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A 10th century Chola dynasty bronze sculpture of the Hindu god Nataraja (Shiva) posing various mudras
Indian Buddha Shakyamuni statue making the bhūmisparśa or "earth witness" mudra, c. 850
12th-century Japanese scroll showing different mudra gestures

A mudra (/muˈdrɑː/ ⓘ; Sanskrit: मुद्रा, IAST: mudrā, "seal", "mark", or "gesture"; Tibetan: ཕྱག་རྒྱ་, THL: chakgya) is a symbolic or ritual gesture or pose in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.[1] While some mudras involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers.[2]

As well as being spiritual gestures employed in the iconography and spiritual practice of Indian religions, mudras have meaning in many forms of Indian dance, and yoga. The range of mudras used in each field (and religion) differs, but with some overlap. In addition, many of the Buddhist mudras are used outside South Asia, and have developed different local forms elsewhere.

In hatha yoga, mudras are used in conjunction with pranayama (yogic breathing exercises), generally while in a seated posture, to stimulate different parts of the body involved with breathing and to affect the flow of prana. It is also associated with bindu, bodhicitta, amrita, or consciousness in the body. Unlike older tantric mudras, hatha yogic mudras are generally internal actions, involving the pelvic floor, diaphragm, throat, eyes, tongue, anus, genitals, abdomen, and other parts of the body. Examples of this diversity of mudras are Mula Bandha, Mahamudra, Viparita Karani, Khecarī mudrā, and Vajroli mudra. These expanded in number from 3 in the Amritasiddhi, to 25 in the Gheranda Samhita, with a classical set of ten arising in the Hatha Yoga Pradipika.

Mudra is used in the iconography of Hindu and Buddhist art of the Indian subcontinent and described in the scriptures, such as Nātyaśāstra, which lists 24 asaṁyuta ("separated", meaning "one-hand") and 13 saṁyuta ("joined", meaning "two-hand") mudras. Mudra positions are usually formed by both the hand and the fingers. Along with āsanas ("seated postures"), they are employed statically in the meditation and dynamically in the Nāṭya practice of Hinduism.

Hindu and Buddhist iconography share some mudras. In some regions, for example in Laos and Thailand, these are distinct but share related iconographic conventions.

According to Jamgön Kongtrül in his commentary on the Hevajra Tantra, the ornaments of wrathful deities and witches made of human bones (Skt: aṣṭhimudrā; Wylie: rus pa'i rgyan phyag rgya) are also known as mudra "seals".[3]

Etymology and nomenclature

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The word mudrā has Sanskrit roots. According to scholar Sir Monier Monier-Williams it means "seal" or "any other instrument used for sealing".[4]

Buddhist iconography

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Main article: Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand

A Buddha image can have one of several common mudras, combined with different asanas. The main mudras used represent specific moments in the life of the Buddha, and are shorthand depictions of these.

Abhaya mudrā

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See also: Leela attitude and Abhayamudra

The Abhayamudra "gesture of fearlessness"[5] represents protection, peace, benevolence and the dispelling of fear. In Theravada Buddhism it is usually made while standing with the right arm bent and raised to shoulder height, the palm facing forward, the fingers closed, pointing upright and the left hand resting by the side. In Thailand and Laos, this mudra is associated with the Walking Buddha, sometimes also shown having both hands making a double abhaya mudra that is uniform.

This mudra was probably used before the onset of Buddhism as a symbol of good intentions proposing friendship when approaching strangers. In Gandharan art, it is seen when showing the action of preaching. It was also used in China during the Wei and Sui eras of the 4th and 7th centuries.

This gesture was used by the Buddha when attacked by an elephant, subduing it as shown in several frescoes and scripts.[6]

In Mahayana Buddhism, the deities are often portrayed as pairing the Abhaya Mudrā with another Mudrā using the other hand.

Bhūmisparśa mudrā

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See also: Maravijaya attitude

The bhūmisparśa or "earth witness" mudra of Gautama Buddha is one of the most common iconic images of Buddhism. Other names include "Buddha calling the earth to witness", and "earth-touching". It depicts the story from Buddhist legend of the moment when Buddha attained complete enlightenment, with Buddha sitting in meditation with his left hand, palm upright, in his lap, and his right hand touching the earth. In the legend, Buddha was challenged by the evil one, Mara, who argue for a witness to attest his right to achieve it. In response to Mara, Buddha touched the ground, and Phra Mae Thorani, the earth goddess, appeared to be the witnesses for the Buddha's enlightenment.[7][8]

In East Asia, this mudra (also called the Maravijaya attitude) may show Buddha's fingers not reaching as far as the ground, as is usual in Burmese or Indian depictions.

Bodhyangi mudrā

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The Bodhyangi mudrā, the "mudrā of the six elements," or the "fist of wisdom,"[9] is a gesture entailing the left-hand index finger being grasped with the right hand. It is commonly seen on statues of the Vairocana Buddha.

Dharmachakra Pravartana mudrā

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The Buddha preached his first sermon after his Enlightenment in Deer Park in Sarnath. The dharmachakra Pravartana or "turning of the wheel"[10] mudrā represents that moment. In general, only Gautama Buddha is shown making this mudrā except Maitreya as the dispenser of the Law. Dharmachakra mudrā is two hands close together in front of the chest in vitarka with the right palm forward and the left palm upwards, sometimes facing the chest. There are several variants such as in the Ajanta Caves frescoes, where the two hands are separated and the fingers do not touch. In the Indo-Greek style of Gandhara, the clenched fist of the right hand seemingly overlies the fingers joined to the thumb on the left hand. In pictorials of Hōryū-ji in Japan the right hand is superimposed on the left. Certain figures of Amitābha are seen using this mudra before the 9th century in Japan.

Dhyāna mudrā

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See also: Meditation attitude

The dhyāna mudrā ("meditation mudra") is the gesture of meditation, of the concentration of the Good Law and the sangha. The two hands are placed on the lap, right hand on left with fingers fully stretched (four fingers resting on each other and the thumbs facing upwards towards one another diagonally), palms facing upwards; in this manner, the hands and fingers form the shape of a triangle, which is symbolic of the spiritual fire or the Three Jewels. This mudra is used in representations of Gautama Buddha and Amitābha. Sometimes the dhyāna mudrā is used in certain representations of Bhaiṣajyaguru as the "Medicine Buddha", with a medicine bowl placed on the hands. It originated in India most likely in Gandhāra and in China during the Northern Wei.

It is heavily used in Southeast Asia in Theravada Buddhism; however, the thumbs are placed against the palms. Dhyāna mudrā is also known as "samādhi mudrā" or "yoga mudrā", Chinese: 禅定印; pinyin: [Chán]dìng yìn; Japanese pronunciation: jōin, jōkai jōin[citation needed].

The mida no jōin (弥陀定印) is the Japanese name of a variation of the dhyāna mudra, where the index fingers are brought together with the thumbs. This was predominantly used in Japan in an effort to distinguish Amitābha (hence "mida" from Amida) from the Vairocana Buddha,[11] and was rarely used elsewhere.

Prithvi Mudra

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Although you can practice Prithvi Mudra at any time, it is best performed early in the morning. It is particularly useful when you are stressed or exhausted.

How to do: Start in Padmasana with both hands resting on your knees. Press the tip of your ring finger against the tip of your thumb, and extend the other fingers.

Benefits: Improves blood circulation, concentration, patience, and tolerance, strengthens bones, improves complexion, and relieves fatigue.

Varada mudrā

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The Varadamudrā "generosity gesture" signifies offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity. It is nearly always shown made with the left hand by a revered figure devoted to human salvation from greed, anger and delusion. It can be made with the arm crooked and the palm offered slightly turned up or in the case of the arm facing down the palm presented with the fingers upright or slightly bent. The Varada mudrā is rarely seen without another mudra used by the right hand, typically abhaya mudrā. It is often confused with vitarka mudrā, which it closely resembles. In China and Japan during the Northern Wei and Asuka periods, respectively, the fingers are stiff and then gradually begin to loosen as it developed over time, eventually leading to the Tang dynasty standard where the fingers are naturally curved.

In India, varada mudra is used by both seated and standing figures, of Buddha and boddhisattvas and other figures, and in Hindu art is especially associated with Vishnu. It was used in images of Avalokiteśvara from Gupta art (4th and 5th centuries) onwards. Varada mudrā is extensively used in the statues of Southeast Asia.

Vajra mudrā

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The Vajra mudrā "thunderbolt gesture" is the gesture of knowledge.[12]

Vitarka mudrā

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The Vitarka mudrā "mudra of discussion" is the gesture of discussion and transmission of Buddhist teaching. It is done by joining the tips of the thumb and the index together, and keeping the other fingers straight very much like the abhaya and varada mudrās but with the thumbs touching the index fingers. This mudra has a great number of variants in Mahayana Buddhism. In Tibetan Buddhism, it is the mystic gesture of Tārās and bodhisattvas with some differences by the deities in Yab-Yum. Vitarka mudrā is also known as Vyākhyāna mudrā ("mudra of explanation"). This is also called as chin-mudra.[13]

Jñāna mudrā

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See also: Jnana yoga

The Jñāna mudrā ("mudra of wisdom") is done by touching the tips of the thumb and the index together, forming a circle, and the hand is held with the palm inward towards the heart.[14] The mudra represents spiritual enlightenment in the indian-origin religions. Sometimes sadhus chose to be buried alive in this samadhi position. A 2700 old skeleton arranged like this was found at Balathal in Rajasthan, suggesting that something like yoga may have existed at that time.[15]

Karana mudrā

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The karana mudrā is the mudra which expels demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts. It is made by raising the index and the little finger, and folding the other fingers. It is nearly the same as the Western "sign of the horns", the difference is that in the Karana mudra the thumb does not hold down the middle and ring finger. This mudra is also known as tarjanī mudrā.

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Indian classical dance

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See also: List of mudras (dance)

In Indian classical dance and derived dances (such as Khmer, Thai or Balinese),[16] the term "Hasta Mudra" is used (however, there are terms used for mudras in derived dances such as "Kayvikear Dai" in Khmer). The Natya Shastra describes 24 mudras, while the Abhinaya Darpana of Nandikeshvara gives 28.[17] In all their forms of Indian classical dance, the mudras are similar, though the names and uses vary. There are 28 (or 32) root mudras in Bharatanatyam, 24 in Kathakali and 20 in Odissi. These root mudras are combined in different ways, like one hand, two hands, arm movements, body and facial expressions. In Kathakali, which has the greatest number of combinations, the vocabulary adds up to c. 900. Sanyukta mudras use both hands and asanyukta mudras use one hand.[18] In Thai dances, there are 9 mudras.

Yoga

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An example of mudras being utilized as a yogic practice.
Further information: List of mudras (yoga) and Bandha (yoga)
The different yoga mudras involve different parts of the body and correspondingly diverse procedures, generally to retain the vital energy of prana. In Viparita Karani, the body is inverted to allow gravity to retain the bindu. Illustrated manuscript of the Joga Pradipika, 1830

The classical sources for the yogic seals are the Gheranda Samhita and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika.[19] The Hatha Yoga Pradipika states the importance of mudras in yoga practice: "Therefore the [Kundalini] goddess sleeping at the entrance of Brahma's door [at the base of the spine] should be constantly aroused with all effort, by performing mudra thoroughly." In the 20th and 21st centuries, the yoga teacher Satyananda Saraswati, founder of the Bihar School of Yoga, continued to emphasize the importance of mudras in his instructional text Asana, Pranayama, Mudrā, Bandha.[19]

Hand gestures

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There are numerous hand gesture mudras in yoga. Each of the hand gestures is based on the concept of the five elements as they relate to one's fingers.

Hatha yoga

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The yoga mudras are diverse in the parts of the body involved, the procedures required, and the supposed effects, as in Mula Bandha,[20] Mahamudra,[21] Viparita Karani,[22] Khecarī mudrā,[23] and Vajroli mudra.[24]

Mula Bandha

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Main article: Mula Bandha
Mode of action of mudras, serving to trap energy-fluids (breath, prana, bindu, amrita) and thus help to unblock the central sushumna channel[25]

Mula Bandha, the Root Lock, consists of pressing one heel into the anus, generally in a cross-legged seated asana, and contracting the perineum, forcing the prana to enter the central sushumna channel.[20]

Mahamudra

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Main article: Mahamudra (Hatha Yoga)

Mahamudra, the Great Seal, similarly has one heel pressed into the perineum; the chin is pressed down to the chest in Jalandhara Bandha, the Throat Lock, and the breath is held with the body's upper and lower openings both sealed, again to force the prana into the sushumna channel.[21]

Viparita Karani

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Main article: Viparita Karani

Viparita Karani, the Inverter, is a posture with the head down and the feet up, using gravity to retain the prana. Gradually the time spent in the posture is increased until it can be held for "three hours". The practice is claimed by the Dattatreyayogashastra to destroy all diseases and to banish grey hair and wrinkles.[22]

Khechari mudra

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Main article: Khecarī mudrā

Khecarī mudrā, the Khechari Seal, consists of turning back the tongue "into the hollow of the skull",[23] sealing in the bindu fluid so that it stops dripping down from the head and being lost, even when the yogi "embraces a passionate woman".[23] To make the tongue long and flexible enough to be folded back in this way, the Khecharividya exhorts the yogi to make a cut a hair's breadth deep in the frenulum of the tongue once a week. Six months of this treatment destroys the frenulum, leaving the tongue able to fold back; then the yogi is advised to practise stretching the tongue out, holding it with a cloth, to lengthen it, and to learn to touch each ear in turn, and the base of the chin. After six years of practice, which cannot be hurried, the tongue is said to become able to close the top end of the sushumna channel.[26]

Vajroli mudra

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Main article: Vajroli mudra

Vajroli mudra, the Vajroli Seal, requires the yogi to preserve the semen, either by learning not to release it, or if released by drawing it up through the urethra from the vagina of "a woman devoted to the practice of yoga".[27]

Martial arts

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See also: Origins of Asian martial arts

Some Asian martial arts forms contain positions (Japanese: in) identical to these mudras.[28] Tendai and Shingon Buddhism derived the supposedly powerful gestures from Mikkyo Buddhism, still to be found in many Ko-ryū ("old") martial arts Ryū (schools) founded before the 17th century. For example the "knife hand" or shuto gesture is subtly concealed in some Koryu kata, and in Buddhist statues, representing the sword of enlightenment.[29]

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mudra

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A mudra (Sanskrit: मुद्रा, mudrā, meaning "seal", "mark", or "gesture") is a symbolic or ritualistic hand gesture used in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and yogic traditions to convey spiritual concepts, direct energy flow, and facilitate meditation or ritual practices. These gestures, often involving specific finger positions and hand formations, serve as a non-verbal mode of communication and self-expression, embodying philosophical ideas and evoking particular states of mind or divine energies. The term "mudra" originates from ancient texts, with the practice of symbolic hand gestures developing in post-Vedic Indian traditions, evidenced in early artistic depictions from the 1st century CE. Mudras evolved as integral elements of religious rituals, classical , and iconography across South and East Asian traditions, with early iconographic uses in art from the 1st century CE and later codification in yogic texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika (c. 15th century CE). In and , they are employed in practices like and to balance the body's chakras and promote healing, as described in ancient texts such as the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. Their history intertwines with the development of Tantric and rituals from the 7th to 12th centuries, where mudras blurred distinctions between human and divine actions. Mudras hold profound significance in visual arts and performance, particularly in identifying deities and narrating stories. In Buddhist and , specific mudras denote key events in the life of , such as in sitting statues representing his enlightenment where the right hand is in the bhumisparsha mudra (earth-touching gesture, with fingers extended to touch the ground, calling the earth as witness to his victory over temptation) and the left hand is in the dhyana mudra (meditation seal, placed on the lap with palm facing upward), or the abhaya mudra (fearlessness ) offering protection to followers. Similarly, in Hindu and Buddhist , mudras like vitarka mudra ( ) distinguish figures and their attributes, aiding devotees in recognizing cosmic roles. In Indian classical dances like Bharata Natyam, hasta mudras (hand ) precisely communicate emotions, narratives, and abstract concepts, preserving cultural symbolism through codified movements derived from ancient treatises like the Natyashastra.

Definition and Etymology

Origins of the Term

The term mudrā (मुद्रा) in derives from the verbal root (मुद्), meaning "to delight" or "to rejoice," combined with the -rā, yielding a literal of "that which gives delight." According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, mudrā means "seal" or "any instrument used for sealing," underscoring its primary connotations of "seal," "mark," or "," often evoking the idea of an authenticating imprint or symbolic token. In classical lexicography, such as in the works of and later commentators, mudrā extends to instruments like signet rings or stamps used for official validation. The earliest attestations of mudrā appear in Vedic literature, composed between approximately 1500 and 500 BCE, where it initially denotes literal seals on documents, royal emblems, or stamps signifying authority and authenticity. In the context of Vedic recitation traditions, particularly in the Rigveda and associated ritual practices, mudrā refers to hand positions or signs employed to regulate intonation, rhythm, and emphasis during chants, serving as mnemonic aids for priests. These usages highlight mudrā as a practical tool for preserving textual integrity in oral transmission, akin to a "seal" ensuring the fidelity of sacred knowledge. By the period of the (circa 800–200 BCE), marking the transition from late Vedic to post-Vedic texts, the term evolves to encompass symbolic gestures within and philosophical contexts, where mudrā begins to signify not just physical imprints but also esoteric signs invoking divine or metaphysical principles. This shift reflects broader developments in Indian thought, with mudrā appearing in discussions of meditative seals or markers that "authenticate" spiritual experiences. While the sense of mudrā as a seal predominates in administrative Vedic references, its application as a gains prominence in ritualistic Upanishadic contexts, laying groundwork for later symbolic expansions.

Core Concepts and Variations

A mudra is fundamentally a involving the hands, body, or face that conveys specific spiritual, emotional, or practical meanings within various contemplative and expressive traditions. These gestures serve as nonverbal symbols to direct attention, evoke states of mind, or facilitate inner processes, often performed during , , or artistic expression. In essence, mudras act as a bridge between the physical form and subtle energies, allowing practitioners to externalize internal intentions or qualities. Mudras exhibit variations in form and application, distinguishing between static and dynamic types as well as symbolic and functional roles. Static mudras maintain a fixed position, such as those depicted in sculptures or held steadily during to foster concentration and stability. In contrast, dynamic mudras involve fluid movements, commonly integrated into performance arts to narrate stories or shift emotional tones through sequential gestures. Symbolically, mudras represent abstract concepts like divine attributes or archetypal energies, emphasizing spiritual intent and interpretive depth. Functionally, they operate as mechanisms for channeling energy, directing physiological or subtle flows to promote balance and vitality. At their core, mudras embody universal principles as "seals" that lock or redirect , the vital life force, thereby containing and amplifying internal energies for transformative effects. This sealing action is believed to complete neural or energetic circuits, preventing dissipation and enhancing meditative focus or physical . Such principles underscore mudras' role in representing or invoking higher attributes, like or enlightenment, across practices.

Historical and Cultural Origins

In Vedic and Ancient Indian Texts

References to mudra-like gesticulations appear in commentaries on the , dating to circa 1500 BCE, where the term is interpreted as finger intertwinings accompanying prayers and acts of worship, rather than direct textual mentions of ritual markings or seals in sacrificial ceremonies. The term mudra, meaning "seal" or "mark" in classical , evolved over time to encompass hand gestures, with early usages linked to Vedic practices for denoting syllables during chanting. In the subsequent Brahmanas and Aranyakas, composed between circa 900 and 600 BCE, rituals involve priestly actions by adhvaryu priests to direct ceremonial energy, such as in offerings or invocations, though specific mudra terminology for formalized hand gestures emerges later in post-Vedic traditions. These texts emphasize the performative aspects of Vedic (sacrifice), aligning priestly movements with deities like and , but without exhaustive cataloging of gestures as mudras. The Aranyakas describe esoteric forest rituals, highlighting mudra's potential transition to meditative tools in later developments. Early iconographic depictions of stylized hand positions appear in the Mauryan era (322–185 BCE), evident in sculptures such as figures at sites like Didarganj, where raised or cupped hands suggest symbolic assurance or boon-granting, prefiguring Hindu and Buddhist . Such art, including Ashokan capitals, integrates gestures into representations of authority and divinity, bridging pre-Vedic artistic motifs without direct textual attribution to mudra. Precursors to tantric applications of mudra emerge in Shaiva texts, such as the Agamas from the post-Vedic period, with extant texts dating from around the 5th century CE onward, where symbolic hand positions denote the channeling of shakti (divine energy) in rituals honoring Shiva. These texts describe mudras like khecarī (sky-wanderer) and triśūlinī (trident-bearer) as gestures that seal the practitioner's union with cosmic forces, used in meditative and invocatory practices. In medieval Kapalika traditions, a proto-tantric Shaiva sect from circa the 7th century CE, specific mudras were employed for siddhis (spiritual powers) and the attainment of siddhadeha (perfected body), laying symbolism for later tantric systems.

Spread Across Asian Traditions

The spread of mudra concepts beyond began with the transmission of along trade routes and through missionary efforts, facilitating their adaptation in diverse Asian cultures. As early as the 2nd century BCE, the served as a conduit for Buddhist ideas from to and , with monks and merchants carrying scriptures, icons, and ritual practices that included hand gestures symbolizing enlightenment and protection. By the 1st century CE, these exchanges extended southward via maritime routes to , where and traditions incorporated mudras into temple architecture and devotional art, evolving through interactions with local animist beliefs. activities, such as those by Indian monks in the of and the kingdom in , further embedded mudras in regional by the 3rd century CE. In , mudras proliferated through Buddhist patronage, notably in and , where they adorned monumental sculptures by the CE. The 9th-century temple complex in exemplifies this adaptation, featuring over 500 images in various mudras—such as the bhūmisparśa (earth-touching) and dhyāna (meditation)—carved into reliefs to depict the path to enlightenment, blending Indian prototypes with Javanese artistic styles. These gestures, transmitted via trade networks from the , symbolized moral virtues and were integrated into royal rituals, influencing Khmer and Thai temple arts in sites like . By the 13th century, as waned under Hindu revival, mudras persisted in syncretic forms, such as Thai wai greetings echoing the añjali mudra. Tibetan Buddhism, emerging from the 7th century onward under King Songtsen Gampo's patronage, adapted mudras within traditions imported from India via the and Nepalese intermediaries. mudras, involving interlocking fingers to evoke the indestructible diamond-like nature of enlightenment, were paired with ritual implements like the vajra scepter and bell, enhancing tantric visualizations in monasteries such as (founded 779 CE). These gestures, drawn from 7th-century Indian tantric texts like the , symbolized the union of wisdom and compassion, and were ritualized in empowerments (abhiṣeka) by figures like . Over centuries, Tibetan adaptations incorporated indigenous Bön elements, making mudras central to practices. The influence reached through 6th–12th-century transmissions, where mudras integrated into Chan () and Esoteric schools, blending with indigenous aesthetics. In China, from the (618–907 CE), mudras appeared in cave murals along the , depicting bodhisattvas in varada (boon-granting) poses amid Confucian and Daoist motifs. In , introduced via Korean missions in the 6th century and deepened by Kūkai's Esoteric teachings in the 9th century, mudras featured in Heian-period scrolls like the Scroll of Mudras (11th–12th century), cataloging over 100 gestures for meditation and invocation. By the (1185–1333), practices simplified mudras for seated meditation, while in theater—emerging in the 14th century from Buddhist sarugaku dances—performers employed stylized hand positions akin to mudras, such as raised palms evoking abhaya (fearlessness), to convey spiritual transcendence. These fusions persisted through Muromachi-era (1336–1573) temples, where mudras underscored impermanence (mujō) in ritual performances.

Iconography in Religions

Hindu Iconography

In Hindu iconography, mudras serve as symbolic hand gestures that convey the attributes, powers, and narratives of deities in sculptures, paintings, and temple reliefs, embodying divine qualities such as benevolence, protection, and cosmic authority. These gestures are integral to the of , allowing devotees to immediately recognize and connect with the deity's essence without textual explanation. Prominent among these are the Abhaya mudra, characterized by a raised right hand with the palm facing outward and fingers extended, symbolizing fearlessness and reassurance, often depicted in icons of as the protector against chaos and in as the preserver of order; and the Varada mudra, featuring a lowered left hand with the palm facing forward and fingers pointing downward, representing the granting of boons and compassion, commonly seen in representations of as the bestower of prosperity and in 's merciful forms. These mudras not only distinguish individual deities but also underscore their roles in maintaining . Puranic texts, composed between approximately 300 and 1500 CE, extensively describe mudras as indicators of divine virtues, where gestures like Abhaya denote protection from harm and teaching of sacred knowledge, while Varada signifies the fulfillment of devotees' wishes and the flow of , thereby linking the deity's form to mythological episodes of salvation and instruction. In these scriptures, such as those detailing Vishnu's avatars or Shiva's , mudras function as visual metaphors for the gods' intervention in human affairs. Exemplifying this tradition, Chola bronzes from the 9th to 13th centuries frequently portray in a four-armed stance, with the lower hands in Abhaya and Varada mudras alongside attributes like the and discus, capturing the dynamic poise of preservation amid cosmic cycles. Similarly, sculptures in the (6th–10th centuries), particularly in the Hindu caves like the Kailash temple, depict deities such as Vaishnavi among the Saptamatrikas with Abhaya and Varada mudras, emphasizing their protective and boon-bestowing aspects in Shaiva and Vaishnava contexts. Symbolically, these mudras in and represent metaphors for cosmic balance, where Abhaya evokes Shiva's dissolution of illusion to foster fearlessness in the soul's journey, and Varada illustrates Vishnu's harmony in sustaining creation through generous equilibrium of forces. In Shaiva traditions, they align with the transformative energy of , while in Vaishnava , they reflect the preservative poise of , collectively symbolizing the interplay of destruction and renewal in the universe's eternal rhythm.

Buddhist Iconography

In Buddhist iconography, mudras serve as symbolic hand gestures that convey profound aspects of the Buddha's life, teachings, and enlightenment, often depicting key events such as his awakening, first sermon, and meditative states. These gestures are integral to sculptures and paintings, allowing devotees to visually access doctrinal narratives without text. The Bhumisparsha mudra, or earth-touching gesture, represents the moment of the Buddha's enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, where he calls upon the earth goddess to witness his triumph over Mara, the demon of illusion. In this mudra, the right hand extends downward with fingers touching the ground, while the left hand is placed in the dhyana mudra (meditation seal), resting palm upward on the lap or abdomen, symbolizing stability and the subjugation of inner doubts. This combination of the right hand in bhumisparsha mudra touching the ground to call the earth as witness and the left hand in dhyana mudra is common in sitting Buddha statues depicting enlightenment. The Dharmachakra mudra, known as the wheel-turning gesture, illustrates the Buddha's first sermon at , where he set the in motion by teaching the to his disciples. Formed by interlocking the thumbs and index fingers of both hands to mimic a , with palms facing outward, it signifies the dissemination of Buddhist teachings and the cycle of samsara leading to liberation. This mudra underscores the foundational role of instruction in Buddhist practice across both and schools. The Dhyana mudra, or gesture, depicts in contemplative absorption, with both hands resting in the lap, palms upward and thumbs touching to form a triangle symbolizing the three jewels of . It evokes the serene state of achieved during his enlightenment and ongoing meditative practice, highlighting the path to and . This mudra is commonly seen in representations of the historical and bodhisattvas, reinforcing as a core element of enlightenment. Variations in mudras reflect differences across Buddhist schools, adapting to specific doctrinal emphases. In Vajrayana traditions, the Vajra mudra—a clenched fist with the index and little fingers extended like a thunderbolt—symbolizes indestructibility and the unyielding power of enlightened mind, often held by deities like Vairochana to invoke tantric energies for rapid awakening. In Theravada iconography, the Vitarka mudra, formed by a circle between the thumb and index finger of the raised right hand, denotes the gesture of explanation and debate, appearing in statues to convey the Buddha's role as a teacher transmitting profound truths to disciples. Historical examples illustrate the evolution of these mudras in early . sculptures from the 1st to 5th centuries CE, blending Greco-Roman and Indian styles, frequently feature the Bhumisparsha and Dhyana mudras in and figures, marking the shift from aniconic to anthropomorphic representations of under Kushan patronage. Similarly, the 5th-century seated Buddha image from , carved in polished sandstone, displays the mudra, commemorating sermon and exemplifying Gupta-era refinement in northern Indian art. Mudras function as narrative devices in Buddhist iconography, encapsulating scriptural episodes and guiding viewers through visual storytelling. For instance, they link directly to texts like the , where gestures such as the evoke scenes of universal teaching and the emergence of multiple buddhas, fostering contemplative engagement with the sutra's themes of skillful means and eternal .

Jain and Other Traditions

In Jain , the pose represents a key mudra embodying the abandonment of the body and the pursuit of liberation from karmic bonds, often depicted in standing figures with arms hanging loosely at the sides and gaze fixed forward to signify meditative detachment and austerity. This gesture underscores the Jain principle of , or non-violence, by portraying the Tirthankara's transcendence over physical existence without aggressive or defensive postures, distinguishing it from more dynamic mudras in other traditions. Prominent examples appear in the of , constructed between the 11th and 13th centuries, where marble carvings of Tirthankaras in integrate intricate symbolic details like the srivatsa mark on the chest, emphasizing ethical restraint and spiritual purity in regional . South Indian Jain sculptures, such as those from the 9th to 12th centuries in , further adapt with subtle variations in hand positioning to evoke non-violence, often showing palms facing inward to avoid any implication of harm. The Padmavati, attendant to the 23rd Parshvanatha, frequently displays the varada mudra—palm extended downward in a boon-granting gesture—in her icons, symbolizing protection and prosperity for devotees while aligning with Jain vows of . This representation emerged in textual and artistic traditions after the CE, as evidenced in early medieval descriptions linking her to serpentine motifs and lotuses for auspiciousness. In syncretic contexts, Sikh meditative from the onward incorporates the gyan mudra, where the thumb and index finger touch to form a circle, evoking wisdom and focus in depictions of Gurus during contemplation, blending yogic influences with Sikh emphasis on inner enlightenment. Similarly, Balinese folk traditions fuse Hindu-Buddhist elements with local , employing mudras like the anjali (prayer gesture) in rituals and shadow puppet performances to invoke harmony with spirits, as seen in high priestly ceremonies involving hand seals for consecration.

Mudras in Performing Arts

Indian Classical Dance Forms

In Indian classical dance forms such as and , mudras serve as a precise, codified language of hand gestures essential for narrative expression and emotional conveyance within the framework of , the performative aspect that interprets poetic themes. These gestures, rooted in ancient treatises, enable dancers to depict characters, actions, and sentiments without words, drawing from epic narratives like the and to evoke rasa or aesthetic flavor. The foundational classification of mudras into asamyukta (single-hand) and (double-hand) types originates from the , an ancient text attributed to Bharata Muni and dated circa 200 BCE–200 CE, which outlines 24 asamyukta and 13 samyukta hastas as building blocks for dramatic and expression. In , this system is expanded through the 11th–12th century Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikeswara, specifying 28 asamyukta and 23 samyukta mudras, totaling around 51 basic forms that dancers master during rigorous training to symbolize objects, emotions, and story elements. , while also deriving from the , employs a similar of approximately 28–35 core mudras, adapted for its rhythmic and storytelling style, with asamyukta gestures often numbering 24 in traditional pedagogy to align with northern Indian performative nuances. Specific mudras exemplify their narrative utility in . The pataka mudra, formed by extending all fingers together like a , represents flight, clouds, or a in motion, frequently used in sequences to illustrate scenes of aerial pursuit from the , such as Hanuman's leap. Similarly, the mukula mudra, with fingers curled to mimic a budding flower, signifies an offering or growth, employed in and to convey devotional acts or natural elements in epic retellings, enhancing the poetic depth of performances. These gestures link directly to thematic symbolism, allowing dancers to interpret verses from classical through fluid transitions that blend literal depiction with metaphorical . Historically, mudras evolved from ritualistic temple performances during the (9th–13th centuries CE), where devadasis executed intricate asamyukta and samyukta forms as devotional offerings, as evidenced by carvings of dynamic hand positions in temples like Brihadeeswara, reflecting principles integrated into sacred architecture. By the , colonial influences and revival efforts transformed these temple traditions into proscenium-stage adaptations, with pioneers standardizing mudra in urban academies to preserve their expressive precision while adapting to contemporary audiences.

Theater and Ritual Performances

In Kutiyattam, the ancient Sanskrit theater tradition of Kerala, mudras serve as essential tools for character delineation and narrative elaboration, drawing from a codified system of 24 hand gestures that convey emotions, actions, and symbolic meanings without relying solely on dialogue. These gestures, often combined with facial expressions and body postures, allow performers to invoke divine attributes and deepen audience immersion in epic stories from texts like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, with the tradition's roots tracing back over 2,000 years to early Sanskrit dramatic practices. Similarly, in Yakshagana, the vibrant folk theater of coastal Karnataka, mudras facilitate character portrayal through stylized hand movements that differentiate roles—such as vigorous gestures for heroic male figures, graceful ones for female characters, and exaggerated, slow motions for demonic entities—enhancing the all-night performances' storytelling amid elaborate costumes and rhythmic footwork. Beyond theatrical narratives, mudras play a pivotal role in ritual performances, where they function as invocations and offerings to deities. In Hindu puja ceremonies, the Anjali mudra—formed by pressing the palms together at chest level—symbolizes devotion and humility, used specifically during offerings to appease the divine and seek blessings, as highlighted in devotional literature where it is deemed the supreme gesture for worship. In Tibetan Buddhist cham dances, originating from the 8th century with the teachings of , performers execute wrathful mudras alongside masked movements to embody fierce deities like , subduing negative forces and purifying the ritual space during monastic festivals. Mudras also hold symbolic power in shamanic rituals across Himalayan regions, particularly in the Bon tradition, where hand gestures integrate with chants and visualizations to induce states, enhance of ancestral myths, and invoke protective spirits during ceremonies. These practices, rooted in pre-Buddhist indigenous customs, use mudras to channel energy and bridge the human and spiritual realms, fostering communal and spiritual alignment. In modern revivals since the post-1950s, mudras have been incorporated into contemporary fusion theater, blending traditional Indian gestural languages with Western dramatic forms to explore themes, as seen in experimental works that adapt Kutiyattam-inspired gestures for global audiences and interdisciplinary performances.

Mudras in Yoga and Meditation

Hand and Body Gestures

In practice, hand mudras serve as symbolic gestures that facilitate and the regulation of , or vital energy, by connecting specific fingers to channel energy flow. Common examples include Jnana Mudra and Chin Mudra, which are essential for cultivating mental clarity and during seated . Jnana Mudra, known as the gesture of knowledge, involves touching the tip of the to the tip of the thumb while keeping the other three fingers extended and straight, with the hand typically placed palm-down on the ; this configuration is believed to activate the air element and enhance wisdom by linking the individual soul to universal . Chin Mudra, or the gesture of , is performed similarly but with the palm facing upward and fingers pointing away from the body, emphasizing the unity of individual and cosmic awareness; it is often used interchangeably with Jnana Mudra but distinguished by orientation to direct energy inward. These mudras are widely used in contemporary traditions to promote focus and energetic balance. Body mudras extend these principles by integrating hand gestures with full-body postures to align across the subtle energy system. A prominent example is Anjali Mudra, the gesture, where the palms are pressed together at the heart center with fingers pointing upward, commonly incorporated into Surya Namaskar (Sun Salutation) as the starting and concluding pose; this alignment balances the left and right energy channels (ida and nadis), fostering harmony in flow and preparing the practitioner for dynamic movement. In this sequence, Anjali Mudra acts as an anchor, centering awareness at the anahata chakra (heart center) to synchronize physical posture with breath, thereby promoting overall energetic equilibrium. Physiologically, mudras are thought to stimulate the nadis—subtle energy channels analogous to meridians in traditional systems—through mechanisms resembling , where positions apply targeted pressure to endings and points on the hands. This stimulation is posited to influence the , enhancing circulation, reducing stress responses, and improving mental focus by modulating neural pathways linked to sensory and emotional . on mudra practice indicates potential benefits such as increased oxygen utilization and stabilization of physiological parameters, supporting their role in energy modulation without requiring complex equipment. For effective practice, mudras are typically held for durations ranging from 5 to 45 minutes, depending on the individual's experience and the specific gesture, often divided into shorter sessions to maintain comfort and concentration; beginners may start with 5-10 minutes per session, progressing as tolerance builds. Synchronization with breathing is crucial, involving slow, rhythmic inhalations and exhalations—such as ujjayi pranayama—to amplify the mudra's effects on prana flow; for instance, in Jnana or Chin Mudra, one inhales while visualizing energy rising through the spine and exhales to ground it, ensuring the gesture's subtle influences permeate the body and mind. Consistent daily integration into meditation or asana routines enhances these outcomes, with emphasis on a quiet environment and relaxed posture to avoid strain.

Advanced Yogic Practices

Advanced yogic practices involving mudras extend beyond external gestures to incorporate internal body locks known as bandhas and tantric techniques that facilitate the awakening and control of energy in Hatha and traditions. These practices, detailed in classical texts like the 17th-century , aim to direct (vital energy) through the , promoting spiritual enlightenment and physical vitality. Mula Bandha, or root lock, is a foundational advanced mudra that contracts the muscles to seal and direct energy upward from the . According to the , the practitioner presses the left heel against the anus while contracting the anal sphincter and drawing the apana (downward energy) upward to unite with , thereby awakening and destroying decrepitude and death. This lock is essential for retaining vital fluids and enhancing stability during and , contributing to longevity and heightened awareness. Khechari Mudra, the tongue lock, involves advanced manipulation of the tongue to reach the or , preventing the flow of (divine nectar) from dripping down and instead directing it for internal nourishment. The describes this as one of the ten principal mudras, where the elongated tongue touches the to stimulate the bindu (lunar essence), fostering ascent and states of . Practitioners often require preparatory exercises like talabya kriya to elongate the frenum, emphasizing its role in transcending physical limitations for blissful absorption. Viparita Karani Mudra, an inverted pose functioning as a mudra, reverses the natural flow of apana to retain vitality and at the higher chakras. In the , it is performed by lying on the back, raising the legs and pelvis supported by the hands, and holding the breath to redirect lunar energy upward, which invigorates the body, calms the mind, and supports awakening by countering gravitational loss of . This practice is particularly valued for its restorative effects on the and endocrine glands. Vajroli Mudra, a tantric technique for males involving urethral control, enables the retention and upward of bindu () during sexual activity or practice, transforming sexual energy into ojas (spiritual vitality). The outlines the method: after mastering contraction of the urinary muscles through repeated in of or via a catheter-like practice, the contracts the to prevent emission and draws fluids upward, leading to activation and siddhis (powers). Step-by-step, one begins with external contractions in a , progresses to internal exercises in , and culminates in full retention during union, requiring years of gradual training. Sahajoli Mudra serves as the female equivalent, focusing on contraction of the vaginal and urinary muscles to retain (female fluid) and redirect energy upward. As described in the alongside Vajroli, women practice similar muscle isolations through kegel-like exercises and visualization, contracting the () to unite apana with , which awakens and balances hormones. The technique involves sitting in , inhaling deeply, contracting the lower abdomen and , and holding while focusing on energy ascent, mirroring the male practice but adapted for anatomical differences. These advanced mudras carry significant risks, including physical injury from improper muscle control or inversion, energetic imbalances leading to syndrome, and psychological disturbances if is mishandled. The stresses prerequisites such as mastery of basic asanas, , and shatkarmas (purifications), along with and ongoing guidance from a qualified to ensure safe progression toward awakening. Without such preparation, attempts can exacerbate health issues rather than confer benefits.

Mudras in Martial Arts and Healing

Combat Applications

In , the ancient martial art originating in with roots tracing back to the , mudras serve as specialized hand positions integral to combat techniques, particularly for targeting vital points known as marmas. These mudras enhance the precision and lethality of strikes by channeling force through specific finger configurations, allowing practitioners to disable opponents by attacking pressure points on the body. For instance, the six basic hand mudras, such as Tembukai (palm strike) and Kutu mushti (), are used in unarmed combat and weapon training to direct energy effectively. Secondary mudras further refine these techniques for marma attacks, making them more potent than standard strikes. East Asian martial traditions, such as those in , incorporate hand positions analogous to mudras within empty-hand forms to cultivate focus and direct , or , during combat. These formations, often involving extended fingers, align breath and intention, amplifying the power of blows while maintaining mental clarity. These elements reflect a broader Asian synthesis, where such gestures bridge physical technique with energetic flow, drawing from meditative traditions. Symbolically, mudras in these traditions often invoke resolve, as observed in , the Tamil staff-fighting art. Practitioners perform Anjali mudra (palms pressed together) before engagements as a salutation to the teacher and the art, fostering humility and focus for staff maneuvers. This gesture transforms into a psychological tool, preparing the warrior for fluid, circular strikes with the silambam staff. Historically, mudras featured prominently in medieval warfare rituals, where masters employed marma strikes as a core tactic for quick incapacitation. In ankam duels—formal combats between regional lords to resolve disputes without full-scale battles, conducted from the 14th to 18th centuries—these techniques were part of the martial heritage. In modern adaptations, such as competitive demonstrations and cultural performances, mudras retain their tactical essence but emphasize safety and artistry, with practitioners showcasing sequences in festivals and training academies to preserve the tradition's combat heritage.

Therapeutic and Esoteric Uses

In , mudras are employed as a non-invasive therapeutic tool to balance the body's energies, particularly through integrations into modern holistic practices. For instance, Prana mudra, formed by touching the tips of the thumb, , and while keeping the index and middle fingers extended, is used to enhance , reduce stress, and improve blood circulation by stimulating the flow of or life force. This gesture, rooted in ancient texts but popularized in contemporary Ayurvedic therapy, helps alleviate chronic fatigue and supports cardiovascular health by promoting better oxygenation and energy distribution. In , a system developed in early 20th-century and later blended with Eastern traditions, mudras serve to channel universal life (ki) more effectively during sessions. Practitioners incorporate hand positions such as the Gassho mudra (palms pressed together at heart level) to intensify and balance flows, aiding in emotional calming and physical relaxation. These integrations, documented in Reiki training manuals, facilitate stress reduction and holistic by aligning the practitioner's intent with subtle energy pathways. Esoteric traditions in the West, emerging in the 19th century, adapted symbolic hand gestures inspired by Indian mudras for ritual magic and invocation. These practices aimed to seal intentions and invoke powers during magical workings. Scientific studies on mudras, primarily post-2000, indicate limited but promising evidence for their role in reducing anxiety through biofeedback mechanisms like improved autonomic nervous system regulation. A 2022 review highlighted that regular practice of mudras such as Gyan and Prana can lower stress markers by enhancing parasympathetic activity and emotional equilibrium, though larger randomized trials are needed. Similarly, a 2024 study on mudras for mindfulness in students found reductions in burnout and anxiety symptoms after short-term practice, attributing effects to heightened body awareness and neural calming. Contemporary applications extend mudras into digital tools and alternative , particularly for conditions like . Apps such as Daily Mudras and Mudras guide users through sequences for relief, incorporating gestures to promote warmth and flexibility. Linga mudra, involving interlacing fingers with the left extended and enclosed by the right hand, generates internal to ease stiffness and in arthritic , as supported by Ayurvedic clinical observations in modern protocols. These tools, accessible via mobile platforms, integrate mudras into daily routines for sustained therapeutic benefits.

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  95. https://enfolding.org/book-review-rainbow-body/
  96. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380663722_A_Study_of_Mudras_for_Mindfulness_and_Helpful_to_Reduce_Burnout_in_Students
  97. https://www.jaims.in/jaims/article/view/4149
  98. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.coderays.mudras
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