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Carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that requires zinc (gray sphere near the center of this image), is essential for exhalation of carbon dioxide.

In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element. Some "minerals" are essential for life, but most are not.[1][2][3] Minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients; the others are vitamins, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids.[4] The five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium.[2] The remaining minerals are called "trace elements". The generally accepted trace elements are iron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, selenium,[5] and bromine;[6] there is some evidence that there may be more.

The four organogenic elements, namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (CHON), that comprise roughly 96% of the human body by weight,[7] are usually not considered as minerals (nutrient). In fact, in nutrition, the term "mineral" refers more generally to all the other functional and structural elements found in living organisms.

Plants obtain minerals from soil.[8] Animals ingest plants, thus moving minerals up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources such as salt licks to obtain minerals.

Finally, although mineral and elements are in many ways synonymous, minerals are only bioavailable to the extent that they can be absorbed. To be absorbed, minerals either must be soluble or readily extractable by the consuming organism. For example, molybdenum is an essential mineral, but metallic molybdenum has no nutritional benefit. Many molybdates are sources of molybdenum.

Essential chemical elements for humans

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Main article: Composition of the human body

Twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles, and there is evidence for a few more.[1][9]

Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96% of the weight of a human body. Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight, with 99% of it contained in bones and teeth. This is about 1.5% of body weight.[2] Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2/3 of calcium, and makes up about 1% of a person's body weight.[10] The other major minerals (potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur and magnesium) make up only about 0.85% of the weight of the body. Together these eleven chemical elements (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) make up 99.85% of the body. The remaining ≈18 ultratrace minerals comprise just 0.15% of the body, or about one hundred grams in total for the average person. Total fractions in this paragraph are amounts based on summing percentages from the article on chemical composition of the human body.

Some diversity of opinion exist about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans (and other mammals), even based on the same data. For example, whether chromium is essential in humans is debated. No Cr-containing biochemical has been purified. The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient,[11][12] but the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), representing the European Union, reviewed the question in 2014 and does not agree.[13]

Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively low atomic weight, and are reasonably common on land, or for sodium and iodine, in the ocean. They also tend to have soluble compounds at physiological pH ranges: elements without such soluble compounds tend to be either non-essential (Al) or, at best, may only be needed in traces (Si).[1]

Essential elements for higher organisms (eucarya).[14][15][16][17][1][6][18]
H   He
Li Be   B C N O F Ne
Na Mg   Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Legend:
  The four basic organic elements
  Quantity elements
  Essential trace elements
  Essentiality or function debated
  Not essential in humans, but essential/beneficial for some non-human eucarya

Roles in biological processes

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Dietary element RDA/AI male/female (US) [mg][19] UL (US and EU) [mg][19][20] Category High nutrient density
dietary sources 		Terms for deficiency/excess
Potassium 4700 NE; NE A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with sodium Sweet potato, tomato, potato, beans, lentils, dairy products, seafood, banana, prune, carrot, orange[21] hypokalemia / hyperkalemia
Chlorine 2300 3600; NE Needed for production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, in cellular pump functions and required in host defense Table salt (sodium chloride) is the main dietary source. hypochloremia / hyperchloremia
Sodium 1500 2300; NE A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with potassium Table salt (sodium chloride, the main source), sea vegetables, milk, and spinach. hyponatremia / hypernatremia
Calcium 1000 2500; 2500 Needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health, builds bone (see hydroxyapatite), supports synthesis and function of blood cells, helps in blood clotting Dairy products, eggs, canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines), green leafy vegetables, nuts, seeds, tofu, thyme, oregano, dill, cinnamon.[22] hypocalcaemia / hypercalcaemia
Phosphorus 700 4000; 4000 A component of bones (see hydroxyapatite), cells, in energy processing, in DNA and ATP (as phosphate) and many other functions Red meat, dairy foods, fish, poultry, bread, rice, oats.[23][24] In biological contexts, usually seen as phosphate[25] hypophosphatemia / hyperphosphatemia
Magnesium 420/320 350; 250 Required for processing ATP and for bones Spinach, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, peanut butter, avocado[26] hypomagnesemia (magnesium deficiency) / hypermagnesemia
Iron 8/18 45; NE Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin to prevent anemia Meat, seafood, nuts, beans, dark chocolate[27] iron deficiency / iron overload disorder
Zinc 11/8 40; 25 Required for several classes of enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase and zinc finger proteins Oysters*, red meat, poultry, nuts, whole grains, dairy products[28] zinc deficiency / zinc toxicity
Manganese 2.3/1.8 11; NE Required co-factor for superoxide dismutase Grains, legumes, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables, tea, coffee[29] manganese deficiency / manganism
Copper 0.9 10; 5 Required co-factor for cytochrome c oxidase Liver, seafood, oysters, nuts, seeds; some: whole grains, legumes[29] copper deficiency / copper toxicity
Iodine 0.150 1.1; 0.6 Required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones and to help enzymes in host defense Seaweed (kelp or kombu)*, grains, eggs, iodized salt[30] iodine deficiency (goiter) / iodism (hyperthyroidism[31])
Molybdenum 0.045 2; 0.6 Required for the functioning of xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase[32] Legumes, whole grains, nuts[29] molybdenum deficiency / molybdenum toxicity[33]
Selenium 0.055 0.4; 0.3 Essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase Brazil nuts, seafoods, organ meats, meats, grains, dairy products, eggs[34] selenium deficiency / selenosis
Cobalt NE (trace); NE (trace) NE; NE Cobalt (as vitamin B12) is required for the synthesis of DNA, erythropoiesis (red blood cell formation), and the development, myelination, and function of the central nervous system. It is available for use by animals only after having been processed by bacteria. Humans contain only milligrams of cobalt in these cofactors[35] Animal muscle and liver are good dietary sources, also shellfish and crab meat[36] pernicious anemia / cobalt poisoning
Sulfur NE (abundant); NE (abundant) NE; NE Sulfur (as essential amino acid methionine and its derivative cysteine) is required for the synthesis of proteins, antioxidation, and the transcription, epigenetic expression, and gene regulation of DNA. It is unusual in that it is a mineral that may be taken in both inorganic and organic combinations. Sulfur is the most abundant mineral found in our body after calcium and phosphorus[37] Nuts, legumes, meats, eggs, fish, seafood, also fermented foods[38] compromised glutathione synthesis[37] / hyperhomocysteinemia
Bromine NE (trace); NE (trace) NE; NE Important to basement membrane architecture and tissue development, as a needed catalyst to make collagen IV[6][17] bromism

RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; AI = Adequate intake; UL = Tolerable upper intake level; Figures shown are for adults age 31–50, male or female neither pregnant nor lactating

* One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.[39]

Dietary nutrition

[edit]

Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).[citation needed]

The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components.[40] Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium.

Plants

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Structure of the Mn4O5Ca core of the oxygen-evolving site in plants, illustrating one of many roles of the trace mineral manganese.[41]

The list of minerals required for plants is similar to that for animals. Both use very similar enzymes, although differences exist. For example, legumes host molybdenum-containing nitrogenase, but animals do not. Many animals rely on hemoglobin (Fe) for oxygen transport, but plants do not. Fertilizers are often tailored to address mineral deficiencies in particular soils. Examples include molybdenum deficiency, manganese deficiency, zinc deficiency, and so on.

Safety

[edit]

The gap between recommended daily intake and what are considered safe upper limits (ULs) can be small. For example, for calcium the U.S. Food and Drug Administration set the recommended intake for adults over 70 years at 1,200 mg/day and the UL at 2,000 mg/day.[19] The European Union also sets recommended amounts and upper limits, which are not always in accord with the U.S.[20] Likewise, Japan, which sets the UL for iodine at 3000 μg versus 1100 for the U.S. and 600 for the EU.[39] In the table above, magnesium appears to be an anomaly as the recommended intake for adult men is 420 mg/day (women 350 mg/day) while the UL is lower than the recommended, at 350 mg. The reason is that the UL is specific to consuming more than 350 mg of magnesium all at once, in the form of a dietary supplement, as this may cause diarrhea. Magnesium-rich foods do not cause this problem.[42]

Elements considered possibly essential for humans but not confirmed

[edit]

Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function.[5] One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples: silicon and nickel in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce.[40] Some elements were once thought to have a role with unknown biochemical nature, but the evidence has not always been strong.[5] For example, it was once thought that arsenic was probably essential in mammals,[43] but it seems to be only used by microbes;[6] and while chromium was long thought to be an essential trace element based on rodent models, and was proposed to be involved in glucose and lipid metabolism,[44][45] more recent studies have conclusively ruled this possibility out. It may still have a role in insulin signalling, but the evidence is not clear, and it only seems to occur at doses not found in normal diets.[6] Boron is essential to plants,[46][47][48] but not animals.[6]

Non-essential elements can sometimes appear in the body when they are chemically similar to essential elements (e.g. Rb+ and Cs+ replacing Na+), so that essentiality is not the same thing as uptake by a biological system.[1]

Element Description Excess
Nickel Nickel is an essential component of several enzymes, including urease and hydrogenase.[49] Although not required by humans, some are thought to be required by gut bacteria, such as urease required by some varieties of Bifidobacterium.[50] In humans, nickel may be a cofactor or structural component of certain metalloenzymes involved in hydrolysis, redox reactions and gene expression. Nickel deficiency depressed growth in goats, pigs, and sheep, and diminished circulating thyroid hormone concentration in rats.[51] Nickel toxicity
Fluorine There is no evidence that fluorine is essential, but it is beneficial.[6][52] Research indicates that the primary dental benefit from fluoride occurs at the surface from topical exposure.[53][54] Of the minerals in this table, fluoride is the only one for which the U.S. Institute of Medicine has established an Adequate Intake.[55] Fluoride poisoning
Lithium Based on plasma lithium concentrations, biological activity and epidemiological observations, there is evidence, not conclusive, that lithium is an essential nutrient.[15][16] Lithium toxicity
Silicon Silicon is beneficial to most plants, but usually not essential. It seems to have beneficial effects in humans, strengthening bones and connective tissue, but these effects are still being studied. In any case deficiency symptoms do not arise because silicon occurs significantly in food made from plants.[6]
Vanadium Has an established, albeit specialized, biochemical role in other organisms (algae, lichens, fungi, bacteria), and there is significant circumstantial evidence for its essentiality in humans. It is rather toxic for a trace element and the requirement, if essential, is probably small.[52]
Other There are several elements that are not used by mammals, but seem to be beneficial in other organisms: boron, aluminium, titanium, arsenic, rubidium, strontium, cadmium, antimony, tellurium, barium, the early lanthanides (from lanthanum to gadolinium), tungsten, and uranium. (In the cases of Al and Rb the mechanism is not well understood.) In particular, B, Ti, Sr, Cd, and Ba are used by eukaryotes, and Al and Rb might be as well.[6][52]

Mineral ecology

[edit]
Further information: Biomineralization

Diverse ions are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells,[56] exoskeletons and mollusc shells.[57][citation needed]

Minerals can be bioengineered by bacteria which act on metals to catalyze mineral dissolution and precipitation.[58] Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria distributed throughout soils, oceans, freshwater, groundwater, and glacier meltwater systems worldwide.[58][59] Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge phytoplankton blooms.[59] Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton, which are then eaten by other marine life.[58][59] In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to local ecosystems.[60][61]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mineral (nutrient)

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Mineral nutrients are inorganic elements essential for the growth, development, and physiological processes of living organisms, including humans, animals, and , as they cannot be synthesized endogenously and must be obtained from the environment or diet. In , these are obtained primarily from the diet and categorized into macrominerals (or major minerals), required in amounts greater than 100 mg per day, such as calcium, , magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and , and trace minerals (or microminerals), needed in smaller quantities of less than 100 mg per day, including iron, , , , iodine, , , and . Essential minerals perform critical roles in maintaining , including for bones and teeth (e.g., calcium and ), electrolyte balance and nerve transmission (e.g., sodium, , and ), enzyme activation and metabolic reactions (e.g., magnesium, , and ), oxygen transport in blood (e.g., iron), thyroid production (e.g., iodine), and defense (e.g., ). Deficiencies in these minerals can result in specific disorders, such as rickets or osteomalacia from inadequate D-related mineral absorption, from iron shortfall, or goiter from , while excessive intake may lead to toxicity, including hypercalcemia from surplus calcium or hemochromatosis from . Dietary sources of minerals are diverse, encompassing plant-based foods like leafy greens and nuts for magnesium and , animal products such as and for iron and , and fortified items or dairy for calcium and iodine, with bioavailability influenced by factors like phytates in grains that can inhibit absorption. Recommended daily intakes are outlined in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), established by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, which vary by age, sex, and life stage to prevent deficiencies in vulnerable populations like children, pregnant individuals, and the elderly. While a balanced diet typically suffices, supplements may be advised for at-risk groups, though they should not exceed upper limits to avoid adverse effects.

Fundamentals of Mineral Nutrients

Definition and Classification

Mineral nutrients, also known as dietary minerals or inorganic elements, are essential chemical substances required by living organisms in small quantities to support vital physiological processes, such as function, structural integrity, and metabolic regulation. These nutrients are inorganic, meaning they lack carbon-hydrogen bonds, and are typically obtained from the environment—either from and by or through dietary sources by animals and humans. In biological systems, mineral nutrients are absorbed primarily in ionic form; for instance, plants take up ions like (NO₃⁻), (PO₄³⁻), and (K⁺) through root cells via active or mechanisms. Similarly, in animals, dietary minerals are solubilized in the digestive tract and absorbed as ions across intestinal epithelia. Mineral nutrients are classified based on the daily intake required by adult humans, dividing them into macrominerals and trace minerals. Macrominerals, also called major minerals, are those needed in quantities exceeding 100 mg per day and include calcium, , magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and ; these contribute to formation, , and nerve transmission. Trace minerals, or microminerals, are required in smaller amounts, less than 100 mg per day, and encompass elements such as iron, , , , iodine, , , , and ; they play roles in oxygen transport, immune function, and defense. This classification reflects the scale of physiological demand rather than inherent importance, as both categories are indispensable for . In contrast to mineral nutrients, organic nutrients like vitamins are complex carbon-based molecules synthesized by and microorganisms, which animals must obtain preformed from food, and they function primarily as coenzymes or antioxidants. Macronutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, differ fundamentally as they are organic compounds needed in gram quantities daily to supply (measured in calories) and build tissues, whereas minerals provide no caloric value and are utilized in ionic or forms for regulatory purposes. Water, though inorganic like minerals, is classified separately as a macronutrient due to its bulk requirement for hydration and as a . The recognition of mineral nutrients as essential began in the with German chemist , who in 1840 formulated the law of the minimum, positing that plant growth is limited by the scarcest essential mineral element in the soil, thereby establishing the mineral theory of . This framework, initially applied to agriculture, was extended to animal and by the early through experiments demonstrating mineral deficiencies, such as rickets associated with impaired calcium and phosphorus absorption due to vitamin D deficiency, or anemia from iron deficiency, leading to the identification of specific requirements across organisms.

Biological Significance

Mineral nutrients play pivotal roles in supporting fundamental life processes across diverse organisms, from prokaryotes to complex multicellular forms. They contribute to structural integrity by forming essential components of biological scaffolds, such as the hydroxyapatite in skeletal tissues that enables bone formation and mechanical support. Regulatory functions are equally critical, with minerals acting as cofactors for numerous enzymes that catalyze vital biochemical reactions, thereby maintaining cellular homeostasis and metabolic efficiency. Additionally, minerals facilitate osmotic balance by regulating fluid distribution within cells and tissues, preventing disruptions in hydration that could impair physiological operations. In signaling pathways, they enable the transmission of nerve impulses and muscle contractions through ion gradients and membrane potentials, underscoring their indispensable presence in excitable tissues. The interdependence of mineral nutrients with other macronutrients highlights their integrative role in . As cofactors, minerals activate enzymes involved in the breakdown and synthesis of , , and , ensuring efficient energy production and biomolecular assembly; for instance, they support glycolytic pathways for carbohydrate utilization, amino acid processing in , and beta-oxidation in . This synergy extends to interactions with vitamins and organic compounds, where minerals often form part of metalloproteins or prosthetic groups that enhance enzymatic activity across classes. Without adequate mineral availability, these metabolic cascades falter, compromising overall organismal vitality. From an evolutionary standpoint, minerals have been integral to the and of since its origins on . In primordial environments, mineral surfaces likely catalyzed prebiotic reactions, concentrated organic precursors, and provided protective templates for the assembly of early biomolecules, facilitating the transition from abiotic chemistry to self-replicating systems. As life evolved, minerals enabled adaptations to varying geochemical conditions, such as iron-sulfur clusters in ancient metabolic enzymes that supported in early microbial communities. This co-evolution between minerals and organisms has persisted, with life's activities influencing diversity and distribution over billions of years. Quantitatively, minerals constitute approximately 4% of the average , reflecting their concentrated roles in dense tissues like bones and teeth while being distributed in trace amounts elsewhere to sustain dynamic functions. Similar proportions hold across many organisms, where content scales with structural demands and metabolic complexity, emphasizing their efficiency despite low overall abundance.

Essential Minerals in

Macrominerals

Macrominerals, also known as major minerals, are inorganic nutrients required by the in quantities exceeding 100 mg per day to support fundamental physiological processes, including structural integrity, balance, and enzymatic activity. The primary macrominerals include calcium, , magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and , each playing distinct yet interconnected roles in maintaining and metabolic function. Calcium constitutes about 99% of the body's mineral content, primarily in bones and teeth where it provides structural support, but it also facilitates , transmission, and blood clotting. In blood clotting, calcium ions serve as essential cofactors for the activation of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X, enabling the formation of stable clots through gamma-carboxylation processes. Absorption occurs mainly in the , enhanced by , while is tightly regulated by (PTH), which increases renal calcium reabsorption and in response to low serum levels, alongside calcitonin and 23 (FGF23) for balance. Magnesium acts as a cofactor for over 300 enzymes involved in energy production, particularly in ATP synthesis, as well as in protein synthesis, muscle and nerve function, and DNA replication. Approximately 99% of magnesium is stored in bones and soft tissues, with the remainder in extracellular fluids regulating cellular excitability and vascular tone. It is absorbed primarily in the small intestine via paracellular and transcellular pathways, with renal excretion maintaining homeostasis through filtration and reabsorption modulated by serum levels and hormones like PTH. Phosphorus, often in the form of phosphate, is crucial for bone mineralization, forming hydroxyapatite crystals alongside calcium, and serves as a key component in the structure of DNA, RNA, and cell membranes. It plays a central role in energy metabolism as part of ATP and other high-energy phosphates, facilitating cellular signaling and acid-base buffering. Absorption in the jejunum occurs via sodium-dependent transporters, with higher bioavailability from animal sources and food additives, while homeostasis involves PTH-mediated renal reabsorption and inhibition of intestinal absorption to prevent hyperphosphatemia. Sodium and potassium function as primary extracellular and intracellular cations, respectively, maintaining electrolyte balance, , and essential for nerve signaling and . Sodium drives action potentials via the sodium- pump, which exchanges sodium for to restore resting potentials, while imbalances can disrupt fluid distribution and regulation. Sodium is absorbed passively in the and reabsorbed in the kidneys under aldosterone control, which promotes distal tubule uptake to preserve volume, whereas homeostasis relies on renal and aldosterone-induced in principal cells. , the major extracellular anion, pairs with sodium to support fluid and balance, contributes to acid-base through the bicarbonate-chloride exchanger in red blood cells, and is vital for gastric production aiding . It follows sodium absorption passively in the intestines and is reabsorbed in the kidneys via paracellular routes and chloride channels, with linked to sodium regulation and influenced by aldosterone. Sulfur is incorporated into sulfur-containing amino acids like and , forming bonds critical for , function, and detoxification pathways in the liver via . It supports integrity through sulfated glycosaminoglycans in and aids in the of drugs and toxins. Sulfur is obtained from dietary proteins and absorbed as amino acids in the , with maintained through urinary and fecal excretion without specific hormonal regulation.

Trace Elements

Trace elements, also known as microminerals, are inorganic nutrients required by the in amounts typically less than 100 mg per day, functioning primarily as cofactors in enzymatic reactions, regulators of , and components of structural proteins at low concentrations. These elements support critical processes such as oxygen transport, defense, and metabolic regulation, with deficiencies potentially impairing cellular function despite their trace presence. Their essentiality is established through evidence of specific physiological roles and adverse effects from deprivation in controlled studies, though the essentiality of some, like , remains debated due to lack of clear deficiency markers in humans. Iron is vital for oxygen transport as a central component of and , binding and releasing oxygen in blood and muscles, respectively. It also participates in energy production via , iron-containing proteins in the mitochondrial that facilitate for ATP synthesis. Additionally, iron serves as a cofactor in enzymes involved in and . of non-heme iron from plant sources is enhanced by ascorbic acid (), which reduces it to a more absorbable form, but inhibited by phytates in grains and that form insoluble complexes in the gut. Heme iron from animal sources is absorbed more efficiently, with daily requirements around 8-18 mg depending on age and sex. Zinc supports immune function by aiding T-cell development and antibody production, while also playing a key role in DNA synthesis and cell division as a cofactor for over 300 enzymes. It contributes to gene regulation through zinc finger proteins, structural motifs where zinc ions stabilize domains that bind DNA and modulate transcription of genes involved in growth and development. Zinc is essential for wound healing and taste perception, with bioavailability higher from animal proteins than plant sources due to phytate interference, and requirements met at 8-11 mg daily for adults. Copper functions in iron metabolism by facilitating its incorporation into ferroxidase enzymes like , which oxidizes iron for transport, and serves as a cofactor in antioxidant enzymes such as , protecting cells from oxidative damage. It also supports formation through lysyl oxidase, which cross-links and . Absorption occurs mainly in the and , influenced by levels, with adequate intake around 0.9 mg per day from foods like and nuts. Manganese aids formation by activating enzymes like glycosyltransferases involved in mucopolysaccharide synthesis for , and supports as a cofactor in for and for activity. It influences and processing, with most dietary from sources like grains and nuts, and requirements estimated at 1.8-2.3 mg daily, though absorption is low (2-5%) due to competition with iron. Iodine is indispensable for synthesizing thyroid hormones and thyroxine, which regulate , growth, and development by influencing in nearly all tissues. These hormones are produced in the gland using iodine trapped from blood, with deficiency impairing hormone production and leading to developmental issues. is high from iodized salt and , meeting the 150 µg daily requirement for adults. Selenium exerts antioxidant effects primarily through incorporation into , the of enzymes that reduce peroxides and protect membranes from . This role extends to immune modulation and function via enzymes. content in food varies with soil levels, with organic forms like more bioavailable than inorganic ones, and the recommended intake of 55 µg daily sourced from Brazil nuts and . Molybdenum acts as a cofactor for enzymes such as in and sulfite oxidase in sulfur , preventing toxic accumulations. It supports indirectly through dietary chains but is critical for human processes. Requirements are low at 45 µg per day, with good from and grains. Chromium, in its trivalent form, enhances glucose by potentiating insulin action, facilitating in cells via interactions with insulin receptors and amplifying signaling pathways, although its essentiality for humans is debated due to insufficient evidence of deficiency symptoms. It may also influence , though evidence is stronger for effects. Found in whole grains and meats, absorption is poor (0.5-2%), with an adequate intake of 25-35 µg daily. Fluoride, while not strictly essential for all physiological functions, benefits dental health by incorporating into enamel to form , increasing resistance to acid dissolution and reducing caries incidence. It may also support bone mineralization by enhancing crystallinity, though its status as semi-essential stems from lack of a defined organic role. Primarily obtained from fluoridated , intake levels are around 3-4 mg daily for adults. Interactions between trace elements and macrominerals, such as calcium competing with iron for absorption sites in the intestine, can affect overall .

Dietary Aspects and Health Implications

Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) and Adequate Intakes (AIs) for essential minerals are established by authoritative bodies such as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to meet the needs of nearly all healthy individuals, varying by age, sex, and life stage like or . These values account for factors such as growth, hormonal changes, and physiological demands, with AIs used when insufficient data exist for RDAs. For instance, calcium RDAs range from 1,000 mg/day for adults aged 19–50 years to 1,200 mg/day for women over 50 and both sexes over 70, while iron requirements are higher for premenopausal women at 18 mg/day compared to 8 mg/day for men and postmenopausal women due to menstrual losses. The following table summarizes RDAs for selected macrominerals and trace elements, based on U.S. Dietary Reference Intakes; values are daily intakes in milligrams (mg) unless noted.
Age/Life StageCalcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Zinc (mg)Iodine (mcg)Selenium (mcg)
1–3 years70078039020
9–13 years1,3008240812040
Adult males 19–501,0008400–4201115055
Adult females 19–501,00018310–320815055
Pregnant (19–50)1,00027350–3601122060
Lactating (19–50)1,0009310–3201229070
*Notes: AIs apply to infants (e.g., calcium 200–260 mg for 0–12 months); vegetarians may need 1.8 times more iron due to lower nonheme bioavailability. Primary food sources provide these minerals efficiently, with dairy products like , , and cheese supplying about 300 mg of calcium per serving, while leafy greens such as offer plant-based alternatives. , , and are rich in iron (2–3 mg per 3 oz serving) and (up to 7 mg in ), whereas beans and fortified cereals contribute nonheme iron (1–2 mg per serving) and (2–3 mg). Iodized salt delivers 45 mcg per 1/4 , like provides 99 mcg per 3 oz, and adds 56 mcg per cup; nuts and seeds, including Brazil nuts (up to 544 mcg per oz), are key for and magnesium (almonds: 80 mg per oz). Bioavailability significantly influences effective intake, as iron from animal sources is absorbed at 15–35% efficiency versus 2–20% for nonheme iron from plants, enhanced by but inhibited by in or phytates in grains. like oxalates in reduce calcium absorption by up to 50%, while high fiber diets can limit magnesium uptake; supplements, such as (taken with meals for better absorption), are recommended when dietary sources fall short but should not exceed upper limits to avoid interactions. Global variations in guidelines address regional risks, with the (WHO) recommending higher iron intakes (e.g., 30 mg/day basal for non-pregnant women in malaria-endemic areas) and multiple supplements for at-risk populations in developing countries to combat deficiencies exacerbated by poor soil quality and limited . WHO also endorses universal salt iodization (20–40 ppm) and iron of staples like (30 mg/kg) for vulnerable groups, differing from U.S. RDAs by incorporating and parasite burdens.

Deficiencies and Toxicity

Mineral deficiencies in humans can lead to a range of health issues, with being one of the most prevalent worldwide, often manifesting as characterized by symptoms such as fatigue, pallor, dizziness, and shortness of breath due to reduced oxygen transport in the blood. Iodine deficiency commonly results in goiter, an enlargement of the gland, along with impaired cognitive function and developmental delays in children, stemming from insufficient hormone production. Calcium deficiency contributes to , where bones become weak and brittle, increasing the risk of fractures, particularly in older adults, as low calcium intake fails to maintain . Excessive intake of minerals can also cause , with hypercalcemia from overconsumption of leading to stones, , , and increased through disrupted calcium and renal function. , often from environmental exposure or genetic disorders like , damages the liver, causing acute failure, , and due to and cellular . during childhood tooth development results in , marked by enamel mottling and discoloration, as excess disrupts mineralization processes. Several risk factors exacerbate imbalances, including from diets low in nutrient-dense foods, which heightens vulnerability to deficiencies like iron and iodine in low-income populations. Soil depletion in agricultural regions reduces mineral content in crops, contributing to widespread shortages such as and iron in staple foods grown in nutrient-poor . Over-supplementation poses risks for , while mineral interactions, such as excess intake inhibiting absorption via induction of in the intestines, can induce secondary deficiencies. Prevention of mineral imbalances involves strategies like , such as adding iron to cereals and , which has proven effective in reducing prevalence in vulnerable communities. Regular monitoring and supplementation are recommended for at-risk groups, including pregnant women, to ensure adequate intake and avoid both deficiencies and toxicities through tailored nutritional guidance.

Minerals in Plant Nutrition

Essential Elements for Plants

Plants require 17 essential mineral elements to complete their life cycle, a set established through decades of research beginning with foundational work in the early 20th century. These elements are divided into macronutrients, needed in larger quantities, and micronutrients, required in trace amounts. The macronutrients include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S), while the micronutrients comprise iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl), and nickel (Ni). Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), though essential, are primarily obtained from carbon dioxide and water rather than soil minerals. The criteria for determining essentiality were formalized by Arnon and Stout in , defining an essential element as one that is required for the to complete its vegetative and reproductive cycles, cannot be substituted by another element, and plays a direct role in . This framework has guided subsequent discoveries, including the confirmation of as the 17th essential element in 1987, based on its necessity for function in higher across diverse . Unlike animal nutrition, where certain elements like are not required, plants depend on this full complement of 17 for optimal growth; for instance, supports the activity of , an absent as a nutritional need in humans. Plants absorb these mineral elements primarily through their roots in ionic form, such as (NO₃⁻) for or ferrous iron (Fe²⁺), via passive diffusion or mechanisms involving membrane proteins. Soil pH significantly influences availability and uptake, as it affects solubility—acidic soils (pH < 6) enhance mobility like iron and manganese but may limit phosphorus, while alkaline conditions (pH > 7) reduce uptake by promoting . plays a key role in overcoming these limitations, particularly for metals like iron, , and ; organic chelators exuded by or present in bind these , maintaining solubility and facilitating transport across the root plasma even in suboptimal pH environments.
CategoryElementsNotes on Acquisition
MacronutrientsN, P, K, Ca, Mg, SAbsorbed in higher concentrations; N often as NO₃⁻ or NH₄⁺, P as H₂PO₄⁻.
MicronutrientsFe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, NiTaken up in trace amounts; many as cations (e.g., Fe²⁺, Zn²⁺) or anions (e.g., MoO₄²⁻, Cl⁻).

Roles in Plant Growth and Metabolism

Essential minerals play critical roles in plant growth and metabolism by participating in structural development, enzymatic reactions, energy transfer, and stress responses. These nutrients, absorbed primarily through roots, enable key physiological processes such as photosynthesis, nutrient assimilation, and osmoregulation. Macronutrients like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are required in larger quantities and support broad metabolic functions, while micronutrients like iron (Fe), boron (B), and molybdenum (Mo) act as cofactors in specific pathways. Nitrogen is integral to the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids, forming the backbone of enzymes and chlorophyll essential for photosynthesis and overall vegetative growth. Phosphorus facilitates energy transfer through molecules like ATP and is a component of DNA, RNA, phospholipids, and coenzymes, promoting root development, seed formation, and metabolic efficiency. Potassium regulates osmosis and turgor pressure, enabling stomatal opening for gas exchange and water balance, while also activating enzymes involved in protein synthesis and carbohydrate metabolism. In metabolic pathways, magnesium (Mg) serves as the central atom in , directly supporting light absorption and photosynthetic electron transport. is a key component of and enzymes, enabling in and assimilation of into . Iron contributes to biosynthesis and functions in and for and respiration. aids integrity by facilitating cross-linking of pectins and supports growth and transport. Deficiencies in these minerals manifest as distinct symptoms that impair growth. Iron and manganese shortages cause interveinal chlorosis, where leaves yellow between veins due to reduced chlorophyll production, often starting in younger leaves for iron. Calcium and boron deficiencies lead to necrosis, with tissue death at growing tips or margins, resulting from weakened cell walls and disrupted meristem function. Mineral interactions influence uptake and efficacy, with both synergistic and antagonistic effects. Nitrogen and exhibit , where balanced supply enhances overall accumulation and seed production by optimizing protein synthesis and energy availability. High levels can antagonize magnesium uptake by competing at root absorption sites, potentially exacerbating symptoms.

Emerging and Possibly Essential Minerals

Candidates for Human Essentiality

Several minerals have been proposed as potentially essential for health based on biochemical roles observed in animals and preliminary data, though none have met the criteria for confirmed essentiality due to insufficient evidence of specific functions or deficiency symptoms in controlled studies. These candidates include , , , , and , which are ultratrace elements with average daily intakes ranging from micrograms to milligrams. Their potential importance stems from roles in formation, enzyme activity, and metabolic regulation, but establishing essentiality is complicated by their environmental ubiquity and narrow therapeutic windows. Silicon has garnered attention for its involvement in and . In , silicon deficiency in chicks and rats led to impaired formation and reduced synthesis, while supplementation increased density and strength in ovariectomized rats. Biochemically, silicon appears to enhance prolylhydroxylase activity, crucial for collagen cross-linking, and is concentrated in active bone-forming areas. Human observational data link higher dietary silicon intakes (over 40 mg/day) to greater femoral density in postmenopausal women, and supplementation trials have shown modest improvements in markers. Recent in the , including a review, suggests silicon may also protect against by modulating metal ion balances like calcium and magnesium, potentially reducing cardiovascular mortality. Boron is investigated for its effects on hormone regulation and . Animal experiments in and rats demonstrate that boron influences embryonic growth, , and macromineral , such as calcium utilization. In humans, low boron intake (0.25 mg/2,000 kcal) correlates with reduced serum and testosterone levels in postmenopausal women, suggesting a role in function. Small clinical trials indicate that boron supplementation (6 mg/day as calcium fructoborate) alleviates symptoms, improving joint mobility and reducing inflammatory markers like over 8 weeks. Boron may stabilize diol-rich biomolecules, aiding enzymatic reactions, though no definitive human deficiency syndrome exists. Vanadium shows promise in glucose and regulation. In animal models, such as diabetic rats, vanadium compounds mimic insulin, lowering blood glucose and improving profiles, with deficiency in causing reduced growth and . Biochemically, acts as a cofactor in haloperoxidases and inhibits phosphatases while activating kinases, influencing phosphate-dependent processes. studies are limited, but phase IIa trials of vanadyl complexes demonstrated antidiabetic effects without altering or . Daily intakes of 6-18 μg are typical, with potential therapeutic applications in . Nickel may support function and iron . Animal deficiency studies in rats reveal impaired growth, synthesis, and reproduction, with supplementation enhancing and strength. In microorganisms and plants, is essential for enzymes like and , which handle gases such as and . Human evidence is sparse, but serum levels inversely correlate with in patients, hinting at a role in B-vitamin . Average intakes are 74-100 μg/day, but no clear biochemical function or deficiency signs are established in humans. Arsenic at trace levels has been linked to metabolism. Rodent and studies show deficiency causes growth depression and reproductive issues, while low doses support normal development. Biochemically, arsenic may facilitate metabolism and , interacting positively with . Human intakes average 1.7-2.9 μg/day, but while some early animal studies hypothesized a nutritional role, current does not support essentiality due to concerns, including carcinogenicity at higher exposures. No nutritional role is definitively proven. Determining essentiality for these minerals is challenging due to their widespread environmental presence, which makes inducing deficiency in human trials difficult, and their toxicity risks at elevated doses, such as renal effects from or reproductive harm from . Controlled studies are ethically and practically limited, relying instead on animal models and correlations, with upper intake levels set conservatively (e.g., 1.8 mg/day for , 20 mg/day for ). Ongoing research emphasizes biochemical mechanisms over exhaustive intake data to clarify their status.

Research and Uncertainties

Research on ultra-trace minerals, such as tin and aluminum, indicates no for essentiality in humans, with limited animal data suggesting possible roles in growth or function but lacking definitive proof or identified deficiency syndromes in humans. For instance, tin shows growth promotion in some , but human data remain inconclusive and authoritative sources do not classify it as essential. Similarly, aluminum's involvement in biological processes is debated, but it is not demonstrated to be nutritionally required and is often associated with risks; its ubiquity in the environment may meet any latent needs if they exist, though none are confirmed. These uncertainties extend to variations in essentiality across sexes and life stages, where hormonal differences or demands may alter mineral requirements, though observational studies in pregnant populations highlight gaps in tailored recommendations. Defining mineral essentiality in humans poses significant methodological challenges, primarily due to ethical constraints on conducting deliberate deficiency studies, which would risk harm and are thus prohibited, forcing reliance on epidemiological data or animal models that may not fully translate. This limitation complicates establishing precise thresholds for ultra-trace elements, as subtle deficiencies might manifest without clear biomarkers. Advancements in ultra-sensitive detection techniques, such as (ICP-MS), have improved since the by enhancing multi-element analysis and reducing detection limits to parts per trillion, enabling better quantification of trace levels in biological samples. For example, collision/reaction cell technologies in ICP-MS have minimized spectral interferences, allowing more accurate profiling of minerals like and in serum. Key controversies surround the status of certain minerals, notably , which is widely regarded as beneficial for dental health through enamel strengthening but not strictly essential, as no specific biochemical function or deficiency has been confirmed in humans. This debate persists due to conflicting evidence on systemic versus topical effects, with some studies questioning optimal intake levels amid concerns over neurodevelopmental risks at higher exposures. Additionally, interactions between minerals and the introduce further uncertainty, as gut bacteria can influence mineral absorption and speciation—such as enhancing iron bioavailability through production—yet may exacerbate deficiencies or toxicities in ways not fully understood. These microbial dynamics highlight how environmental factors could modulate mineral beyond dietary intake alone. Future research directions emphasize to elucidate mineral transporters, with studies mapping solute carrier (SLC) families revealing genetic variants that affect uptake of elements like and iron, potentially informing personalized strategies. For instance, genome-wide association analyses have identified polymorphisms in transporter genes linked to accumulation, underscoring the need for broader sequencing to uncover regulatory networks. further complicates , as rising CO2 levels and altered patterns are projected to reduce concentrations in staple crops—such as a 2-4% decline in dietary iron and —potentially worsening global deficiencies without adaptive agricultural interventions. As of 2025, major health organizations such as the NIH maintain that none of these ultra-trace elements meet the criteria for confirmed human essentiality. Addressing these gaps requires integrated approaches combining advanced analytics, ethical observational designs, and predictive modeling to refine human requirements.

Ecological and Environmental Roles

Mineral Cycling in Ecosystems

Mineral cycling in ecosystems refers to the biogeochemical processes that regulate the movement and transformation of essential nutrients—such as , , and iron—through abiotic reservoirs (such as soils, , and the atmosphere) and biotic components (including , animals, microbes, and decomposers). These cycles ensure the availability of nutrients like and , which are critical for functioning, though their dynamics vary due to differences in chemical forms, mobility, and biological interactions. Unlike energy flows, which are unidirectional, mineral cycles are closed loops that recycle elements over varying timescales, maintaining ecosystem and stability. The is primarily terrestrial and aquatic, lacking a significant gaseous phase, which distinguishes it from other cycles. Phosphorus enters ecosystems through the of phosphate-bearing rocks, releasing bioavailable orthophosphates (H₂PO₄⁻ and HPO₄²⁻) into soils, from where it is transported via runoff to rivers, lakes, and oceans. In soils, resides in organic and inorganic pools with residence times ranging from 425 to 2,311 years, reflecting slow turnover compared to more mobile elements. Once in aquatic systems, it accumulates in sediments, completing the cycle through tectonic uplift and renewed over geological timescales. The integrates volcanic, biological, and sedimentary processes, with entering the atmosphere mainly as SO₂ and H₂S from volcanic emissions, estimated at 1.5 to 28 million metric tons per year globally. These emissions deposit as in soils and waters, where it is assimilated by and microbes. Bacterial reduction in anaerobic sediments converts to (H₂S), mineralizing and supporting , with ecosystems processing up to 100 Tg S yr⁻¹ buried as reduced in sediments. Volcanic inputs and bacterial transformations link terrestrial and marine pools, influencing conditions across ecosystems. Biological mediation drives mineral cycling through uptake, consumption, and decomposition. Plants absorb minerals from soil via roots—such as phosphorus and potassium for growth—transferring them to herbivores and higher trophic levels through consumption. Upon death, decomposers and microbes mineralize organic forms back to inorganic ions, recycling nutrients; for instance, mycorrhizal fungi enhance phosphorus uptake, improving soil fertility in various systems. Microbial communities are pivotal, performing transformations like sulfate reduction that regulate nutrient availability and prevent losses. These biotic processes interconnect with abiotic fluxes, ensuring nutrient retention in ecosystems. At global scales, play a key role in mineral cycling, particularly through natural , where dust or supplies iron to high-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) waters, boosting productivity and carbon export. For example, at the Crozet Plateau, iron inputs from nearby volcanoes increase particulate organic carbon flux by 2.5 times compared to HNLC regions, enhancing deep-sea ecosystems with higher megafaunal . Residence times vary markedly: soil turns over slowly (centuries), while atmospheric cycles more rapidly (days to weeks), influencing distribution from terrestrial to marine realms. These dynamics highlight as sinks and sources, with iron limiting productivity in ~30% of oceanic surface waters. Interconnections among cycles underscore how mineral availability limits primary productivity, the foundation of ecosystem energy flow. Phosphorus and other minerals co-limit net in many terrestrial systems, with deficiencies reducing growth and cascading to herbivores; for instance, in tropical forests, phosphorus scarcity at higher temperatures shifts limitations, altering . Sulfur and iron influence microbial activity, indirectly affecting decomposition. Overall, imbalances in one cycle—such as phosphorus runoff enhancing aquatic productivity—can propagate through food webs, regulating and resilience across .

Human Impacts on Mineral Availability

Human activities significantly disrupt the natural distribution and availability of mineral nutrients in ecosystems, primarily through , industry, and , leading to imbalances that affect , , and . In , the overuse of fertilizers, particularly those rich in and , has accelerated nutrient loading into aquatic systems, causing where excess runoff promotes harmful algal blooms that deplete oxygen and harm aquatic life. For instance, agricultural runoff is a leading source of pollution, exacerbating algal proliferation in rivers and lakes, which disrupts webs and reduces usability. Additionally, intensive practices deplete essential minerals such as magnesium, , and by continuously extracting nutrients without adequate replenishment, leading to long-term degradation and reduced productivity compared to diversified rotations. This nutrient mining in monoculture systems not only diminishes but also impairs microbial activity essential for mineral cycling. Industrial activities, especially and atmospheric , further alter mineral availability by introducing toxic into soils and waters. operations for metals like and release contaminants through leaching and , contaminating nearby ecosystems and bioaccumulating in organisms, which disrupts microbial communities and uptake of essential minerals. For example, sites have been shown to elevate levels in surrounding soils and rivers, inhibiting absorption by vegetation and affecting higher trophic levels. Similarly, , resulting from industrial emissions of and oxides, acidifies soils and mobilizes toxic aluminum, reducing the availability of base cations like calcium and magnesium while increasing aluminum toxicity to roots and aquatic species. This mobilization process enhances the solubility of aluminum from minerals, leading to inhibited growth and altered dynamics in forested and agricultural watersheds. Climate change compounds these impacts by modifying mineral weathering processes and oceanic chemistry. Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns accelerate weathering rates, potentially increasing the release of nutrients like and magnesium into soils and waters, though this varies regionally with rainfall being a dominant driver. In marine environments, from elevated CO2 absorption lowers seawater pH, reducing the saturation state of minerals and hindering the formation of shells and skeletons in calcifying organisms, which indirectly affects the cycling of calcium and other minerals in coastal ecosystems. This dissolution of CaCO3 structures not only threatens but also alters mineral composition, potentially feedback into global carbon and nutrient cycles. To mitigate these human-induced disruptions, sustainable agricultural practices and targeted policies have been implemented to restore mineral balance. enhances by diversifying demands and improving , thereby reducing depletion and runoff compared to . technologies, such as variable-rate application guided by sensors, minimize overuse by matching inputs to site-specific needs, cutting losses by up to 25% in row-crop systems and supporting environmental . At the policy level, the European Union's Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC), adopted in 1991, requires member states to designate nitrate-vulnerable zones, limit application, and monitor to prevent from nitrates, which has contributed to reduced loads in European waters. These measures collectively promote efficient mineral use and protect integrity against ongoing anthropogenic pressures.

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