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Magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide
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Magnesium oxide
Names
IUPAC name
Magnesium oxide
Other names
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.013.793 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 215-171-9
E number E530 (acidity regulators, ...)
KEGG
RTECS number
  • OM3850000
UNII
  • InChI=1S/Mg.O
    Key: CPLXHLVBOLITMK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • O=[Mg]
Properties
MgO
Molar mass 40.304 g/mol[1]
Appearance White powder
Odor Odorless
Density 3.6 g/cm3[1]
Melting point 2,852 °C (5,166 °F; 3,125 K)[1]
Boiling point 3,600 °C (6,510 °F; 3,870 K)[1]
Solubility Soluble in acid (reacts to form usually soluble salts, e.g. MgCl2 in HCl), ammonia
insoluble in alcohol
Electrical resistivity Dielectric[a]
Band gap 7.8 eV[2]
−10.2·10−6 cm3/mol[3]
Thermal conductivity 45–60 W·m−1·K−1[4]
1.7355
6.2 ± 0.6 D
Structure
Halite (cubic), cF8
Fm3m, No. 225
a = 4.212Å
Octahedral (Mg2+); octahedral (O2−)
Thermochemistry
37.2 J/mol K[8]
26.95 ± 0.15 J·mol−1·K−1[9]
−601.6 ± 0.3 kJ·mol−1[9]
−569.3 kJ/mol[8]
Pharmacology
A02AA02 (WHO) A06AD02 (WHO), A12CC10 (WHO)
Hazards
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):
Main hazards
 Metal fume fever, Irritant
GHS labelling:
GHS07: Exclamation mark
Warning
H315, H319, H335
P261, P264, P271, P273, P280, P302+P352, P304+P340, P305+P351+P338, P312, P333+P313, P337+P313, P362, P363, P391, P403+P233, P405
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentineFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
1
0
0
Flash point Non-flammable
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)
 TWA 15 mg/m3 (fume)[10]
REL (Recommended)
 None designated[10]
IDLH (Immediate danger)
 750 mg/m3 (fume)[10]
Safety data sheet (SDS) ICSC 0504
Related compounds
Other anions
 Magnesium sulfide
Magnesium selenide
Other cations
 Beryllium oxide
Calcium oxide
Strontium oxide
Barium oxide
Related compounds
 Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium nitride
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

Magnesium oxide (MgO), or magnesia, is a white hygroscopic solid mineral that occurs naturally as periclase and is a source of magnesium (see also oxide). It has an empirical formula of MgO and consists of a lattice of Mg2+ ions and O2− ions held together by ionic bonding. Magnesium hydroxide forms in the presence of water (MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2), but it can be reversed by heating it to remove moisture.

Magnesium oxide was historically known as magnesia alba (literally, the white mineral from Magnesia), to differentiate it from magnesia nigra, a black mineral containing what is now known as manganese.

[edit]

While "magnesium oxide" normally refers to MgO, the compound magnesium peroxide MgO2 is also known. According to evolutionary crystal structure prediction,[11] MgO2 is thermodynamically stable at pressures above 116 GPa (gigapascals), and a semiconducting suboxide Mg3O2 is thermodynamically stable above 500 GPa. Because of its stability, MgO is used as a model system for investigating vibrational properties of crystals.[12]

Electric properties

[edit]

Pure MgO is not conductive and has a high resistance to electric current at room temperature. The pure powder of MgO has a relative permittivity inbetween 3.2 to 9.9 with an approximate dielectric loss of tan(δ) > 2.16x103 at 1kHz.[5][6][7]

Production

[edit]

Magnesium oxide is produced by the calcination of magnesium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide. The latter is obtained by the treatment of magnesium chloride MgCl
2 solutions, typically seawater, with limewater or milk of lime.[13]

Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + Ca2+

Calcining at different temperatures produces magnesium oxide of different reactivity. High temperatures 1500 – 2000 °C diminish the available surface area and produces dead-burned (often called dead burnt) magnesia, an unreactive form used as a refractory. Calcining temperatures 1000 – 1500 °C produce hard-burned magnesia, which has limited reactivity and calcining at lower temperature, (700–1000 °C) produces light-burned magnesia, a reactive form, also known as caustic calcined magnesia. Although some decomposition of the carbonate to oxide occurs at temperatures below 700 °C, the resulting materials appear to reabsorb carbon dioxide from the air.[citation needed]

Applications

[edit]

Refractory insulator

[edit]

MgO is prized as a refractory material, i.e. a solid that is physically and chemically stable at high temperatures. It has the useful attributes of high thermal conductivity and low electrical conductivity. According to a 2006 reference book:[14]

By far the largest consumer of magnesia worldwide is the refractory industry, which consumed about 56% of the magnesia in the United States in 2004, the remaining 44% being used in agricultural, chemical, construction, environmental, and other industrial applications.

MgO is used as a refractory material for crucibles. It is also used as an insulator in heat-resistant electrical cable.

Biomedical

[edit]

Among metal oxide nanoparticles, magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgO NPs) have distinct physicochemical and biological properties, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, high bioactivity, significant antibacterial properties, and good mechanical properties, which make it a good choice as a reinforcement in composites.[15]

Heating elements

[edit]

It is used extensively as an electrical insulator in tubular construction heating elements as in electric stove and cooktop heating elements. There are several mesh sizes available and most commonly used ones are 40 and 80 mesh per the American Foundry Society. The extensive use is due to its high dielectric strength and average thermal conductivity. MgO is usually crushed and compacted with minimal airgaps or voids.

Cement

[edit]

MgO is one of the components in Portland cement in dry process plants.

Sorel cement uses MgO as the main component in combination with MgCl2 and water.

Fertilizer

[edit]

MgO has an important place as a commercial plant fertilizer[16] and as animal feed.[17]

Fireproofing

[edit]

It is a principal fireproofing ingredient in construction materials. As a construction material, magnesium oxide wallboards have several attractive characteristics: fire resistance, termite resistance, moisture resistance, mold and mildew resistance, and strength, but also a severe downside as it attracts moisture and can cause moisture damage to surrounding materials.[18][14][1]

Medical

[edit]

Magnesium oxide is used for relief of heartburn and indigestion, as an antacid, magnesium supplement, and as a short-term laxative. It is also used to improve symptoms of indigestion. Side effects of magnesium oxide may include nausea and cramping.[19] In quantities sufficient to obtain a laxative effect, side effects of long-term use may rarely cause enteroliths to form, resulting in bowel obstruction.[20]

Waste treatment

[edit]

Magnesium oxide is used extensively in the soil and groundwater remediation, wastewater treatment, drinking water treatment, air emissions treatment, and waste treatment industries for its acid buffering capacity and related effectiveness in stabilizing dissolved heavy metal species.[according to whom?]

Many heavy metals species, such as lead and cadmium, are least soluble in water at mildly basic conditions (pH in the range 8–11). Solubility of metals increases their undesired bioavailability and mobility in soil and groundwater. Granular MgO is often blended into metals-contaminating soil or waste material, which is also commonly of a low pH (acidic), in order to drive the pH into the 8–10 range. Metal-hydroxide complexes tend to precipitate out of aqueous solution in the pH range of 8–10.

MgO is packed in bags around transuranic waste in the disposal cells (panels) at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, as a CO2 getter to minimize the complexation of uranium and other actinides by carbonate ions and so to limit the solubility of radionuclides. The use of MgO is preferred over CaO since the resulting hydration product (Mg(OH)
2) is less soluble and releases less hydration heat. Another advantage is to impose a lower pH value (about 10.5) in case of accidental water ingress into the dry salt layers, in contast to the more soluble Ca(OH)
2 which would create a higher pH of 12.5 (strongly alkaline conditions). The Mg2+
 cation being the second most abundant cation in seawater and in rocksalt, the potential release of magnesium ions dissolving in brines intruding the deep geological repository is also expected to minimize the geochemical disruption.[21]

Niche uses

[edit]
Unpolished MgO crystal
  • As a food additive, it is used as an anticaking agent. It is known to the US Food and Drug Administration for cacao products; canned peas; and frozen dessert.[22] It has an E number of E530.
  • As a reagent in the installation of the carboxybenzyl (Cbz) group using benzyl chloroformate in EtOAc for the N-protection of amines and amides.[23]
  • Doping MgO (about 1–5% by weight) into hydroxyapatite, a bioceramic mineral, increases the fracture toughness by migrating to grain boundaries, where it reduces grain size and changes the fracture mode from intergranular to transgranular.[24][25]
  • Pressed MgO is used as an optical material. It is transparent from 0.3 to 7 μm. The refractive index is 1.72 at 1 μm and the Abbe number is 53.58. It is sometimes known by the Eastman Kodak trademarked name Irtran-5, although this designation is obsolete. Crystalline pure MgO is available commercially and has a small use in infrared optics.[26]
  • An aerosolized solution of MgO is used in library science and collections management for the deacidification of at-risk paper items. In this process, the alkalinity of MgO (and similar compounds) neutralizes the relatively high acidity characteristic of low-quality paper, thus slowing the rate of deterioration.[27]
  • Magnesium oxide is used as an oxide barrier in spin-tunneling devices. Owing to the crystalline structure of its thin films, which can be deposited by magnetron sputtering, for example, it shows characteristics superior to those of the commonly used amorphous Al2O3. In particular, spin polarization of about 85% has been achieved with MgO[28] versus 40–60 % with aluminium oxide.[29] The value of tunnel magnetoresistance is also significantly higher for MgO (600% at room temperature and 1,100 % at 4.2 K[30]) than Al2O3 (ca. 70% at room temperature[31]).
  • MgO is a common pressure transmitting medium used in high pressure apparatuses like the multi-anvil press.[32]

Brake lining

[edit]

Magnesia is used in brake linings for its heat conductivity and intermediate hardness.[33] It helps dissipate heat from friction surfaces, preventing overheating, while minimizing wear on metal components.[34] Its stability under high temperatures ensures reliable and durable braking performance in automotive and industrial applications.[35]

Thin film transistors

[edit]

In thin film transistors(TFTs), MgO is often used as a dielectric material or an insulator due to its high thermal stability, excellent insulating properties, and wide bandgap.[36] Optimized IGZO/MgO TFTs demonstrated an electron mobility of 1.63 cm2/Vs, an on/off current ratio of 1,000,000:1, and a subthreshold swing of 0.50 V/decade at −0.11 V.[37] These TFTs are integral to low-power applications, wearable devices, and radiation-hardened electronics, contributing to enhanced efficiency and durability across diverse domains.[38][39]

Historical uses

[edit]

Precautions

[edit]

Inhalation of magnesium oxide fumes can cause metal fume fever.[41]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Magnesium oxide

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Magnesium oxide (MgO) is an and the salt of magnesium, appearing as a white, hygroscopic, odorless powder with a molecular weight of 40.30 g/mol. It occurs naturally as the and is characterized by its high thermal stability, with a of 2852 °C and a of 3600 °C, making it one of the most oxides. Poorly soluble in (approximately 0.009% at 86 °F), it reacts with acids to form magnesium salts and is insoluble in ethanol but soluble in dilute . Industrially, magnesium oxide is primarily produced by the thermal decomposition (calcination) of magnesium carbonate (magnesite) or magnesium hydroxide, often derived from seawater or brine, yielding different grades such as light (caustic), dead-burned, or fused forms with varying densities (typically 3.3–3.6 g/cm³) and reactivities. Its rock salt crystal structure contributes to its mechanical strength and electrical insulation properties, with a density of 3.58 g/cm³ and low electrical conductivity at room temperature. These attributes make it suitable for applications requiring resistance to heat, corrosion, and abrasion. Magnesium oxide finds extensive use in refractories, such as furnace linings, crucibles, and bricks, due to its ability to withstand temperatures exceeding 2000 °C. In medicine, it acts as an antacid and laxative by neutralizing stomach acid and forming magnesium hydroxide in the presence of water, while also serving as a magnesium supplement. Additional applications include fertilizers, cement production (e.g., magnesium oxychloride cement), electrical insulators, and as a stabilizer in pharmaceuticals and food additives. Safety-wise, it is generally non-toxic but can cause irritation upon inhalation of fine particles, with an OSHA permissible exposure limit of 15 mg/m³.

Chemical and Physical Properties

Structure

Magnesium oxide has the MgO and exists as a binary ionic compound composed of Mg²⁺ cations and O²⁻ anions, bonded through electrostatic interactions characteristic of . At ambient conditions, MgO crystallizes in the structure, which is isostructural with rock salt (NaCl) and adopts a face-centered cubic lattice with Fm3m (No. 225). In this arrangement, Mg²⁺ and O²⁻ ions each occupy octahedral sites, resulting in a of 6 for both ions and forming a three-dimensional network stabilized by ionic forces. The is 0.421 nm (4.21 Å). MgO exhibits several polymorphic forms under extreme conditions. The cubic B1 (rock salt) phase is thermodynamically stable at , but compression induces a transition to the cubic B2 (CsCl-type) phase at approximately 410 GPa, where the increases to 8. Theoretical calculations predict additional high-pressure polymorphs, including the zincblende (B3) and B81 structures, though experimental realization remains limited to the B1-B2 sequence up to terapascal pressures; hexagonal phases akin to wüstite (FeO) have been hypothesized for defective MgO but not confirmed in stoichiometric material. High-temperature phases are primarily theoretical, with the B1 structure persisting to points exceeding 3000°C due to its ionic robustness. The rock salt structure yields a theoretical of 3.58 g/cm³, consistent with experimental measurements, and a of 40.304 g/mol calculated from atomic weights. The purely ionic model effectively describes MgO's bonding, predicting high from the 2:2 charge balance and negligible covalent contribution, as supported by distributions showing localized charges on ions.

Physical Properties

Magnesium oxide appears as a , hygroscopic or as colorless crystals, and it is odorless and tasteless. Its hygroscopic nature causes it to absorb moisture from the air, forming over time. The compound exhibits exceptional thermal stability, with a of 2,852 °C and a of 3,600 °C, attributable to the strong ionic in its rock salt structure. Magnesium oxide has a of 3.58 g/cm³. Its thermal conductivity ranges from 30 to 60 W/(m·K), while the is 0.937 J/(g·K). The of is 13.4 × 10⁻⁶ /K. Mechanically, magnesium oxide demonstrates moderate , rating 5.5–6.5 on the and approximately 500–600 HV on the scale. Its is around 300 GPa, reflecting the rigidity of its . Magnesium oxide is insoluble in , with a of 0.0086 g/100 mL at 20 °C, though an aqueous suspension exhibits a of around 10.5 due to slight .

Chemical Properties

Magnesium oxide exhibits characteristics due to its structure, in which ions accept protons from acids to form . It reacts readily with acids to produce magnesium salts and ; for instance, the reaction with proceeds as follows: \ceMgO+2HCl−>MgCl2+H2O\ce{MgO + 2HCl -> MgCl2 + H2O} This behavior underscores its role as a simple metal in acid-base chemistry. Additionally, magnesium oxide reacts slowly with water to yield , a weakly basic compound: \ceMgO+H2O−>Mg(OH)2\ce{MgO + H2O -> Mg(OH)2} The reaction is limited by the low of the product, resulting in only partial conversion under ambient conditions. Magnesium oxide demonstrates thermal stability in air up to high temperatures, owing to its properties, but it can react with to form magnesium carbonate: \ceMgO+CO2−>MgCO3\ce{MgO + CO2 -> MgCO3} This process occurs more readily in the presence of moisture or at elevated temperatures. In most environments, it remains inert, resisting oxidation or reduction.

Electrical and Optical Properties

Magnesium oxide exhibits a wide of 7.8 eV, which renders it an excellent electrical insulator with a room-temperature resistivity exceeding 10^{14} \Omega \cdot \mathrm{cm}. This insulating behavior stems from its rock-salt , which minimizes electronic conduction pathways. The material's constant is approximately 9.8 at 25°C and 1 MHz, paired with a low tangent of less than 10^{-4} under the same conditions, making it suitable for applications where minimal energy dissipation is required. Additionally, magnesium oxide demonstrates a high breakdown strength, typically around 80 kV/mm in optimized forms, enabling its use in high-voltage components. At elevated temperatures, the electrical conductivity of magnesium oxide increases due to enhanced ionic motion, primarily involving magnesium cation vacancies. Ionic conduction dominates up to at least 1000°C, with an emerging at higher s that further elevates conductivity. This dependence arises from thermally activated defect migration, transitioning the material from a near-perfect insulator to one with measurable ionic transport. Optically, magnesium oxide is transparent across a broad from the (with an absorption cutoff below 200 nm, corresponding to its ) to the mid-infrared. Its refractive index is 1.72 in the visible range, contributing to low reflection losses in optical devices. The material also displays properties, featuring defect-related emissions in the UV-visible range, such as blue around 2.7-3.0 eV attributed to oxygen vacancies and . These emissions are particularly pronounced in nanostructured forms due to increased defect densities.

Forms of Magnesium Oxide

Magnesium oxide exists in several distinct forms, primarily differentiated by their preparation methods and resulting physical characteristics, which influence their reactivity and applications. The naturally occurring mineral form is , a cubic crystalline structure of pure MgO found in metamorphosed limestones and ultramafic rocks. exhibits high thermal stability and is widely utilized in materials due to its resistance to high temperatures and chemical . Dead-burned magnesia (DBM) is produced through high-temperature of magnesium compounds above 1,500 °C, resulting in a dense, crystalline structure with low chemical reactivity. This form is characterized by minimal hydration potential, making it ideal for ceramics and linings where stability under extreme conditions is essential. Hard-burned and light-burned magnesia represent intermediate forms based on temperatures between 800 °C and 1,500 °C. Hard-burned magnesia, calcined at 1,000–1,500 °C, possesses moderate reactivity and slower hydration rates, suitable for applications requiring balanced and chemical response. In contrast, light-burned magnesia, prepared at 700–1,000 °C, features a porous structure with high surface area and rapid hydration, enhancing its utility in processes demanding quick reactivity. Nanoparticle forms of (MgO ) are engineered with particle sizes typically ranging from 5 nm to 100 nm, offering surface areas exceeding 100 m²/g and significantly amplified reactivity compared to bulk forms. These nanoparticles exhibit enhanced adsorption and catalytic properties due to their high surface-to-volume ratio, enabling applications in and agents. Reactive magnesium oxide (RMgO), also known as caustic-calcined magnesia, is synthesized via low-temperature processes at 700–1,000 °C, yielding highly reactive particles with surface areas often above 25 m²/g. This form's elevated hydration and rates make it particularly suitable for cementitious composites, where it contributes to lower-energy production and improved mechanical performance in sustainable building materials. Fused magnesia is obtained by melting high-purity magnesium oxide in an at temperatures around 2,800 °C, producing a vitreous, dense material with purity levels exceeding 99%. Its exceptional electrical insulation and resistance render it valuable for electrical heating elements and high-performance refractories in demanding industrial environments.

Comparison to Similar Oxides

Magnesium oxide (MgO) shares structural similarities with other group 2 oxides, such as (CaO), but exhibits distinct physical and chemical properties due to the smaller of Mg²⁺ compared to Ca²⁺. The of MgO is 2852 °C, higher than that of CaO at 2613 °C, reflecting the greater in MgO (3795 kJ/mol versus 3414 kJ/mol for CaO). MgO also demonstrates lower reactivity with , forming Mg(OH)₂ slowly under ambient conditions, whereas CaO reacts vigorously to produce Ca(OH)₂ and heat, owing to the higher of Ca(OH)₂ (0.173 g/100 mL) compared to Mg(OH)₂ (0.0009 g/100 mL). Additionally, MgO offers superior electrical insulation with a lower electrical conductivity than CaO, as evidenced by its slightly higher resistivity in comparable polycrystalline forms. Both compounds are employed in cement production, but MgO contributes to slower-setting mixtures due to its delayed hydration kinetics, which can enhance long-term expansion control in blends. In contrast to zinc oxide (ZnO), MgO is predominantly ionic and serves as an excellent electrical insulator with a wide of approximately 7.8 eV, while ZnO possesses a more covalent character and acts as a with a band gap of 3.3 eV, enabling applications in such as LEDs and solar cells. This difference in electronic structure makes MgO preferable for high-temperature refractories where insulation is critical, whereas ZnO's semiconducting properties suit photovoltaic and piezoelectric devices. further underscores their divergence, with MgO at 3795 kJ/mol compared to 4142 kJ/mol for ZnO, though the latter's structure influences its lower melting point of 1975 °C versus MgO's 2852 °C. Compared to aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), MgO is less dense (3.58 g/cm³ versus 3.95 g/cm³ for Al₂O₃) but more strongly basic, as MgO reacts readily with acids to form salts without amphoteric behavior, unlike Al₂O₃ which exhibits both acidic and basic properties. MgO also displays higher resistance in applications, attributable to its lower and higher in certain composites, despite Al₂O₃'s superior (Mohs 9 versus 6.5 for MgO) that favors its use in abrasives and cutting tools. The band gap of Al₂O₃ is wider at about 8.8 eV, enhancing its insulating capabilities, but MgO's (2852 °C) exceeds Al₂O₃'s (2072 °C), contributing to its stability in extreme thermal environments. for Al₂O₃ is notably higher at approximately 15,916 kJ/mol (for the compound), reflecting its structure. Among other group 2 refractory oxides like strontium oxide (SrO) and barium oxide (BaO), MgO stands out for its superior thermal stability and natural abundance, derived primarily from magnesite and seawater processing, unlike the rarer SrO and BaO sources. SrO and BaO exhibit lower melting points (2531 °C and 1923 °C, respectively) and reduced lattice energies (3217 kJ/mol and 3029 kJ/mol), making MgO the most robust for industrial refractories within this series.
OxideLattice Energy (kJ/mol)Band Gap (eV)Melting Point (°C)
MgO37957.82852
CaO34147.72613
SrO3217~6.52531
BaO3029~5.51923
ZnO41423.31975
Al₂O₃159168.82072

Occurrence and Production

Natural Occurrence

Magnesium oxide occurs naturally as the mineral , a rare cubic compound (MgO) typically found in contact metamorphic environments such as metamorphosed limestones, , and ultramafic rocks. forms under high-temperature conditions, often exhibiting perfect cleavage and a sub-vitreous luster, but pure crystals are uncommon due to its tendency to react with surrounding minerals. The primary terrestrial sources of magnesium oxide are the carbonate minerals (MgCO₃) and dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂), which are abundant in sedimentary and metamorphic deposits and serve as precursors to MgO through thermal processing. Global reserves of , the primary magnesium-bearing , total approximately 7.7 billion metric tons as of 2023, with the largest deposits in (30%), (16%), (7.5%), (3%), and and (each 4%). Note that North Korea's reserves, previously estimated at around 18%, are not included in the latest assessments due to limited verifiable data. accounts for about 60% of worldwide magnesite production. Magnesium oxide also appears in extraterrestrial materials, including chondritic meteorites where it can constitute up to 32% of the composition in some stony varieties, and lunar , particularly in basaltic rocks with MgO contents reaching 10-19% in picritic types. (Mg(OH)₂), a hydrous magnesium , occurs less commonly in serpentinized ultramafic rocks and altered deposits, providing a minor natural source convertible to MgO. Extracting magnesium from these natural sources presents environmental challenges, including energy-intensive operations that involve large-scale earth removal, leading to habitat disruption, , and potential water contamination from processing residues.

Industrial Production

The primary industrial production of magnesium oxide (MgO) relies on the thermal decomposition, or calcination, of naturally occurring magnesium carbonate minerals such as (MgCO₃) or dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂). This process involves heating the in rotary kilns or vertical shaft furnaces at temperatures ranging from 700°C to 1,800°C, yielding MgO and gas via the reaction MgCO₃ → MgO + CO₂. of these minerals accounts for approximately 90% of global MgO supply, with annual production estimated at around 12-14 million metric tons as of 2023, predominantly from which contributes over 60% of output. An alternative route extracts magnesium from seawater or magnesium-rich brines, such as those in the Dead Sea, where lime (Ca(OH)₂) is added to precipitate magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂), followed by filtration, drying, and calcination at 800-1,000°C to produce MgO. This method is employed in regions with abundant brine resources, including the Dead Sea area, and contributes a smaller but significant portion of global production, particularly for higher-purity grades. In the Pidgeon process for magnesium metal , calcined dolomite serves as the feedstock, and the reduction step generates a residue rich in unreacted MgO, which can be recovered and repurposed as industrial-grade MgO. This route integrates with primary magnesium production, enhancing overall in facilities using silicothermic reduction. Industrial processes consume 3-5 GJ of energy per metric ton of MgO, primarily from fossil fuels, resulting in CO₂ emissions of approximately 1 metric ton per metric ton of MgO due to both and fuel . Purity levels vary by application, with refractory-grade MgO typically achieving 95-99% purity from direct , while pharmaceutical grades exceed 99.5% through additional purification steps like re-precipitation and high-temperature dead-burning. Recent developments since 2020 emphasize greener production to mitigate emissions, including co-firing in kilns to replace fossil fuels and solar thermal calcination using concentrated for energy-efficient decomposition at lower operational costs. These approaches can reduce energy use by up to 15% and facilitate CO₂ capture, aligning with goals in the magnesia sector.

Laboratory Synthesis

Magnesium oxide (MgO) is commonly synthesized in laboratory settings through the of or precursors, which provides a straightforward route to high-purity material. The of follows the reaction Mg(OH)₂ → MgO + H₂O, typically occurring at temperatures between 350 and 500 °C in a furnace under to minimize impurities. Similarly, of magnesium (MgCO₃) at around 800 °C yields MgO via MgCO₃ → MgO + CO₂, often used for producing reagent-grade powders with surface areas up to 100 m²/g depending on the conditions. These methods are favored in research for their simplicity and ability to control particle morphology, such as transitioning from spherical to plate-like structures as increases. The sol-gel method offers precise control over formation, starting with or nitrate precursors dissolved in a solvent like , followed by and gelation with a base or acid, and subsequent annealing at 400–600 °C to form crystalline MgO. This approach typically produces cubic or spherical s with sizes around 10–20 nm, suitable for applications requiring uniform dispersion. Annealing conditions are critical to achieve phase purity, as confirmed by (XRD) patterns matching the structure of MgO. Hydrothermal synthesis enables the production of high surface area MgO nanoparticles by reacting magnesium salts, such as or nitrate, with a base like in an at 100–200 °C under elevated for several hours. This method yields particles with surface areas exceeding 150 /g and controlled morphologies, such as nanorods or nanosheets, due to the solvothermal environment promoting oriented growth. Post-synthesis at 500 °C converts any intermediate hydroxides to pure MgO, with (TEM) revealing uniform sizes below 50 nm. Combustion synthesis provides a rapid, exothermic route by mixing with a like or , followed by ignition in a preheated at 300–500 °C, directly forming porous MgO nanoparticles through self-propagating . This technique achieves high purity (>99%) in minutes, producing fluffy powders with sizes of 20–30 nm as determined by XRD. The -to-oxidizer ratio influences the gas evolution and thus the , enhancing reactivity for research purposes. Laboratory-synthesized MgO is characterized for purity exceeding 99.9% using techniques like XRD for crystallinity and TEM for morphology, ensuring suitability for reagent-grade applications in and materials research. Recent advances include green synthesis routes employing extracts, such as those from or leaves, as reducing agents in solution combustion or precipitation methods to produce eco-friendly MgO nanoparticles with sizes of 10–40 nm, as reported in studies from 2022–2024. These biogenic approaches reduce chemical usage while maintaining high purity, verified by showing organic capping.

Applications

Refractory and Ceramic Uses

Magnesium oxide (MgO) plays a pivotal role in materials due to its exceptional thermal stability and resistance to chemical attack, making it indispensable for high-temperature . In particular, its high of approximately 2,800 °C enables sustained performance in extreme environments, such as those encountered in metallurgical operations. Refractory bricks and linings composed primarily of MgO, often with purity levels exceeding 90%, are widely employed in furnaces to line vessels like basic oxygen furnaces and electric arc furnaces. These materials provide robust protection against corrosion from basic slags, which are molten byproducts rich in calcium and silica, thereby extending the operational life of furnace linings under temperatures approaching 2,000 °C or higher. MgO-based crucibles and molded shapes are essential for melting and handling reactive metals, including rare earth elements and alloys, owing to their superior thermal shock resistance and inertness to molten metals. This resistance minimizes cracking during rapid heating or cooling cycles, ensuring reliable containment in and settings. In electric furnaces, MgO serves as a critical electrical insulator surrounding resistance wires in tubular heating elements, facilitating efficient while preventing short circuits at elevated temperatures. The powder form of MgO is compacted around the coiled wire within a metal sheath, providing both thermal conductivity and isolation essential for safe and durable operation. For ceramic applications in , MgO is utilized in insulators and substrates due to its high , which supports reliable performance in high-voltage components such as capacitors and circuit boards. With a constant around 9.8–11.2, it enables compact designs that maintain electrical integrity under . Fused magnesia, produced by fusion of high-purity MgO, enhances advanced refractories for and , offering superior density and corrosion resistance compared to dead-burned variants. These refractories line rotary and melting tanks, withstanding abrasive wear and chemical fluxes at temperatures up to 1,700 °C. In 2023, refractories accounted for approximately 50% of global MgO consumption, underscoring its dominance in high-temperature material sectors.

Construction and Cement Applications

Magnesium oxide has been utilized in construction since ancient times, with evidence of its presence in Roman pozzolanic mixes that contributed to the durability of structures like the Pantheon. These early formulations combined calcined lime, often containing magnesium oxide impurities from dolomitic , with to form hydraulic cements resistant to and . In modern applications, magnesium oxide serves as a key component in , formed by reacting MgO with MgCl₂ and H₂O to produce magnesium oxychloride phases that bind aggregates. This is valued for its rapid setting and high early strength, making it suitable for flooring tiles and fire-resistant panels in buildings. Its low thermal conductivity also enhances insulation properties in wallboards and decorative elements. Reactive magnesium oxide is increasingly incorporated into low-carbon as a partial replacement for , typically at 5–20% by weight, to reduce emissions while enabling CO₂ sequestration through (MgO + CO₂ → MgCO₃). This process forms stable magnesium carbonates that enhance long-term strength and durability, with accelerated curing achieving up to 100% conversion in blends under controlled CO₂ exposure. Such formulations have demonstrated compressive strengths comparable to traditional after 28 days, supporting sustainable building practices. Magnesium phosphate cements, produced by reacting MgO with phosphates like KH₂PO₄, offer rapid-setting capabilities ideal for emergency repairs of pavements and structures, achieving compressive strengths exceeding 40 MPa within hours. These cements set in under 15 minutes even at low temperatures, providing bond strengths over 2 MPa to existing surfaces. As an additive in lime- and cement-based mortars, magnesium oxide at dosages of 5–10% improves sulfate resistance by forming protective layers that limit ion penetration and expansion damage. This enhances overall durability in aggressive environments, reducing water absorption by up to 42% and extending service life in sulfate-rich soils. Research in the 2020s has advanced MgO-based geopolymer systems, where magnesium oxide activates aluminosilicate precursors under ambient conditions to create low-emission binders for sustainable construction. These materials can reduce CO₂ emissions by approximately 50% compared to Portland cement, owing to minimized clinkering and inherent carbonation potential. Applications include eco-friendly blocks and panels with mechanical properties meeting structural standards.

Agricultural and Fertilizer Uses

Magnesium oxide serves as a vital source of magnesium ions (Mg²⁺) essential for synthesis in plants, enabling efficient and overall growth. As the central atom in the molecule, Mg²⁺ constitutes up to 25% of the plant's total magnesium content, and deficiencies manifest as interveinal , particularly in crops like tomatoes and potatoes, where foliar or applications of magnesium oxide have been shown to enhance production and yield. In addition to supply, magnesium functions as a liming agent to counteract acidity by raising levels, with its high neutralizing capacity making it more effective than traditional materials; specifically, 1 ton of magnesium provides acidity neutralization equivalent to approximately 2.5 tons of . This property stems from its form, which reacts readily with acids to form magnesium salts and , improving availability in acidic environments. Typical application rates for magnesium oxide in range from 100 to 500 kg per , often applied as calcined to address magnesium deficiencies or acidity, with adjustments based on tests and crop needs. These rates ensure gradual magnesium release due to the compound's low water solubility, supporting sustained plant uptake without risking over-application. Recent advancements include bio-based magnesium oxide nanoparticles used for seed priming, which promote growth and yield; studies from 2022 to 2024 demonstrate increases of 20–30% in vigor, content, and overall yield in crops such as and mustard through enhanced nutrient absorption and stress tolerance. Magnesium oxide is also incorporated into fertilizer blends like dolomitic lime, a mixture of magnesium oxide and , specifically formulated for acidic soils to simultaneously supply magnesium and calcium while neutralizing . This blend is particularly effective in maintaining balanced cation exchange in soils prone to aluminum . Globally, accounts for approximately 10% of magnesium oxide production, underscoring its role in enhancing crop productivity and worldwide.

Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses

Magnesium oxide is widely used in pharmaceuticals as an to relieve , sour , and acid by neutralizing excess . The compound reacts with in the according to the equation MgO + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂O, producing and water without generating gas. Typical over-the-counter formulations include 400 mg tablets, with recommended doses of 1 to 2 tablets daily, not exceeding 800 mg in 24 hours. In addition to its properties, magnesium oxide serves as a through an osmotic mechanism, where poorly absorbed magnesium ions draw water into the intestinal lumen, softening stool and promoting bowel movements. This effect results from partial dissolution in the , leading to water retention and stimulation of . It is particularly useful for short-term relief of , often administered in doses similar to antacid uses. As a dietary supplement, magnesium oxide helps prevent and treat , providing approximately 241 mg of elemental magnesium per 400 mg tablet due to its high magnesium content. However, its is relatively low due to poor in neutral environments, with studies indicating absorption rates around 15%, though it improves slightly in acidic conditions. This limited absorption reduces its effectiveness for systemic benefits like sleep support compared to other magnesium forms with higher bioavailability, such as magnesium glycinate. Pharmaceutical-grade magnesium oxide must meet (USP) standards, containing not less than 96.0% and not more than 100.5% MgO after ignition, and is available in forms such as tablets, capsules, and suspensions. Historical use of magnesium oxide in medicine dates to the , when it was introduced as a pharmaceutical agent in Western practices and later adopted in Eastern contexts, serving as a precursor to formulations like milk of magnesia ( suspension) patented in 1873. Despite its benefits, magnesium oxide is contraindicated in patients with renal impairment due to the risk of from reduced excretion. The tolerable upper intake level for supplemental elemental magnesium is 350 mg per day for adults to avoid adverse effects.

Biomedical and Nanomaterial Applications

Magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgO NPs) have garnered significant attention in biomedical applications due to their , high surface area, and ability to generate (ROS), which underpin their therapeutic potential. In particular, MgO NPs exhibit potent antibacterial activity against pathogens such as and [Staphylococcus aureus](/page/Staphylococcus aureus), primarily through the production of ROS that damage bacterial cell membranes and disrupt metabolic processes. This mechanism has been demonstrated in studies showing up to 99% inhibition of bacterial growth at concentrations as low as 1 mg/mL, making MgO NPs promising for infection control in biomedical settings. In bone tissue engineering, MgO NPs are incorporated into polymer-based scaffolds, such as or composites, to enhance and osteoconductivity. These scaffolds promote osteogenic differentiation of osteoblast-like cells by releasing magnesium s that stimulate mineralization and , with studies reporting up to 2-fold increases in activity compared to unmodified scaffolds. The biodegradability of MgO NPs ensures gradual release, supporting long-term regeneration without eliciting significant inflammatory responses, as evidenced by systematic reviews highlighting their minimal and favorable integration with host tissue. MgO NPs serve as efficient carriers for , leveraging their porous structure and high surface area—often exceeding 100 m²/g—for loading like or . In -sensitive environments, such as acidic tumor microenvironments or infected wounds ( ~5–6), these nanoparticles enable controlled release, with studies showing sustained over 300 minutes and up to 90% drug loading efficiency. This -responsive behavior minimizes premature drug release in neutral physiological conditions ( 7.4), enhancing targeted therapeutic efficacy while reducing systemic side effects. Recent studies from 2020 to 2024 have explored the anticancer potential of MgO NPs, which induce in tumor cells through ROS-mediated and disruption of mitochondrial function. For instance, biogenic MgO NPs have shown values of 15–50 µg/mL against (MDA-MB-231), cervical (HeLa), and (PC3) cancer cell lines, with mechanisms involving activation and DNA fragmentation. These effects are attributed to the nanoparticles' ability to penetrate cell membranes and elevate intracellular ROS levels, selectively targeting malignant cells while sparing normal fibroblasts. For , MgO NPs are integrated into electrospun dressings, such as / membranes, to provide effects alongside action. These dressings suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6, accelerating re-epithelialization and deposition in diabetic models, with rates improved by 30–50% compared to controls. The nanoparticles' ROS generation neutralizes bacterial biofilms, while their ion-releasing properties modulate the , fostering a pro-regenerative environment. In magnesium-based implants, MgO NPs act as corrosion inhibitors by forming protective oxide layers that slow degradation rates in physiological environments. Composites incorporating 1–5 wt% MgO NPs into Mg-Zn-Zr alloys exhibit reduced current densities by up to 70%, extending implant lifespan from weeks to months while maintaining mechanical integrity and biocompatibility. This controlled degradation prevents hydrogen gas accumulation and alkalization, common issues in bare Mg implants, thus improving clinical outcomes in orthopedic applications.

Environmental and Niche Uses

Magnesium oxide plays a significant role in environmental applications, particularly in air and control. In (FGD) processes at power plants, MgO slurries are employed to absorb (SO₂) from industrial emissions, forming magnesium (MgSO₃) through the reaction MgO + SO₂ → MgSO₃. This method offers advantages over traditional limestone-based systems, including higher absorption efficiency and easier recovery, with studies demonstrating desulfurization rates exceeding 90% under optimized conditions such as reduced particle sizes for the MgO absorbent. In , MgO serves as a neutralizing agent for acidic effluents and facilitates the of like lead, , and as insoluble hydroxides, leveraging its basicity to raise levels and promote metal removal. This approach is particularly effective in mine water remediation, where low-grade MgO derived from natural achieves substantial metal precipitation while minimizing sludge volume compared to lime-based alternatives. Beyond pollution mitigation, finds niche applications in and safety enhancements. As a fireproofing additive, MgO is incorporated into textiles and plastics at loadings of 10–20% to act as a suppressant and , decomposing endothermically to release and dilute combustible gases during . This enhances thermal stability in composites, reducing density and improving resistance without halogenated compounds. In degradable , recent advances in green-synthesized MgO nanoparticles (NPs) from 2023–2024 have enabled their integration into biopolymeric films, providing barriers against pathogens like and while promoting biodegradability and UV protection. These NPs, often produced via plant-mediated routes, exhibit broad-spectrum antibacterial activity due to generation, extending food shelf life in solutions. Magnesium oxide also contributes to specialized engineering and electronics uses. In non-asbestos brake linings, MgO functions as a friction modifier in composite formulations, stabilizing the of , enhancing wear resistance, and improving thermal conductivity to dissipate heat during braking. This replaces hazardous fibers with safer alternatives like or reinforcements, maintaining performance in automotive applications. In , MgO serves as a high-k gate in thin-film transistors (TFTs), enabling low-voltage operation and high carrier mobility in oxide-based channels such as ZnO or InGaZnO. Solution-processed MgO films, deposited at , achieve dielectric constants around 9–10, supporting bendable devices for displays and sensors with minimal leakage currents. Historically, magnesium oxide has been utilized in niche catalytic roles, notably in 20th-century nickel-magnesium oxide systems for reforming processes like dry reforming, where it stabilizes particles to enhance longevity and selectivity in . These supported s, often derived from spent materials, demonstrate improved resistance to and carbon deposition, underscoring MgO's enduring value in industrial chemistry.

Safety and Toxicology

Health Effects

Magnesium oxide inhalation can cause respiratory irritation, including coughing, chest tightness, and symptoms of such as flu-like and fever, particularly in occupational settings where fumes or fine particles are generated during processing or . The (OSHA) has established a (PEL) of 15 mg/m³ as a time-weighted average for total to mitigate these risks. Ingestion of magnesium oxide is generally considered safe in small doses, as it is commonly used as a and with low systemic absorption due to its poor solubility in neutral environments. However, excessive intake can result in , an elevated serum magnesium level that manifests with gastrointestinal symptoms like and , as well as cardiovascular effects including and . The oral (LD50) for magnesium oxide in rats exceeds 5,000 mg/kg, indicating relatively low , though individual responses vary based on dose and health status. Direct contact of magnesium oxide powder with typically causes only mild mechanical without evidence of allergic or systemic absorption. Eye exposure may produce temporary , redness, and discomfort, but it does not lead to permanent damage or upon prompt rinsing. Magnesium oxide is not classified as a by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Individuals with impaired function, such as those with , represent a vulnerable at heightened risk for magnesium accumulation and following exposure or supplementation, as renal excretion is the primary route of elimination. Recent studies on magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgO NPs) indicate low at doses below 100 mg/kg in animal models, with minimal histopathological changes observed in liver and tissues. However, higher doses may induce through generation, potentially leading to cellular damage and alterations in hormonal or stress-related biomarkers.

Environmental Considerations

The production of magnesium oxide (MgO) through of or other precursors generates significant CO₂ emissions, typically ranging from approximately 1 ton of CO₂ per ton of MgO produced via conventional dry-route processes. These emissions arise primarily from the of magnesium carbonate, contributing to the compound's overall in industrial applications. Efforts to mitigate this include carbon capture initiatives, such as pilot projects at magnesium oxide mines in that deployed specialized containers for CO₂ sequestration starting in late 2024. Mining activities for , a of MgO, often lead to habitat disruption in sites, including , , and loss of local . Extraction from brines, an alternative method, involves substantial water consumption; for instance, producing one ton of magnesium requires processing over 800 tons of through , potentially straining in arid regions. Magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgO NPs) exhibit favorable environmental biodegradability, decomposing into magnesium ions (Mg²⁺) that are naturally occurring and harmless in and aquatic environments, posing minimal long-term ecological risk compared to persistent . Life-cycle assessments of MgO production reveal a higher direct than (CaO)-based alternatives due to greater CO₂ release during (about 1.1 tons CO₂ per ton versus 0.78–0.83 tons for ). However, in carbonated MgO applications, such as reactive magnesia cements, subsequent CO₂ sequestration can offset emissions, potentially yielding a net lower impact in full-cycle evaluations. Under the European Union's REACH regulation, MgO is classified as non-hazardous, with no specific labeling requirements for or environmental persistence, though inhalation controls for dust are mandated during handling to prevent particulate emissions. Sustainable practices are advancing, including of spent MgO-based refractories from , where crushed materials are reused as furnace additives without extensive processing, reducing demand and . The broader MgO market, incorporating such eco-friendly sourcing, is projected to grow from USD 7.1 billion in 2024 to USD 12.7 billion by 2034, driven by demand for low-carbon alternatives in and .

Handling and Precautions

Magnesium oxide should be stored in sealed, airtight containers to prevent absorption of moisture due to its hygroscopic nature, and it must be kept away from acids and incompatible materials such as strong oxidizers. Under proper dry, cool, and well-ventilated conditions, its shelf life exceeds two years from the date of manufacture. When handling magnesium oxide, particularly in powder or dust form, appropriate (PPE) is essential, including respirators with filters, chemical-resistant gloves, safety goggles, and protective clothing to minimize skin and eye contact. Processing areas should feature adequate ventilation systems to control airborne concentrations and prevent inhalation exposure. In the event of a spill, collect the material using non-sparking tools by sweeping or vacuuming with a HEPA-filtered unit, while avoiding the use of or wet methods to prevent clumping and potential reaction. Place the collected material in suitable sealed containers for disposal in accordance with local regulations. Magnesium oxide is classified as non-hazardous for transportation under U.S. (DOT) regulations and does not require special shipping labels or placards, though it should be marked as an irritant if in dust form. For emergency procedures, immediately flush affected eyes or skin with large amounts of water for at least , and for incidents, move the individual to fresh air while providing oxygen if breathing is difficult, then seek prompt medical attention. Best practices for handling include selecting dead-burned magnesium oxide forms, which have higher density and lower reactivity, to reduce dust generation in sensitive or high-precision applications.

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