Apart from the "outline", two words recur, "earth" and "country." Something of a theorist, Strabo explains what he means by Geography and Chorography:[7]

It is the sea more than anything else that defines the contours of the land (geōgraphei) and gives it its shape, by forming gulfs, deep seas, straits and likewise isthmuses, peninsulas, and promontories; but both the rivers and the mountains assist the seas herein. It is through such natural features that we gain a clear conception of continents, nations, favourable positions of cities and all the other diversified details with which our geographical map (chorographikos pinax) is filled.

From this description it is clear that by geography Strabo means ancient physical geography and by chorography, political geography. The two are combined in this work, which makes a "circuit of the earth" detailing the physical and political features. Strabo often uses the adjective geōgraphika with reference to the works of others and to geography in general, but not of his own work. In the Middle Ages it became the standard name used of his work.

Ascribed date

[edit]
Further information: History of geography

The date of Geographica is a large topic, perhaps because Strabo worked on it along with his History for most of his adult life. He traveled extensively, undoubtedly gathering notes, and made extended visits to Rome and Alexandria, where he is sure to have spent time in the famous library taking notes from his sources.

Strabo did not date his work and determining this has been a matter of scholarly study since the Renaissance. The earliest attempts were in the 16th and 17th centuries (such as the 1549 Basel edition and the 1571 Heidelberg edition) however the first serious attempt was by Johannes Fabricus in 1717.[8]

Strabo visited Rome in 44 BC at age 19 or 20 apparently for purposes of education. He studied under various persons, including Tyrannion, a captive educated Greek and private tutor, who instructed Cicero's two sons. Cicero says:[9]

The geographical work I had planned is a big undertaking...if I take Tyrannion's views too...

If one presumes that Strabo acquired the motivation for writing geography during his education, the latter must have been complete by the time of his next visit to Rome in 35 BC at 29 years old. He may have been gathering notes but the earliest indication that he must have been preparing them is his extended visit to Alexandria 25–20 BC. In 20 he was 44 years old. His "numerous excerpts" from "the works of his predecessors" are most likely to have been noted at the library there.[10] Whether these hypothetical notes first found their way into his history and then into his geography or were simply ported along as notes remains unknown.

20th century drawing of Augustus

Most of the events of the life of Augustus mentioned by Strabo occurred 31–7 BC with a gap 6 BC – 14 AD, which can be interpreted as an interval after first publication in 7 BC.[11] Then in 19 AD a specific reference dates a passage: he said that the Carni and Norici had been at peace since they were "stopped ... from their riotous incursions ...."[12] by Drusus 33 years ago, which was 15 BC, dating the passage to the summer 19 AD.[13][8] The latest event mentioned is the death of Juba at no later than 23 AD, when Strabo was in his 80s. These events can be interpreted as a second edition unless he saved all his notes and wrote the book entirely after the age of 80. Dueck concludes that the Geography was written between AD 18–24.[8]

Composition

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Strabo is his own best expounder of his principles of composition:[14]

In short, this book of mine should be ... useful alike to the statesman and to the public at large – as was my work on History. ... And so, after I had written my Historical Sketches ... I determined to write the present treatise also; for this work is based on the same plan, and is addressed to the same class of readers, and particularly to men of exalted stations in life. ... in this work also I must leave untouched what is petty and inconspicuous, and devote my attention to what is noble and great, and to what contains the practically useful, or memorable, or entertaining. ... For it, too, is a colossal work, in that it deals with the facts about large things only, and wholes ....

Content

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An outline of the encyclopedia follows, with links to the appropriate Wikipedia article.

Book I – definition and history of geography

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Pages C1 through C67, Loeb Volume I pages 3–249.

Chapter 1 – description of geography and this encyclopedia

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Book Section Description
I.1 1 Geography is a branch of philosophy.
2 Homer is the founder of geography.
3 The Ocean.
4 The Elysian Plain.
5 The Isles of the Blessed.
6 The Aethiopians, Definition of the Arctic Circle
7–9 Tides of the Ocean. Earth is an island.
10 The Mediterranean, the land of the Cimmerians, the Ister.
11 Anaximander and Hecataeus.
12 Hipparchus and the climata.
13 The antipodes.
14–19 The ecumene. Geography requires encyclopedic knowledge of celestial, terrestrial and maritime features as well as natural history and mathematics and is of strategic interest.
20 Earth is a sphere with surface curved by the law of gravity, that bodies move to the center.
21 Knowledge of geometry is required to understand geography.
22–23 The purpose and plan of the encyclopedia.

Chapter 2 – contributors to geography

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Book Section Description
I.2 1 Contributions of the Romans and Parthians to geography
2–3 Critique of Eratosthenes
4–40 Critique of Homer's and the other poets' geography and various writers' view of it, especially Eratosthenes'.

Chapter 3 – physical geography

[edit]
Book Section Description
I.3 1–2 Critiques of Eratosthenes' sources: Damastes, Euhemerus.
3 Critiques of Eratosthenes' geology, shape of the Earth.
4–7 Fossils, formation of the seas.
8–9 Silting.
10 Volcanic action.
11–12 Currents.
13–15 More on the formation of the seas.
16–20 Island-building, earthquakes
21 Human migration.
22–23 Hyperboreans, Hypernotians

Chapter 4 – political geography

[edit]
Book Section Description
I.4 1 Heaven is spherical corresponding to Earth's sphericity.
2–6 Distances along lines of latitude and longitude to various peoples and places.
7–8 The three continents: Europe, Asia, Libya.
9 Recommends Alexander the Great's division of people into good or bad rather than the traditional Greek barbarians and Greeks.

Book II – mathematics of geography

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Pages C67 through C136, Loeb Volume I pages 252–521.

Chapter 1 – distances between parallels and meridians

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Book Section Description
II.1 1–3 Relates Eratosthenes' description of the Tropic of Cancer, which was based on Patrocles.
4–5 Critiques Hipparchus' criticism of Patrocles, which was based on Deimachus and Megasthenes. Points out that Eratosthenes used the Library of Alexandria.
6–8 Critique of Patrocles.
9 Fabrications of the geographers concerning India.
10–41 Calculations of distances between parallels and meridians passing through various places in the habitable world, according to various geographers: Hipparchus, Eratosthenes, Pytheas, Deimachus.

Chapter 2 – the five zones

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Book Section Description
II.2 1 Introduces the work Oceans by Poseidonius.
2–3 Critiques Poseidonius, who criticises Parmenides and Aristotle on the widths and locations of the five zones.

Chapter 3 – distribution of plants, animals, civilizations

[edit]
Book Section Description
II.3 1–3 Critiques the six zones of Polybius.
4 Describes African voyages: the circumnavigation by an expedition sent by Necho II, another by Magus; to India by Eudoxus of Cyzicus.
5 Adventures and misadventures of Eudoxus. Attacks the credibility of Pytheas, Euhemerus, Antiphanes.
6 Poseidonius' theory of Atlantis; attributes migration of Cimbri to inundation.
7 Attributes the distribution of plants, animals and civilizations to chance (suntuchia) rather than to zones (which was Poseidonius' theory).
8 Example of random racial distribution: Ethiopians were in both Asia (India) and Libya (Africa). Strabo says his school avoids such causal connections.

Chapter 4 – criticisms of Polybius' and Eratosthenes' maps

[edit]
Book Section Description
II.4 1–2 Polybius' critique of Pytheas.
3 Strabo's criticisms of Polybius' European distances.
4 Strabo's criticisms of Polybius' critique of the distances of Eratosthenes.
5–6 Strabo's corrections to various geographers' descriptions of the locations of the Tanaïs, the Tyras, the Borysthenes and the Hypanis.
7 Strabo criticises Polybius' length of the inhabited world.
8 Strabo criticises Polybius' and Eratosthenes' physical divisions of Europe.

Chapter 5 – Strabo's view of the ecumene

[edit]
Book Section Description
II.5 1 Representation of a spherical surface as a plane requires the geographer to be a mathematician.
2 The celestial sphere, gravity, the Earth's axis and the poles, stellar paths, equator, tropics, arctic circles, ecliptic, zodiac.
3 The five zones, terrestrial and celestial, the hemispheres, the ocean.
4 The gnomon, latitude, longitude, circumference of the Earth.
5–6 The inhabited world is an island shaped like a truncated cone, in a spherical quadrilateral formed between the equator, the arctic circle and a great circle passing through the poles. The island is 70,000 stadia long by 30,000 stadia wide.
7 Hipparchus says the equator is 252,000 stadia long; the great circle distance from equator to pole is 63,000 stadia.
8 Strabo does not believe Pytheas that Thule is farthest north at the Arctic Circle. He thinks no one is north of Ierne. He believes the Romans scorned to invade Britain as being worthless.
9 The length and width of the inhabited world are 70,000 and 30,000 stadia respectively.
10 Strabo recommends representing the Earth on a globe of no less than 10 feet in diameter or on a plane map of at least 7 feet.
11–12 Strabo says he personally travelled from Armenia to Tyrrhenia and from the Euxine Sea to the frontiers of Ethiopia. He and all other geographers receive information mostly by hearsay. He went up the Nile river with his friend Aelius Gallus, prefect of Egypt, to the edge of Ethiopia and Syene.
13–16 The known limits of the Earth are Meroe in the Nile river, Ierne, the Sacred Promontory beyond the Pillars of Hercules and east of Bactriana.
17–18 The sea determines the contours of the land. The four largest internal seas are the Caspian sea, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.
19–25 Mediterranean Sea.
26 The continents are Europe, Libya, Asia. Europe develops excellence in men and government and has contributed the most to the others.
27–33 States the locations of the countries of the three continents.
34 Division of the circumference of the Earth, which is 252,000 stadia, by 360 gives 700 stadia per section.
35–43 Equator, Tropic circle, Arctic Circle, latitude by the shadow of the gnomon and the length of the longest day.

Book III – Iberian peninsula

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Representation on a modern map of Iberia according to Strabo.

Chapter 1 – Vicinity of the Sacred Cape

[edit]
Book Section Description
III.1 1–3 Ibēria is poor, inhospitable and mountainous, 6000 stadia N–S, 5000 E–W. The Purēnē oros is aligned N–S and separates Ibēria from Keltikē.[15]
4 The Sacred Cape is the westernmost point of the inhabited world.[16] The country next to it is called Cuneus, "wedge", in the Latin language from its shape. It is occupied by the Ibēres across the straits from the Maurousioi.
5 Strabo repeats Poseidonius' assertion that the setting sun is larger at the coast because of a lens effect through the water vapor. He says Artemidorus is wrong in claiming a size of 100 times larger and that he could not have seen it because the cape was taboo at night.
6 South West Iberia is delimited by the Tagus river (to the north of the Sacred Cape) and the Anas river to the east. The region is populated by the Keltikoi and some Lusitanai resettled there from beyond the Tagus by the Romans. Inland are the Karpētanoi (Madrid region), the Ōrētanoi (La Mancha and eastern Sierra Morena, and the Ouettōnoi (Salamanca region). The fertile southeast, Baetica (Andalusia region), east of the Baetis river after which it is named, is occupied by the Tourdētanoi or Tourdouloi, who have writing and a literature. Other Iberians have alphabets, but not the same, as they do not all use the same languages (glōttai).

Chapter 2 – Bætica

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Book Section Description
III.2 1–2 Bætica is the region around the Bætis river, main cities are Corduba and Gadira.
3–5 Bætis river is navigable and boats go from the sea to Corduba.
6 Bætica soil is fertile, it exports a lot of wheat, wine, and oil.
7 Bætica littoral is full of fish, especially fat tuna, which eat a lot of acorns like some "sea pigs".
8 Bætica subsoil is full of gold, silver, cooper, and iron.
9–10 How gold and silver are extracted from the soil of Baetica and other regions of Hispania.
11–13 What Homer says about Bætica.
14–15 Bætica was a Phœnician colony, now it's romanised.

Chapter 3 Iberia

[edit]
Book Section Description
III
1 Topography of Iberia
2 Turdetani
3 North West Spain discussed
4 Seacoast from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Pyrenees & inland
5 Islands of Iberia
6
7
8

Chapter 4

[edit]
Book Section Description
III 1–20 ...

Chapter 5 - Islands of Iberia: Baleares, Cassiterides, Gades

[edit]
Book Section Description
III 1 Balearic Islands
2 Balearic Islands cont.
3 Gades
4 Mythical Erytheia location
5 Myths about the Pillars of Heracles
6 Pillars of Heracles cibt
7 Water and tides and Gades
8 Water and tides and Gades cont.
9 Seleucus in Gades.
10 Story by Poseidonius of a tree found in Gades
11 Cassiterides

Book IV – Gaul, Britain, Ireland, Thule, the Alps

[edit]

Chapter 1 – Narbonitis

[edit]
Book Section Description
IV 1 'Celtica beyond the Alps' (Gaul), its inhabitants and boundaries
2 The agriculture and landscapes of Gaul
3 The cities and towns of Narbonitis
4 The cult of Ephesian Artemis in Massalia (Marseille)
5 The government and society of Massalia, its interactions with Rome, and the founding of Aquae Sextiae (Aix)
6 The coastline around Massalia, including the Galactic Gulf; the site and trade of Narbo (Narbonne)
7 The mysterious rocks of the Stony Plain, and the causes given by other writers
8 Siltation and oyster-fishing in the mouth of the Rhodanus (Rhône)
9 The remaining settlements of the coastline, including Forum Iulium (Fréjus), Nicaea (Nice) and Antipolis (Antibes)
10 The Stoechades Islands (Îles d’Hyères) and other coastal islands
11 The towns and rivers of the Cévennes and the Rhône basin as far as Lemenna (lac Léman), including Avenio (Avignon), Arausio (Orange) and Vienna (Vienne)
12 The right bank of the Rhône, including Nemausos (Nîmes)
13 Historical migration from Gaul to Cappadocia
14 Tolossa (Toulouse) and river trade in Gaul

Chapter 2 – Aquitania

[edit]
Book Section Description
IV 1 The geography of Aquitania, between the Pyrenees and the Liger (Loire) via the Garumna (Garonne)
2 The inhabitants of Aquitania
3 The history of Vercingetorix and the Arverni, including the settlements of Cenabum (Orléans), Gergovia (Gergovie) and Alesia (Alise-Sainte-Reine)

Chapter 3 – Celtica

[edit]
Book Section Description
IV 1 Description of the interior of Celtica (Gaul), between the Rhenus (Rhine) Rhodanus (Rhône) and Liger (Loire)
2 Lugdunum (Lyon), one of the most important cities in Gaul, and of local tribes and peoples (including the Aedui and the Sequani)
3 Description of the Rhine and a calculation of its length; an account of Julius Caesar's actions along the river during the Gallic Wars
4 The territory of the Helvetii and the other peoples of the Rhine, including Germanic tribes and settlers (such as the Treveri, Nervii and Suebi)
5 Northern Gaul, including Durocortorum (Reims), the Ardouenna (Ardennes) and the Parisii in Lucotocia (Lutetia)

Chapter 4 – Northwest Gaul and the Belgae

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Book Section Description
IV 1 The coastal tribes (the Veneti and the Osismii)
2 A general ethnography of the Gauls
3 The tribes of the Belgae and their characteristics
4 Description of the three intellectual classes of the Belgae (the bards, vates and druids)
5 The habits of the Belgae, including their fondness for jewellery, practice of scalping and religious sacrifice of humans
6 Description of an island near the mouth of the Loire, home to a Dionysiac cult and inhabited entirely by women

Chapter 5 – Great Britain, Ireland, and other islands

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Book Section Description
IV 1 The island of Great Britain and its dimensions
2 The natural resources and inhabitants of Great Britain
3 Roman attempts at the occupation of Great Britain
4 Ireland and its inhabitants
5 Thule

Chapter 6 – The Alps

[edit]
Book Section Description
IV 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Book V – Italy to Campania

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Chapter 1 – Northern Italy

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Book Section Description
V 1 The shape of Italy, its geography, and the rivers and cities of the north; the River Padus (Po), Mediolanum (Milan), Comum (Como), Patavium (Padua), and Ravenna
2 The places of northwestern Italy, including the River Tiber, the quarry at Carrara, Pisa, and the islands of Elba, Corsica and Sardinia; also ethnographies of Italian peoples, including the Tyrrhenians (Etruscans), the Caeretanians, and the mysterious Pelasgians.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Chapter 2 – Tuscany and Umbria

[edit]
Book Section Description
V 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Chapter 3 – The Sabine Hills and Latium

[edit]
Book Section Description
V 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Chapter 4 – Picenum and Campania

[edit]
Book Section Description
V 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Book VI – south Italy, Sicily

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Chapter 1 – Southern Italy

[edit]
Book Section Description
VI 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Chapter 2 – Sicily

[edit]
Book Section Description
VI 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Chapter 3 – Greece

[edit]
Book Section Description
VI 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Chapter 4 – Italy summary

[edit]
Book Section Description
VI 1
2

Book VII – north, east and central Europe

[edit]

Chapter 1 – Germania

[edit]
Book Section Description
VII 1 Overview of the lands to be covered in the rest of the text.
2 Germanic peoples.
3 Geography of Germania, list of Germanic tribes.
4 Roman conflicts with Germans.
5 The Hercynian Forest, the Ister river.

Chapter 2 – Germania

[edit]
Book Section Description
VII 1 Correcting false tales of the Cimbri.
2 Cimbri raids.
3 Cimbri divination.
4 Lack of knowledge of areas beyond Germany.

Chapter 3 – northern Black Sea region

[edit]
Book Section Description
VII 1 Southern Germania, myths about distant regions.
2 The Mysians.
3 Mysian culture and religion.
4 Getae. Different views of their culture.
5 Zalmoxis, his travels, and his influence on the Mysians.
6 Errors in other Greek accounts of Mysia.
7–10 The Scythians.
11–12 The Getae.
13–19 Danube river, Dacians, Thracians, Peucini, Dniester river, Dnepr river, Roxolani.

Chapter 4 – Crimea

[edit]
Book Section Description
VII 1–8 Crimea

Chapter 5 – Illyria and Pannonia

[edit]
Book Section Description
VII 1–12 Countries along the west bank of the Danube.

Chapter 6 – Eastern Dacia and Thrace

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Book Section Description
VII 1–2 Continuation of countries along the western and southern banks of the Danube (the Balkans).

Chapter 7 – Epirus

[edit]
Book Section Description
VII 1–2 Continuation on the Balkans.

Book VIII – Greece

[edit]
Book Section Description
VIII 1.1 Summary of previous chapters and intro to Greece
1.2 Greek tribes and dialects, Origins thereof
1.3 Topography – coastline and peninsulas
3.9 Epeians and Eleians peoples
3.12 Temples and Shrines to various gods
3.17 Cauconians, Origins thereof
3.30 Olympia, legends thereof
4.11 Depopulation of Laconia (area around Sparta)

Book IX – More on Greece

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Chapter 1 – Attica

[edit]

Chapter 2 – Boeotia

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Chapter 3 – Phocis

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Chapter 4 – Locris

[edit]

Chapter 5 – Thessaly

[edit]

Book X – Yet more on Greece, Greek islands

[edit]

Chapter 1 – Euboea

[edit]
Book Section Description
X 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Chapter 2–3 – Aetolia and Acarnania

[edit]

Chapter 4 – Crete

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Chapter 5 – Archipelagos

[edit]

Book XI – Russia east of the Don, the Transcaucasus, northwest Iran, Central Asia

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Chapter 1 – East of the Don

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 Brief Description of Asia
2 The Taurus Mountains
3 Measurements of the Taurus Mountains
4 Brief overview of nations bordering the Taurus mountains
5 The Don River, Sea of Azov, Strait of Kerch, Strait of Zabache, Kura, and Arax rivers
6 Brief description of Pompey's expedition
7 The Caspian Sea, Gates of Alexander, and Halys River

Chapter 2 - Sarmatia

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 The Sarmatians, Aorsi, Siraci, Moeotae, Achaei, Zygii, Heniochi, Cercetae, and Macropogones
3 The city of Tanais
4 The Maeotae and geography around Tanais
5 The Cimmerians and the city of Cimmericum
7 Monument of Satyrus
8 The villages of Patraeus, Corocondame, and Acra
9 Corocondametis Lake and the Kuban Rivers
10 Phanagoria
11 The Sindi, Dandarii, Toreatae, Agri, Arrhechi, Tarpetes, Obidiaceni, Sittaceni, Dosci, and Maeotae
12-13 The Achae, Zygii, and Heniochi
14 Geography of Colchis
15 Geography of the North Caucasus
16 Phasis
17 Colchis
18 The Argonauts and Mithridates
19 The Soanes

Chapter 3 – Iberia

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 Description of Caucasian Iberia
2 The Kura, Araks, Alazan, Sandobanes, Rhoetaces, and Chanes Rivers
3 Occupation of lowland and highland Iberians
4—5 Entry into Iberia
6 Social hierarchy of Iberia

Chapter 4 – Albania

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI.2 1 The Caucasian Albanians
2 The Kura River
3 Agriculture of Caucasian Albania
4 Features of Caucasian Albanians
5 Military of Caucasian Albania, The Caspians, and entry into Caucasian Albania
6 Rulership and fauna of Caucasian Albania
7 Religion of Caucasian Albania
8 Traditions of Caucasian Albania

Chapter 5 – The Caucasus

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 The Amazons, Gargareans, Legae, and Gelae
2 The Mermodas River
3—4 Achievements of the Amazons
5 ?
6 Highest point of the Caucasus
7 The Troglodytae, Chamaecoets, and Polyphagi
8 The Siraces and Aorsi

Chapter 6 - The Caspian

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 The Caspian Sea
2 The Sacae and Massagetae
3—4 Criticisms of historical authors

Chapter 7 - East of the Caspian

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 The Dahae and other Scythian nomads
2 Hyrcania
3 The Ochus and Oxus Rivers
4 ?
5 ?

Chapter 8 - Geography of the Caspian and Iran

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 Geography of the Caspian Sea
2 The Bactrians, Asii, Pasiani, Tochari, Sacaruli, Dahae, Sacae, and Massagetae
3 Geography of the Iranian Desert
4—5 The Sacae
6—7 The Massagetae
8 More about the Scythian tribes
9 Measurements between locations in Scythia

Chapter 9 – Parthia

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 Parthia
2—3 History of Parthia

Chapter 10 – Aria and Margiana

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 Aria, Drangiana, Margiana, and Arachosia
2 Margiana

Chapter 11 – Bactria

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 Bactria
2 Cities of Bactria
3 The Bactrians and Sogdians
4 Cities created and destroyed by Alexander
5 Rivers of Sogdiana and Bactria
6 Alexander's planned expedition to Sogdiana
7—12 Measurements of the region

Chapter 12 - The Taurus Mountains

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 Geography of the Taurus Mountains

Chapter 13 - Media

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1 Media
2 Atropatene
3 The summer palace in Ganzaka
4 The Cadusii
6—7 Geography of Media
8 Tributes of Medes
9—11 Traditions of the Medes

Chapter 14 - Armenia

[edit]
Book Section Description
XI 1—2 Armenia
3 Arax River
4 Geography of Armenia
5 Growth of Armenia
6 Artaxata
7 Rivers of Armenia
8 Lakes of Armenia
9 Mines and Cavalry of Armenia
10 Pompey and Tigranes
11 Measurements of Armenia
12—13 Strabo's account of the origin of the Armenians
14 Tribes near Armenia
15 Brief history of Armenia
16 Religion of Armenia

Book XII – Anatolia

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Chapter 1–2 – Cappadocia

[edit]

Chapter 3 – Pontus

[edit]
Book Section Description
XII 1 The kingdom of Mithridates Eupator
3 Bithynians
5 Caucones whose domain extended from Mariandynia to the river Parthenius
6 The city of Heracleia
7 Rivers between Chalcedon and Heracleia
15 The plain of Themiscyra
16 The plain of Sidene
32 Pontic Comana

Chapter 4 – Bithynia

[edit]
Book Section Description
XII 1 Surroundings of Bithynia on all four sides
2 Geography of the region south of Bithynia. The Astacene Gulf and the role of Bithynian kings in its history.
4 On the difficulty of marking the boundaries between the territories of the Bithynians, Phrygians and Mysians.

Chapter 5–7 – Galatia, Lycaonia and Pisidia

[edit]

Chapter 8 – Phrygia

[edit]
Book Section Description
XII 1 Phrygia, Mysia, and Bithynia, and the parts of Phrygia and Mysia
2 Debate as to whether the district around Sipylus is part of Greater of Lesser Phrygia
3 Lydians and other peoples

Book XIII – northern Aegean

[edit]

Chapter 1 – Troad

[edit]
Book Section Description
XII 1 Preamble to the region of the Troad with a brief discussion of sources, especially Homer
2 Regions of the Troad

Book XIV – eastern Aegean

[edit]

Chapter 2 – Asia Minor

[edit]
Book Section Description
XIV 5–13 Description of Rhodes. Commentary of the people, politics, and society of Rhodes. Includes description of the fallen Colossus of Rhodes.

Book XV – Persia, Ariana, the Indian subcontinent

[edit]

Book XVI – Middle East

[edit]

Summary

[edit]

Chapter 1 – Assyria

[edit]
Book Section Description
XVI 1—2 Assyria geographical extent.
4 Nineveh.
5—6 Babylon.
7 Borsippa.
8—9 Geography of Babylon
10 Canal Maintenance.
11 Aristobulus on Alexander.
12 Eratosthenes and hydrology.
13 Polycleitus and hydrology.
14 Babylonia production of resources
15 Asphaltus in Babylonia and its uses
16 Babylonia entyonym
17 Artemita and Persis
22–23 Cossaei, Paraetacene, Elymais

Chapter 2 – Syria

[edit]
Book Section Description
XVI 1-2 Syria geography.
3 General description Syria.
4—5 Cities of the Seleucis of Syria.
6 Rablah
7 Orontes River.
8 Regions of Syria.
9 Laodicea in Syria.
10 Apamea, Syria.
11 Parapotamia.
12 Laodiceia and the coast
13 Arwad
14 Aradii
15 Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus.
16 Mountains and Rivers of Syria.
17 Macras
18 Massyas
19 Abraham River
20 Damascus
21 Borders of Coele-Syria
22 Borders of Phoenicia
23 Tyre
24 Sidon
25—26 Acre
27 Caesarea Maritima
28 Jaffa
29 Tel Ashkelon
30 Gaza City
31 Raphia
33 Sinai and Negev
34 Judea and environs
35—37 Origins of the Jews
38—39 Relating Judaism to Stoicism
40 History of the Jews
41 Jericho
42—45 Dead Sea and environs
46 History of the Jews

Chapter 3 – Persian Gulf

[edit]
Book Section Description
XVI 1—5 Persian Gulf description.
6 General description Red Sea.
7 Persian Gulf.

Chapter 4 – Arabia

[edit]
Book Section Description
XVI 1 Arabia description from Eratosthenes.
2—3 Nabatea, Sabæans, and other nations
4—8 Shores of Arabia & Africa
9—16 Africa
17—18 Troglodytae
19 Sabeans
20 Red Sea
21 Nabataea
22—24 History of the Romans in Arabia
25 Discussion of aromatic plants and Arabian people's culture
26 Nabataeans

Book XVII – North Africa

[edit]

Chapter 1 – Nile, Egypt, Cyrenaica

[edit]
Book Section Description
17 1–2 Eratosthenes on the Nile and surrounding people
3 The Nile in Ethiopia. The organization of Egypt, nomes, classes, comments on the Labyrinth.
4 The Nile in the Nile Delta
5 Source of the Nile. Greek writers about the Nile. Definition of the name Aegypt.
6 Harbours of Alexandria, Pharos Island. Julius Caesar. Founding of the city by Alexander the Great.
7 Importance of Alexandria. Lake Mareotis
8 Details about Alexandria. Ptolemy I Soter steals Alexanders body. Perdiccas is slain. Roxana departes for Macedonia.
9 Lighthouse of Alexandria. Other temples and buildings, Lochias (promontory), Royal palace, Antirrhodos (island), Theatre, Poseidium, Emporium, Timonium, Caesarium, Heptastadium.
10 More details about Alexandria. More buildings and structures. The Sarapium. Emperor Augustus defeats Mark Antony.
11 The Ptolemaic dynasty
12–13 Egypt as a Roman province. Roman Legions. Polybius' visit to Alexandria.
14 Coastal cities from Cyrenaica to Alexandria. About wine.
15 Papyrus, Cyperus and Cyperus papyrus in the Deltaic marshes and lakes.
16–17 Road to Canopus. Temple of Sarapis.
18 Nile mounts in the Delta, Canopic (Canopus), Bolbitine (Rosetta), Sebennytic (Buto), Phantnitic (Damietta), Mendesian (Mendes), Tanitic (Tanis) and Pelusiac (Pelusium).
19 (sect. 19–21: Interior of the mouth of the river Nile; expulsion of foreigners; difficulty in entering Egypt.) cities Xoïs, Hermupolis, ... Mendes, ...
20 Athribis ... Tanis
21 Pelusium ... Heroönpolis
22 Lake Mareia, ...
23 ... Naucratis, Saïs
24 discord among the Egyptians over the schoenus (i.e. a unit of distance)
25 city of Arsinoê; canal through the Bitter Lakes to the Gulf of Suez
26 Heroönpolis ... Phacussa
27–39 ...
40 Cynonpolis ('City of Dogs'), ... ; overview of different animals worshipped by separate Egyptian groups or by all Egyptians in common
41 Hermopolitic garrison, Thebaïc garrison, ...
42 ... Abydus
43 the oracle at Ammon visited by Alexander the Great
44 temple of Osiris in Abydus; city of Tentyra
45 cities Berenicê (at the Red Sea), Myus Hormus, Coptus ... ; mines of smaragdus
46 Thebes
47 city Hermonthis; a City of Crocodiles; a City of Aphroditê; Latopolis; a City of Hawks; Apollonospolis
48 Syenê; Elephantinê; nilometer
49 the First Cataract, above Elephantinê; settlement Philae, holding an Aethiopian bird in honour
50–54 ...

Chapter 2

[edit]
Book Section Description
17 1–3 Ethiopia
4—5 ...

Chapter 3

[edit]
Book Section Description
17 1–25 ...

Publication history

[edit]

Manuscripts

[edit]

Some thirty manuscripts of Geographica or parts of it have survived, almost all of them medieval recensions, though there is 5th century palimpsest (in 3 parts) and fragmentary papyri of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. Attempts at critical editions during the 1840s-50s Kramer, Meineke, Müller and Dübner did not benefit from these discoveries which only occurred after their publications.[17]

The critical text of Strabo is primarily based on 5 prototype manuscripts:[18]

Prototype Manuscripts of the Geographica[18]
Siglum[18] Library Shelfmark Date (century) Folios Books Notes Source
A BnF gr. 1397 10th 1-9 Badly eaten by mice in books 8—9, leading to gaps in the text. Likely first volume of two-volume recension. [19][20]
B Athous Vatop. 655 14th (middle) 1-17 Books 8—9 abridged or incomplete.
C BnF gr. 1393 13th (end) 1—17 Best text after A. Books 8—9 abridged or incomplete.
D Marcian gr. ΧΙ 6 14th 10—16 Likely second volume of two volume recension.
F Vatican gr. 1329 13th—14th 12—17
P Vatican gr. 2061 A 5th 137, 235–242, 237240, 244+253, 246+252, 247+251, 248+250, 249, 309–316.[21] Rare 5th century bi-rescriptus (twice rewritten) palimpsest, now split into 3 manuscripts. Written in 3 columns of Greek ogival majuscule.[22] Originally of 44 square leaves, similar to the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus. Possibly written in Caesarea and held in the Law school of Berytus. Erased and rewritten with the Nomocanon in the 8th century and finally again with Pentateuch and Gregory of Nazianzus’ Orations in Southern Italy the 10th century.[23] [24]
Vatican gr. 2306 2+3, 5, 6, 7–22, 23+30, 25+28, 26+27, 31–68, C2, 69, C1, C3, C3, C1, 70, C2, 71–84.[21] [25][26]
Grottaferrata Crypt.A.δ.XXIII [27]
Epitomies & Excerpts[18]
Siglum[18] Library Shelfmark Date (century) Folios Source
E Vatican gr. 482 14th 145—204
X Heidelberge Palatinus gr. 398 9th 60-156

Today there are about thirty manuscripts in existence, with a fragmentary palimpsest of the fifth century the earliest (Vaticanus gr. 2306 + 2061 A).[23] Two manuscripts in Paris provide the best extant text: Parisinus gr. 1397 of the tenth century for Books 1-9, and Parisinus gr. 1393 of the thirteenth century for the entire text. The end of Book 7 had been lost sometime in the latter Byzantine period.

Papryri

[edit]
Papyri of the Geographica[28]
Siglum[18] Repository Shelfmark Date (century) Section Source
Π1 P.Köln 8 2nd-3rd Book 7
Π2 Oxford P.Oxy. 3447 2nd Book 9 (fragments) [29][30]
Π3 P.Laur. III 294 A 2nd-3rd
Π4 Oxford P.Oxy. 4459 2nd-3rd Book 2 (5.20-24) [31]
P.Oxy. LXXXI 5268 2nd Book 1 (2.31) [32]
P.Oxy. LXXIII 4947 2nd-3rd Book 5 (4.12-13) [33]

Editions and translations

[edit]

A Latin translation commissioned by Pope Nicholas V appeared in 1469: this was the edition probably used by Columbus and other early Renaissance explorers. The first printed Greek edition was the Aldine of 1516,[34] and the first text with commentary was produced by Isaac Casaubon in Geneva in 1587. The Teubner edition appeared in 1852-3 under the editorship of August Meineke.[35]

The first semi-critical Greek text was established by Kramer, Meineke, Müller and Dübner during the 1840s-50s, notably before the discovery and study of the 5th century palimpsets by Cardinal Angelo Mai, Giuseppe Cozza Luzi and Pierre Batiffol in 1844, 1875 and 1888.[17] The first fully critical edition was only completed in 2011 Stefan Radt.[36]

Latin

[edit]
  • Strabonis Geographia (in Latina Gregorio Typhernate et Guarino Veronese). Rome. 1469. Editio Princepts commissioned by Pope Nicholas V; used by Christopher Columbus and other renaissance explorers.
  • Isaac, Casaubon (1578). Isaac Casauboni Commentarius et Castigatones in Geographicorum Strabonis (in Latin). excudebat Eustathius Vignon Atrebat.

Greek text

[edit]
  • Tyrrhenus, Benedictus (1516). ΣΤΡΆΒΟΝΟΙ ΓΕΟΓΡΑΦΙΚΏΝ [Strábonoi Geographikōn] (in Ancient Greek). Venice, Aldine Press: Andreas Torresanus.
  • Kramer, Gustav, ed., Strabonis Geographica, 3 vols, containing Books 1–17. Berlin: Friedericus Nicolaus, 1844–52.
  • Meineke, August (1852–53). Strabonis Geographica (in Ancient Greek). Vol. 1–3. Leipzig: Teubner.
  • Carl, Müller; Dübner, Friedrich (1853–58). Strabonis Geographica graece cum versione reficta (in Ancient Greek). Vol. 1–2. Paris: Didot.

English

[edit]
  • Hamilton, H.C.; Falconer, W. (1854–57). The geography of Strabo. Literally translated, with notes. Vol. 1–3. London: H.G. Bohn. Vol.2 The first English translation of the full work.
  • Strabo (1917–1932). The Loeb Classical Library: The Geography of Strabo: in Eight Volumes (in Ancient Greek and English). Translated by Jones, Horace Leonard. Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Harvard University Press/William Heinemann. Contains Books 1–17, Greek on the left page, English on the right. Sterrett translated Books I and II and wrote the introduction before dying in 1915. Jones changed Sterrett's style from free to more literal and finished the translation. The Introduction contains a major bibliography on all aspects of Strabo and a definitive presentation of the manuscripts and editions up until 1917. Greek text based on Meineke (1852–53).
  • Roller, Duane W. (2014). The Geography of Strabo: An English Translation, with Introduction and Notes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-95249-1.
  • Pothecary, Sarah (2024). Strabo's Geography: A Translation for the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-24313-9.

French

[edit]

German

[edit]
  • Radt, Stefan (translator; critical apparatus) (2002–2011). Strabons Geographika. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Books I–XVII in ten volumes.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Geographica

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from Grokipedia
Geographia, also known as the Geography or Cosmographia, is an eight-book on mathematical and written by the Greco-Egyptian astronomer and mathematician Claudius Ptolemy in the mid-second century AD. It serves as both a listing approximately 8,000 places in the known world with their latitude and longitude coordinates and a manual instructing on the construction of maps using various projection methods to represent the on flat surfaces. The structure of Geographia begins with Book I, which defines the discipline of in contrast to (regional description) and critiques the earlier geographer for inaccuracies in his work. Books II through VII systematically catalog places by geographic regions—starting with , then (Africa), and —providing coordinates relative to the Fortunate Islands () as the . Book VIII concludes with detailed instructions for drawing maps, including regional maps divided into climatic zones and a encompassing the from the to and from the to the . Although the original text did not include maps, medieval manuscripts and printed editions from the late onward added illustrations, typically 26 regional maps plus a , with some later versions expanding to 64 maps incorporating contemporary discoveries. Geographia represents the culmination of cartographic knowledge, drawing on sources like Marinus and earlier Hellenistic works, and its coordinates, while not always precise by modern standards, formed the basis for much of the world's geographic data until the Age of Exploration. Rediscovered in the during the 13th century and translated into Latin around 1406–1409 by Jacopo d'Angelo, the work exerted profound influence on Islamic scholars in the medieval period and on European cartographers during the , leading to over 40 printed editions between 1477 and the 17th century. This dissemination helped shape the intellectual revival of in the West, though it also perpetuated some errors, such as an overestimated size of and a closed .

Background

Title and Authorship

Geographia, commonly translated as Geography or Cosmographia, is the title of an ancient Greek treatise on mathematical geography and cartography, originally known as Γεωγραφικὴ Ὑφήγησις (Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis). Structured in eight books, it catalogs approximately 8,000 places in the known world with their latitude and longitude coordinates and provides instructions for map construction using various projections. The work is attributed to Claudius Ptolemy, a Greco-Egyptian astronomer, mathematician, and geographer active in Alexandria, Egypt, during the Roman Empire (c. 100–170 CE). Ptolemy, whose name suggests Roman citizenship and Greek-Egyptian heritage, is known for integrating astronomical observations with geographic data, as seen in his other major work, the Almagest. Unlike more descriptive works like Strabo's earlier Geography, Ptolemy's treatise prioritizes a systematic, quantitative approach to representing the spherical Earth on flat maps, distinguishing geography from chorography (regional description). In Book I, Ptolemy defines geography as the study of the entire inhabited world (oikoumene) through mathematical coordinates, critiquing predecessors for inaccuracies.

Composition and Dating

Ptolemy's Geographia was composed around 150 CE in , during the height of his scholarly activity under Roman rule. This dating aligns with his (c. 150 CE) and , suggesting a cohesive period of work on scientific treatises. Unlike iterative historical works, the Geographia appears as a unified composition, though it references contemporary Roman imperial data, indicating use of up-to-date sources. Internal evidence, such as coordinates relative to the () as and descriptions of regions within the Roman , supports a mid-2nd century CE origin. Ptolemy likely did not travel extensively for data, relying instead on library resources in and reports from traders and officials, which limited accuracy for distant areas like and beyond Roman borders. The work's theoretical focus on projections and construction reflects Ptolemy's mathematical expertise rather than personal observation.

Purpose and Sources

Ptolemy wrote the Geographia as a practical manual for cartographers and scholars, aiming to compile and systematize geographic knowledge for accurate mapping of the oikoumene—spanning from the to and the to the equator. It served to advance mathematical by providing a of coordinates and methods to project the onto planes, useful for , administration, and astronomical alignment in the Roman world. Ptolemy emphasized empirical data corrected by mathematical principles, critiquing earlier works for errors in distances and positions. The primary source was Marinus of Tyre's now-lost geographic compilation (c. 100–120 CE), which Ptolemy revised and expanded with Roman itineraries, Persian trade routes, and astronomical fixes for latitudes. He drew on Hellenistic predecessors like for estimates and for coordinate systems, integrating over 100 earlier authors' data while discarding speculative elements. This synthesis, though containing inaccuracies like an overestimated Asia and closed , formed the basis for medieval and cartography.

Theoretical Foundations

Book I: Geography's Definition and History

Book I of Ptolemy's Geographia serves as an introduction to the principles of and , defining as a graphic representation through of the entire known part of the (oikoumene) together with the things connected to it, such as its size, shape, and position relative to the heavens. Ptolemy distinguishes from , the latter being concerned with the particular qualities of smaller regions and their features, like harbors and villages, without requiring the same mathematical precision for global proportions. He emphasizes 's role in providing a comprehensive view of the inhabited for practical purposes, such as and administration, integrating astronomical observations with terrestrial measurements. Ptolemy traces the historical development of geographical knowledge through predecessors, particularly critiquing the recent work of , whom he regards as the most recent and comprehensive geographer before him. He acknowledges Marinus' compilation of over 80 maps and use of sources like itineraries, periploi (coastal voyages), and astronomical data but faults him for several errors, including an overestimated extent of the oikoumene (e.g., 225° and 87° ) and inconsistent coordinate systems. Ptolemy argues that Marinus relied too heavily on unverified traveler reports and failed to correct distortions in his rectangular , which exaggerated east-west distances in higher latitudes. Earlier influences include ' introduction of via prime meridians and ' estimates of the , which Ptolemy adopts at approximately 252,000 stadia. The book details the mathematical foundations, introducing a using (measured from the ) and (eastward from the Fortunate Islands, modern , as the ). Coordinates are given in degrees, sexagesimal fractions, and proportional parts for mapping. critiques Marinus' methods for lacking systematic astronomy and proposes improvements, such as using eclipses and solstices for determination. Physical and political aspects are outlined, with the oikoumene described as an elongated mass spanning about 180° in longitude from the Fortunate Islands to the eastern limits of (Sinae) and 77° in from the equator to (possibly ). Natural features like the and are positioned using coordinates, while political divisions follow Roman provincial boundaries. stresses the need for maps to visualize these, rejecting tabular lists alone as insufficient for grasping global relations. Map projections form a core innovation, with describing two methods: a simple conical projection with straight, converging meridians and arcs of circles for parallels, suitable for the ; and a modified version using curved meridians for better accuracy. He provides instructions for dividing the sphere into a grid, ensuring shapes and sizes are preserved as much as possible on a plane.

Book II: Mathematical Principles and Critiques

Book II begins the systematic of the oikoumene, applying the mathematical principles from Book I to catalog coordinates for localities in , illustrating the practical use of while critiquing source inaccuracies. It covers regions from and Britain to the and , listing approximately 600 places with their positions relative to the . Ptolemy employs the model, calculating positions using astronomical fixes where possible, such as the longest day length for latitudes (e.g., 16 hours at the Borysthenes River). Distances are derived from itineraries and sea voyages, converted to degrees assuming 500 stadia per degree along the . He critiques the reliability of sources, noting distortions from linear travel reports that ignore , and adjusts Marinus' data for consistency, such as correcting Britain's orientation from south-north to east-west based on better periploi. Mathematical computations include proportional spacing for construction: for a given φ, the east-west distance between meridians is proportional to cos(φ), ensuring accurate area representation. Examples include at 54°–55° N and 13° W, and the Sacred Promontory () at 7°30' W. Critiques highlight errors in earlier works, like Marinus' underestimation of the Atlantic's width and ' incomplete longitudes, advocating synthesis of multiple observations for precision. The book divides into provinces, providing coordinates for capes, rivers, mountains, and cities (e.g., at 62°15' N, 1° W, though latitudes are often inflated by about 1–2° due to source issues). This regional approach demonstrates geography's utility in military and commercial contexts, while underscoring the limitations of contemporary data, such as vague interiors. Subsequent books extend this method to other continents.

Western Europe and Mediterranean

Book II: Iberian Peninsula

Book II of Ptolemy's Geographia begins with a systematic catalog of places in the (), divided into three main provinces: Tarraconensis in the north and east, in the center and west, and Baetica in the south. Chapter 1 lists approximately 240 localities, including cities, towns, rivers, mountains, and promontories, each with estimated (from the at the Fortunate Islands) and coordinates. These allow for the projection of the region onto maps using methods outlined in Book I. For instance, the city of (modern ) is placed at 9°30' W and 38°50' N , while Emerita Augusta (Mérida) is at 11°40' W and 38°55' N. Ptolemy draws on sources like , resulting in an overall shape of Iberia that is somewhat elongated eastward compared to modern measurements, with the peninsula spanning about 50° of . The coordinates reflect Roman provincial organization and include notable sites such as (Seville) in Baetica and () in Tarraconensis, highlighting trade and administrative centers. Adjacent islands like the Balearics are covered in Chapter 2, with coordinates for Palma and other settlements.

Book II: Gaul, Britain, Ireland, and the Alps

Continuing in Book II, Chapter 3 details (Gallia), organized into four provinces: Narbonensis, Aquitania, , and Belgica. Ptolemy provides coordinates for over 100 places, including cities like () at 24°50' E and 46°00' N, and () at 23°30' E and 43°15' N, along with rivers like the () and tribal territories. The descriptions emphasize the region's division by major rivers and its role as a Roman heartland, though some inland positions show distortions due to limited surveys. Chapter 4 extends to the islands: Britain () is mapped with about 60 cities and tribes, such as at 21°50' E and 54°00' N, and tribes like the ; the island is depicted as triangular, roughly 7° wide and 10° long, with inaccuracies in the north and west. () receives fewer entries, about 20 places, positioned west of Britain, with coordinates like () at 15°30' E and 53°00' N. These listings underscore Britain's resources like metals and its partial Roman control. The , as a key Mediterranean feature, are introduced in Book III, Chapter 1 on (Italia), where they form the northern boundary from the to the Adriatic. lists coordinates for Alpine passes and settlements, such as Augusta Praetoria () at 15°30' E and 45°45' N, and describes the range's extent along about 10° of . itself is cataloged with over 200 places, from Roma at 24°30' E and 41°50' N to Brundisium () in the southeast, incorporating Mediterranean coastal features and islands like and in subsequent chapters. This coverage integrates the into the broader Italian and Mediterranean geography, facilitating regional maps.

Italy and Sicily

Book III, Chapter 1: Italy

Book III, Chapter 1 of Ptolemy's Geographica provides a systematic of places in , listing latitudes and longitudes for cities, mountains, rivers, and tribes across the peninsula. Bounded on the west by the and the , on the north by the below and , on the east by the Adriatic from the Tilaventus River to the Garganus Mountains and then to Hydruntum, and on the south by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, is divided into regions such as , , , , , and . This chapter, part of the Sixth Map of , draws on earlier sources like and compiles approximately 300 toponyms to enable accurate mapping of the Roman heartland. Ptolemy organizes the coordinates relative to the at the Fortunate Islands (), with longitudes increasing eastward and latitudes northward from the . In , key settlements include Genua (modern ) at 30°00' long., 42°50' lat., and Albingaunum at 29°30' long., 42°45' lat. features Luna at 32°00' long., 42°45' lat., and Populonium at 33°30' long., 42°00' lat., highlighting coastal and mineral-rich areas. Central regions like list at 36°40' long., 41°40' lat., and Ostia at 33°30' long., 41°30' lat., while includes Neapolis (Naples) at 40°00' long., 40°55' lat., and at 39°20' long., 41°10' lat. Southern areas such as and feature Tarentum at 41°30' long., 40°00' lat., Croton at 41°30' long., 39°10' lat., Brundisium at 42°30' long., 39°40' lat., and Hydruntum at 43°00' long., 39°05' lat. Notable features include the , with peaks like Vesuvius, and rivers such as the and Po, positioned to reflect their roles in Roman geography. Although some coordinates show inaccuracies—such as an elongated — they represent the most comprehensive ancient catalog of the region.

Book III, Chapter 4: Sicily

Book III, Chapter 4 details (Sicilia insula), portraying it as a triangular island surrounded by the to the west and north, the African Sea to the south, and the Adriatic to the east. This chapter, corresponding to the Seventh Map of , lists coordinates for cities, promontories, mountains, rivers, and tribes, emphasizing the island's volcanic and fertile landscape, including Mount Etna. Ptolemy's positions rotate counterclockwise by about 35° from modern alignments, affecting the accuracy of eastern placements, but the list includes around 50 toponyms central to Greek and Roman colonial history. Major northern cities include Mylae at 39°00' long., 38°30' lat., Tyndarium at 38°30' long., 38°20' lat., and Panormus () at 37°00' long., 37°00' lat. Western sites feature Solus at 37°00' long., 37°20' lat. and Drepanum at 36°55' long., 36°30' lat., while southern locations encompass Lilybaeum at 37°00' long., 36°00' lat. and Agrigentinum Emporium () at 38°50' long., 36°25' lat. Eastern centers are Syracusa (Syracuse) at 39°30' long., 37°30' lat., Catana () at 39°30' long., 37°45' lat., and Tauromenium at 39°30' long., 38°10' lat. Promontories such as Pelorus at 39°40' long., 38°35' lat., Phalacrum at 39°10' long., 38°30' lat., and Pachynus at 40°00' long., 36°20' lat. frame the coasts, with mountains like at 39°00' long., 38°00' lat. and Cratos at 37°40' long., 36°40' lat. Rivers including the Helicon and have mouth coordinates listed, and tribes such as the Messeni (north), Herbitae and Catanei (interior), and Segestani and Syracusi (south) are noted. These details underscore Sicily's strategic importance, though Ptolemy's coordinates perpetuate some errors from his sources, such as the island's orientation.

Northern and Eastern Europe

Book VII: Germania, Black Sea, and Balkan Regions

The sections of Ptolemy's Geographia addressing northern and eastern Europe (corresponding to parts of Books 2 and 3) consist of systematic lists of latitudes and longitudes for places in Magna, Europaea, the territories around the , and the Balkan provinces. These entries, drawn primarily from and Roman sources, total several hundred locations and reflect the Roman Empire's knowledge of these frontier regions as of the mid-2nd century AD. In the coverage of Germania (Book 2, chapter 10), Ptolemy delineates the region east of the Rhine, bounded by the Danube to the south, the Vistula River to the east, and the Germanic Ocean (Baltic Sea) to the north. He lists approximately 94 settlements distributed across four latitudinal zones, including coordinates for rivers such as the Albis (Elbe), Visurgis (Weser), and Amisia (Ems); mountains like the Abnoba and Sudetes; and forests including the Hercynian. Over 65 tribes are named, such as the Frisiavones, Batavi, Chatti, Cherusci, and Suebi, though without specific settlements attributed to most. Notable places include the marker cities Eburodunum and Marcomannia. Ptolemy's coordinates often place features farther east than modern equivalents, possibly due to reliance on itineraries rather than direct measurement. The adjacent regions of Sarmatia Europaea and Scythia (Book 2, chapter 11, and Book 3, chapter 5) extend from the Vistula to the Tanais (Don) River, north of the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus). Ptolemy catalogs around 100 places, including Greek trading colonies like Olbia (on the Hypanis/Bug River) and Tanais at the Sea of Azov; nomadic groups such as the Iazyges, Roxolani, and Hamaxobii (wagon-dwellers); and rivers including the Borysthenes (Dnieper) and Tyras (Dniester). The Black Sea coastline is detailed from the Danube delta to the Cimmerian Bosporus, with interior steppes marked by uncertain positions for tribes like the Bastarnae and Peucini. Inaccuracies include an overestimation of the distance between the Vistula and Tanais. For the Balkan regions (Book 3, chapters 4–7), lists over 200 localities across Illyricum ( and ), Superior and Inferior, , , and Macedonia. Key features include the (Ister) as the northern frontier; cities such as Siscia, , Naissus, and Oescus; mountains like the Scordus and Haemus; and tribes including the Daci and . is positioned north of the , with gold-rich areas noted indirectly through place names. The coordinates align with Roman provincial boundaries under and , though some Balkan distances are compressed.

Greece

Book 3, Chapter 11: Thracia and the Peloponnesian Peninsula

In Book 3, Chapter 11 of Ptolemy's Geographia, the focus is on () and the Peloponnesian Peninsula, part of the ninth map of . Ptolemy provides coordinates for approximately 150 places in Thrace, including cities like (modern ) at 41° 10' N, 29° 6' E, and Philippopolis at 41° 58' N, 25° 36' E (relative to his at the Fortunate Islands). For the , he lists around 200 locations, emphasizing its peninsular shape connected by the . Key sites include at 37° 56' N, 59° 20' E, and at 36° 56' N, 58° 40' E. These coordinates draw from but include errors, such as overestimating the peninsula's extent eastward. Mountains like Cyllene and rivers like the are also positioned, aiding in regional mapping. Ptolemy's approach contrasts with earlier descriptive geographies by using mathematical projections to represent the , though his data for reflects 2nd-century Roman knowledge, incorporating Hellenistic sources. The is portrayed as a southern to Hellas, with coordinates facilitating the construction of conic projections for accurate flat maps.

Book 3, Chapters 12-13: Macedonia and

Chapters 12 and 13 cover Macedonia and on the tenth map of , listing over 250 places combined. In Macedonia (Chapter 12), details the northern Greek region bordered by , , and the Aegean, with Thessalonica at 40° 38' N, 59° 50' E and (Alexander's birthplace) at 41° 0' N, 59° 30' E. The chapter includes coordinates for inland sites like and coastal harbors, noting the Axios and Strymon rivers. (Chapter 13) focuses on the western region along the , with Dyrrhachium () at 41° 22' N, 56° 50' E and Buthrotum at 39° 44' N, 56° 0' E. positions tribes like the and , reflecting Roman provincial divisions. These sections highlight Ptolemy's systematic cataloging, with longitudes increasing eastward from his western prime meridian. Errors include compressing distances in Epirus due to reliance on itineraries rather than astronomical observations. The coordinates supported Renaissance maps but perpetuated misconceptions like the extent of Macedonian territories.

Book 3, Chapters 14-15: Achaia and Crete

Chapter 14 addresses Achaia, encompassing central Greece and the northern Peloponnese, with about 300 coordinates for Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, and related areas. Athens is placed at 36° 58' N, 59° 0' E, Delphi at 38° 28' N, 58° 30' E, and Thebes at 38° 12' N, 58° 20' E. Ptolemy lists ports like Piraeus and islands near the coast, using the Saronic Gulf as a reference. The region is bounded by the Corinthian and Malian Gulfs, with Mount Parnassus noted. Chapter 15 shifts to Crete, listing over 50 places on the island, including Cnossus at 35° 20' N, 64° 10' E and Gortyna at 35° 0' N, 64° 40' E. The island is depicted as elongated east-west, with the Ida mountains and Libyan Sea coast. Ptolemy's Greek coordinates, while innovative, show distortions such as southward-shifted latitudes for central Greece by up to 1 degree, influencing medieval until corrected by explorations. These chapters conclude the European for the Hellenic world, enabling the regional maps described in Book 8.

Asia Minor and the East

Book V: Asia Minor and the Near East

Book V of 's Geographia catalogs approximately 1,000 places in Asia Minor (), the , and , organized into 13 chapters by subregions, providing coordinates relative to the Fortunate Islands . This systematic listing builds on Marinus of Tyre's earlier work, focusing on coastal and inland settlements to facilitate map construction. divides Asia Minor starting from the north: Chapter 1 covers along the , including cities like (40°50'N, 59°30'E) and Sinope (42°02'N, 56°40'E). Chapter 2 details central Asia (, , , , ), with key sites such as Pergamum (39°10'N, 52°50'E), (37°55'N, 46°50'E), and (37°02'N, 44°50'E). Southern regions follow in Chapters 3-4: (e.g., Patara at 36°15'N, 47°30'E), , , , and , noting ports like Attaleia (36°50'N, 49°50'E) and Tarsus (37°00'N, 52°50'E). Inland areas in Chapters 5-7 include , , Armenia Minor, , Pontus, and , with coordinates for (Gordion, 40°00'N, 52°30'E) and Caesarea (39°00'N, 57°30'E). Western Asia Minor recurs in Chapters 8-11, refining , , , , and with additional toponyms. Chapter 12 lists like (36°00'N, 45°00'E) and Cos, while Chapter 13 covers , positioning Salamis (35°10'N, 47°50'E) and (34°45'N, 46°30'E) as key harbors. Ptolemy's coordinates for Asia Minor show reasonable accuracy for coastal features but distortions inland due to limited surveys. The in later chapters of Book V includes , , , and . Chapter 14 outlines and , with Antioch (37°15'N, 68°30'E) and Tyre (33°15'N, 68°00'E). Chapter 15 details and Arabia, placing (31°40'N, 71°10'E) and (30°20'N, 71°20'E). concludes the book in Chapter 16, listing sites like (32°50'N, 77°50'E) and (32°35'N, 78°30'E), reflecting Parthian-era knowledge. These entries total around 300 places, emphasizing trade routes and urban centers, though overestimates distances east of the .

Book VI: The Eastern Near East and Central Asia

Book VI extends the catalog to the eastern Near East, Central Asia, and the Indus region, listing over 800 places in 7 chapters, primarily along latitudinal bands from the Caucasus to the Indian frontier. Ptolemy relies on reports from traders and Alexander's campaigns, critiquing Marinus for inflated distances. Chapter 1 covers Syria, Palestine, and Arabia Felix, adding inland details like Damascus (33°30'N, 68°50'E) and inland Arabian oases. Chapter 2 focuses on Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Susiana, with coordinates for Ctesiphon (32°40'N, 79°00'E) and Susa (32°15'N, 82°30'E). Persia and dominate Chapters 3-4: (Fars) includes (29°55'N, 84°20'E); Carmania and describe arid coasts with ports like Hormus (27°00'N, 85°50'E). Chapter 5 addresses intra Imaum and the region, placing nomadic tribes and oases like (40°15'N, 94°30'E). Chapter 6 catalogs Ariani, , and the Saras (), with (34°50'N, 84°50'E) and Hecatompylos (36°10'N, 85°30'E). The Indus marks the eastern limit in Chapter 7, with Barbaricum (24°50'N, 95°50'E) and the Hydraotes River, though shifts eastward, compressing Central Asian steppes. islands like (12°30'N, 88°00'E) conclude the book, highlighting maritime routes. These coordinates reveal 's synthesis of Hellenistic and contemporary data, but with errors like a narrowed .

Book VII: India, Serica, and the Far East

Book VII completes the Asian gazetteer with about 700 entries on India, China (Serica), and oceanic islands, divided into 5 chapters, emphasizing the eastern oikoumene's extent. Chapter 1 describes India intra Gangem (Indus to Ganges), listing 140 places like Taxila (32°50'N, 102°30'E, erroneously east) and Palibothra (Pataliputra, 16°40'N, 108°30'E). Chapter 2 covers India extra Gangem (Ganges delta to Southeast Asia), with the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) and ports like Cattigara (modern Vietnam, 8°40'N, 130°00'E). Ptolemy notes the Ganges' eastern flow and monsoon influences, drawing from Marinus' Indian sources. Chapter 3 introduces Serica (China), with the Sinae coast from the Magnus Sinus (Gulf of Thailand) to the Caspian, placing Sera Metropolis (modern Xi'an area, 34°20'N, 130°00'E) and the Silk Road termini. Limited knowledge results in vague interiors, but Ptolemy includes 30+ toponyms from overland traders. Chapter 4 details Taprobane (Sri Lanka), positioning Colombo (6°50'N, 106°30'E) and noting its pearl fisheries and cinnamon trade. Chapter 5 lists eastern islands like the Aurea Chersonesus outliers and Iabadiu (possibly Japan, but speculative). Book VII's coordinates extend the known world to 180°E, but distort Asia's longitudinal span by 60°, placing China too far east and underestimating India's width. This culminates Ptolemy's Asian compilation, influencing cartography until the 16th century.

North Africa

Book IV: Libya (Including Egypt and the Nile)

Book IV of Ptolemy's Geographica is dedicated to , the ancient term for the African continent, providing a systematic of places with coordinates relative to the Fortunate Islands () as the . This book, comprising eight chapters, covers the known African regions from in the west to in the south, with a focus on the northern coastal areas better known to Greco-Roman geographers. Unlike narrative accounts, Ptolemy's treatment emphasizes mathematical precision, drawing on Marinus of Tyre's compilations while critiquing and correcting earlier inaccuracies. The coverage of centers on coastal provinces like Marmarica, Libya proper, and , integrating physical features such as the River and its delta. Chapter 5 specifically addresses Marmarica (the region between Cyrenaica and Egypt), Libya, and Egypt, forming part of the third map of Libya. Ptolemy outlines the boundaries: westward from Cyrenaica (e.g., Darnis at 51°15' longitude, 23°00' latitude), northward along the Egyptian Sea (Mediterranean), eastward to Judaea and Arabia Petraea, and southward into interior Libya and Aethiopia. He lists coastal settlements in Marmarica, including Azilis (51°40', 31°15') and Greater Chersonesus (52°00', 31°40'), highlighting the arid, dune-filled landscape interspersed with oases. Inland features include mountains like Basisci (52°20', 30°00') and Aganombri (54°00', 27°30'), as well as nomadic tribes such as the Libyarchae in northern Marmarica and the Augilae (52°30', 28°00') known for their oracle at Ammon. Ptolemy's depiction of Egypt emphasizes its role as a fertile Nile-dependent province under Roman administration. He details the Nile's course, estimating its length and noting cataracts near Syene () as the southern boundary. The is meticulously mapped with seven mouths, including the Heracleotic or Canobic (60°50', 31°05') and Pelusiac (63°15', 31°10'), forming a triangular plain essential for agriculture and trade. Key cities include (60°30', 31°00'), described with its harbors and , though without personal narrative; Memphis (59°50', 30°50'); and Thebes (61°45', 25°50'). Lakes such as Moeris (60°20', 29°20') and Sirbonis (64°15', 31°00') are positioned, along with canals connecting the Delta to the , reflecting Ptolemaic engineering. Upper Egypt's nomes (administrative districts) are listed with coordinates for towns like Oxyrynchus and , underscoring the river's bifurcations and irrigation systems. Libya interior and beyond are treated more summarily in Chapters 6 and 7, portraying vast desert expanses with sparse settlements and tribes like the in oases facilitating . notes the (over 5,000 stadia long) in western (Chapters 1-2) as a barrier, but North African focus remains on Roman provinces: (Chapter 4) with its cities like Cyrene (49°30', 23°20'), famed for silphium exports. Overall, Book IV's coordinates, while innovative, overestimate Africa's size and close the , influencing maps until the 16th century despite errors in southern extents. The is positioned as originating from equatorial lakes, fed by rains, aligning with but refined mathematically.

Transmission and Legacy

Manuscripts and Early Copies

Ptolemy's Geographia did not survive in any ancient form, with no papyri or codices from the Roman era extant; the text was preserved primarily through the Byzantine Greek tradition and early translations. In the Islamic world, it was translated into around 830 AD by , who adapted the for his own geographic tables, influencing medieval Muslim cartographers like al-Idrisi. The Greek text remained in circulation in , where renewed interest in the 13th century led to copying and the addition of maps; the oldest surviving illustrated is the Urbinas Graecus 82 (c. 1300), a codex containing 28 maps based on reconstructions by the monk Maximus Planudes, who rediscovered a Greek exemplar in around 1295. Approximately 46 Greek manuscripts survive, descending from two main families stemming from a lost dated to around 900 AD, though most date to the and include textual variants from scribal errors or interpolations reflecting contemporary knowledge. Key examples include Vaticanus Graecus 191 (late ), which provides a reliable text for Books I–VIII without maps, and the Peiresc manuscript (), valued for its coordinate accuracy. The work reached the Latin West around when the scholar brought a Greek manuscript to , prompting Jacopo d'Angelo's Latin translation (1406–1410), which omitted maps but facilitated its dissemination during the . These manuscripts exhibit shared inaccuracies in coordinates, such as an overestimated Eurasian landmass, but modern stemmatic analysis distinguishes Ptolemy's original data from later emendations. Early evidence of the Geographia's influence, rather than direct copies, appears in derivative works like the 10th-century Book of the Description of the Earth by Ibn Hawqal, which drew on Ptolemaic coordinates. No substantial pre-medieval fragments exist, underscoring the text's narrow survival through scholarly chains in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Printed Editions and Translations

The first printed edition of Ptolemy's Geographia was a Latin version published in Vicenza in 1475, followed closely by the landmark Bologna edition of 1477, edited by Bernhard Walther and printed by Dominicus de Lapis, which included 26 woodcut regional maps and a world map—the earliest printed atlas. This incunable saw multiple reprints, with over 50 editions appearing across Europe by 1730, including the 1482 Ulm edition (the first north of the Alps) and the 1513 Strasbourg edition by Martin Waldseemüller, which incorporated four "modern" maps reflecting discoveries like the Americas. Later versions, such as Gerard Mercator's 1578 edition, expanded to 64 maps with updated projections and integrated New World explorations, totaling around 60 documented prints up to the early 18th century. Translations proliferated after the initial Latin by Jacopo d'Angelo; an Italian vernacular version by Francesco Berlinghieri appeared in around 1482, while the first Greek printed edition was issued in in 1533 by of Rotterdam. English translations emerged later, with a partial rendering in 1535 and the comprehensive edition (Greek facing English) by Edward Luther Stevenson in 1932, revised in subsequent decades. French and German editions followed in the , often with added commentaries; for instance, the 1525 French translation by Joachim Vachon included geographical annotations. A persistent challenge in these editions involved reconciling Ptolemy's distances, based on an overestimated circumference (about 17% too small), with modern measurements, leading to debates over unit conversions like the Roman mile.

Scholarly Influence and Modern Studies

Ptolemy's Geographia profoundly influenced medieval Islamic geography, where Arabic versions shaped works like al-Khwarizmi's grids and informed the (1154) by al-Idrisi, extending the known world southward. In Renaissance Europe, its rediscovery spurred cartographic innovation; cartographers like and used Ptolemaic projections to compile atlases, while relied on its coordinates in 1492, contributing to errors in estimating Asia's size and the that influenced his westward route to the Indies. Although lacking original maps, printed editions from 1477 onward added illustrations, perpetuating inaccuracies like a closed but also enabling the integration of post-Columbian discoveries, as seen in Waldseemüller's 1507 map naming "America." In the 19th–20th centuries, the Geographia guided historical geography and , with scholars like Edward Luther Stevenson reconstructing maps to trace ancient trade routes. Modern studies emphasize ; the 2006 critical Greek edition by Alfred Stückelberger and Gerd Graßhoff provided a standardized text, while the Technical University of Berlin's 2010–2012 project decoded over 8,000 coordinates into interactive maps using GIS software. As of 2025, initiatives like the Ancient World Mapping Center's project (ongoing since 2000) georeference Ptolemy's place-names against satellite data, aiding analyses of Roman-era connectivity and environmental changes, such as coastal shifts in the Mediterranean. These efforts highlight the work's enduring role in bridging ancient and computational , despite acknowledged distortions in its oikoumene.

References

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